FLUID MECHANICS

Dynamics of Viscous Fluid Flow in

Closed Pipe: Darcy-Weisbach equation for
flow in pipes. Major and minor losses in pipe
lines.

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

1
Steady Flow Through Pipes

Laminar Flow:
flow in layers
Re<2000 (pipe flow)

Turbulent Flow:
flow layers mixing with each
other
Re >4000 (pipe flow)

2
Steady Flow Through Pipes

Reynold’s Number(R or Re): It is ratio of inertial forces (Fi) to
viscous forces (Fv) of flowing fluid
Velocity Volume Where ;
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
Re = = Time = Time V is avg. velocity of flow in pipe
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area ν is kinematic viscosity
ρ Q .V ρ AV .V ρ AV .V ρVL VL L is characteristic/representative
= = = = =
τ .A du V µ υ linear dimension of pipe. It is
µ .A µ .A
dy L diameter of pipe (circular conduits)
ρVD VD or hydraulic radius (non-circular
Re = = conduits).
µ ν

For laminar flow: Re<=2000
Values of critical

For transitional flow: 2000<Re<4000 Reynolds no.

For Turbulent flow: Re>= 4000

Note: For non-circular section, we need to use hydraulic radius (Rh) instead
3 of diameter (D) for the linear dimension (L).
Steady Flow Through Pipes

Hydraulic Radius (Rh) or Hydraulic Area A
Diameter: It is the ratio of area of flow Rh = =
wetted perimeter P
to wetted perimeter of a channel or pipe

For Circular Pipe For Rectangular pipe

D
B
Rh = =
(
A (π / 4 )D 2
=
D ) A BD
P πD 4 Rh = =
P B + 2D
D = 4 Rh

VD 4VRh By replacing D with Rh, Reynolds’ number formulae

Rh = =
ν ν can be used for non-circular sections as well.

4
Note: hydraulic Radius gives us indication for most economical section. More
the Rh more economical will be the section.
Head Loss in Pipes

Total Head Loss=Major Losses+ Minor Losses

Major Loss: Due to pipe friction

Minor Loss: Due to pipe fittings, bents and valves etc

5
Head Loss in Pipes due to Friction
The head loss due to friction in a
given length of pipe is proportional
to mean velocity of flow (V) as long
as the flow in laminar. i.e.,
H f ∝V

But with increasing velocity, as the

flow become turbulent the head
loss also varies and become
proportion to Vn

H f ∝V n
Where n ranges from 1.75 to 2
Log-log plot for flow in uniform pipe
(n=2.0 for rough wall pipe; n=1.75 for
smooth wall pipe
6
Frictional Head Loss in Conduits of Constant
Cross-Section

Consider stead flow in a conduit of uniform cross-section A. The pressure
at section 1 & 2 are P1 & P2 respectively. The distance between the section
is L. For equilibrium in stead flow,
∑ F = ma = 0
P= perimeter of conduit
τ o = Avg. shear stress
between pipe boundary
and liquid

 z 2 − z1 
  = sin α
 L 
Figure: Schematic diagram of conduit

P1 A − W sin α − τ o PL − P2 A = 0

z −z 
P1 A − P2 A − γAL 2 1  − τ o PL = 0
7  L 
 Frictional Head Loss in Conduits of Constant
cross-section

z −z  Remember !! For pipe flow

P1 A − P2 A − γAL 2 1  − τ o PL = 0
 L 
Dividing the equation by γA
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ z1 + = + z2 + + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
P1 P2 τ o PL
− − ( z 2 − z1 ) − =0
γ γ γA For stead flow in pipe of
uniform diameter v1=v2
 P1   P2  τ o PL
 z1 +  −  z 2 +  = = hL = h f
 γ   γ  γ A
 P1  P 
 + z1  −  2 + z 2  = hL
Therefore, head loss due to friction hf can γ  γ 
be written as
τ o PL τ o L A
hf = = Q Rh =
γA γRh P
This is general equation and can be applied to any shape conduit having
either Laminar or turbulent flow.
8
Determining Shear Stress

For smooth-walled pipes/conduits, the average shear stress at the
wall is
τ o = f (Rh , µ , ρ ,V , )

Using Rayleigh's Theorem of dimensional analysis, the above relation
can be written as;
(
τ o = k Rh a .µ b .ρ c .V n )

Rewriting above equation in terms of dimension (FLT), we get
F
 a  FT  b  FT 2   L  n 
c τ o = force / area =
F L2
= K  (L )  2   4    
L2
  L   L   T   Rh = length = L

V = L /T
(
FL−2 = K (L ) FTL−2
a
( ) (FT
b 2 −4 c
L ) (L / T ) )
n
ρ = M / L3 = (F / a ) / L3 = FT 2 / L4
µ = N .s / m 2 = FTL− 2
9
Determining Shear Stress
= K ((L ) (FTL )(
−2 b
FT L (L / T ) 2 −4 c
) )
−2 a n
FL

According to dimensional homogeneity, the dimension must be equal on
either side of the equation, i.e.,
F : 1 = b + c → (i ) Solving three equations, we get
L : − 2 = a − 2b − 4c + n → (ii )
a = n − 2; b = 2 − n; c = n − 1
T : 0 = b + 2c − n → (iii )

Substituting values back in above equation
n−2
 R Vρ 
( ) (
τ o = k Rh a .µ b .ρ c .V n = k Rh n − 2 .µ 2− n .ρ n −1.V n ) = k  h  ρV 2
 µ 
τ o = k (Re )n − 2 ρV 2

k (Re )
n−2

Setting = Cf / 2 we get

V2
τo = Cf ρ Where, Cf is coefficient of friction
2
10
Determining Shear Stress

Now substituting the equation of avg. shear stress in equation of head loss,
C f ρV 2 L C fV 2L
hf = =
2γRh 2 gRh τ o = C f ρV 2 / 2
τoL

For circular pipe flows, Rh=D/4 hf =
γRh
4C f V 2 L L V2 L V2
hf = = 4C f = f
2g 4D D 2g D 2g

Where, f is a friction factor. i.e., f = 4C f = f (Re )

The above equation is known as pipe friction equation and as Darcy-

Weisbach equation.

It is used for calculation of pipe-friction head loss for circular pipes
flowing full (laminar or turbulent)
11
Friction Factor for Laminar and
Turbulent Flows in Circular Pipes

Smooth and Rough Pipe

Mathematically; e < δv
Smooth pipe

Smooth Pipe
e > δv
e < δv Rough pipe
Turbulent flow near boundary

Rough Pipe
e > 14δ v
e = Roughness height

Transitional mode δ v = Thickness of viscous sub-layer

δ v ≤ e ≤ 14δ v 14.14ν 14.14 D

δv = =
V f Re f

12
 Friction Factor for Laminar and Turbulent Flows in
Circular Pipes
64

For laminar flow Re < 2000 f =
Re

For turbulent flow Re > 4000

Von-karman Eq. for fully rough flow
From Nikuradse experiments 1 3.7
for smooth = 2 log
1 Re f f e/ D
= 2 log
f 2.51 pipe flow
Colebrook Eq. for turbulent flow in all pipes
Colebrook Eq. for smooth pipe flow
1 Re
= 1.8 log e/ D 
1 2.51
f 6.9 = −2 log + 
f  3.7 Re f 
 
Blacius Eq. for smooth pipe flow
3000 ≤ Re ≤ 105
1/ 7
Halaand Eq. For turbulent flow in all pipes
0.316 u  y
f = 0.25 =  
u max   e / D 1.11 6.9 
Re  ro  1
= −1.8 log   + 
 
Seventh-root law f  3 .7  Re 

13
Friction Factor for Laminar and Turbulent Flows
in Circular Pipes

The Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-
dimensional form that relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, Reynolds
number and relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe.

The Moody chart is universally valid for all steady, fully developed,
incompressible pipe flows.

14
Friction Factor for Laminar and Turbulent Flows
in Circular Pipes

For laminar flow For non-laminar flow
1 e/ D 2.51 
64 = −2 log +  Colebrook eq.
f = f  3.7 Re f 
Re  

15
Friction Factor for Laminar and
Turbulent Flows in Circular Pipes

The friction factor can be determined by its Reynolds number (Re) and the
Relative roughness (e/D) of the Pipe.( where: e = absolute roughness and D
= diameter of pipe)

16
17
Problem Types

Type 1: Determine f and hf,

Type 2: Determine Q

Type 3: Determine D

18
Problem

Find friction factor for the following pipe

e=0.002 ft

D=1ft

Kinematic Viscosity, ν=14.1x10-6ft2/s

Velocity of flow, V=0.141ft/s

Solution:

e/D=0.002/1=0.002

R=VD/ ν =1x0.141/(14.1x10-6)=10000
1  e/ D 2.51 
= −2 log + 
f  3.7 Re f 
 

From Moody’s Diagram; f=0.034
f = __________ _

19
Problem-Type 1

Pipe dia= 3 inch & L=100m

Re=50,000 ʋ=1.059x10-5ft2/s

(a): Laminar flow:

f=64/Re=64/50,000=0.00128

VD V (3 / 12)
Re = ⇒ 50000 = −5
⇒ V = 2.12 ft / s
ν 1.059 × 10

fLV 2 0.00128(100)(2.12 2 )
H Lf = = = 0.0357 ft
2 gD 2(32.2)(3 / 12)

20
Problem-Type 1

Pipe dia= 3 inch & L=100m

Re=50,000 ʋ=1.059x10-5ft2/s

(b): Turbulent flow in smooth pipe: i.e.: e=0

1  e/ D 2.51   
= −2 log +  = −2 log 0 + 2.51 
f  3.7 Re f   3.7 50000 f 
   
f = 0.0209

fLV 2 0.0209(100)( 2.12 2 )

H Lf = = = 0.582 ft
2 gD 2(32.2)(3 / 12)

21
Problem-Type 1

Pipe dia= 3 inch & L=100m

Re=50,000 ʋ=1.059x10-5ft2/s

(c): Turbulent flow in rough pipe: i.e.: e/D=0.05

1  e/ D 2.51   
= −2 log +  = −2 log 0.05 + 2.51 
f  3.7 Re f   3.7 50000 f 
   
f = 0.0720

fLV 2 0.0720(100)( 2.12 2 )

H Lf = = = 2.01 ft
2 gD 2(32.2)(3 / 12)

22
 Problem-Type 1

hL=?

L = 1000m; D = 0.25m; e = 0.0005m

Q = 0.051m 3 / s; ν = 1.306 × 10 −6 m 2 / s

( )
R = VD /ν = (1.039 × 0.25) / 1.306 ×10 −6 = 2 ×105
e / D = 0.0005 / 0.25 = 0.002
QV = Q / A = 1.039m / s
From Moody's Diagram
f = 0.0245
fLV 2
hL = = 5.39m
2 gD
23
 Problem-Type 2

hL = fLV 2 / 2 gD

24
Problem-Type 2

For laminar flow For non-laminar flow
1 e/ D 2.51 
64 = −2 log +  Colebrook eq.
f = f  3.7 Re f 
Re  

25
Problem-Type 3

26
Problem

1  e/ D 2.51 
= −2 log + 
f  3.7 Re f 
 
flV 2
hLf =
2 gD

27
Problem

28
Problem

29
MINOR LOSSES

Each type of loss can be quantified using a loss coefficient (K).
Losses are proportional to velocity of flow and geometry of device.

V2
Hm = K
2g

Where, Hm is minor loss and K is minor loss coefficient. The value of

K is typically provided for various types/devices

NOTE: If L > 1000D minor losses become significantly less

than that of major losses and hence can be neglected.

30
Minor Losses

These can be categorized as

1. Head loss due to contraction in pipe

1.1 Sudden Contraction

1.2 Gradual Contraction

2. Entrance loss

3. Head loss due to enlargement of pipe

3.1 Sudden Enlargement

3.2 Gradual Enlargement

4. Exit loss

5. Head loss due to pipe fittings

6. Head loss due to bends and elbows

31
Minor Losses

Head loss due to contraction of pipe (Sudden contraction)

A sudden contraction (Figure) in pipe usually causes a marked drop
in pressure in the pipe because of both the increase in velocity and
the loss of energy of turbulence.
Head loss due to sudden contraction is

2
V
H m = Kc 2
2g

Where, kc is sudden contraction

coefficient and it value depends
up ratio of D2/D1 and velocity
(V2) in smaller pipe

32
Minor Losses

Head loss due to enlargement of pipe (Gradual Contraction)

Head loss from pipe contraction may be greatly reduced by
introducing a gradual pipe transition known as a confusor as shown
Figure.
Head loss due to gradual
contraction is
2
V2
H m = Kc '
2g

Where, kc’ is gradual contraction

coefficient and it value depends
up ratio of D2/D1 and velocity
(V2) in smaller pipe

33
Minor Losses

Entrance loss

The general equation for an entrance head loss is also expressed in
terms of velocity head of the pipe: 2
V
H m = Ke
2g

The approximate values for the entrance loss coefficient (Ke)
for different entrance conditions are given below

34
Minor Losses

head loss due to enlargement of pipe (Sudden Enlargement)

The behavior of the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line in
the vicinity of a sudden pipe expansion is shown in Figure

The magnitude of the head

loss may be expressed as

Hm =
(
V1 − V2 )
2

2g

35
Minor Losses

head loss due to enlargement of pipe (Gradual Enlargement)

The head loss resulting from pipe expansions may be greatly
reduced by introducing a gradual pipe transition known as a diffusor

The magnitude of the head

loss may be expressed as

H m = Ke
(V1 − V2 )
2

2g

The values of Ke’ vary with the diffuser angle (α).

36
Minor Losses

Exit Loss

A submerged pipe discharging into a large reservoir (Figure ) is a
special case of head loss from expansion.

Exit (discharge) head loss is

expressed as

H m = Kd
(V )
2

2g

where the exit (discharge) loss

coefficient Kd=1.0.
37
Minor Losses

Head loss due to fittings valves

Fittings are installed in pipelines to control flow. As with other losses in
pipes, the head loss through fittings may also be expressed in terms of
velocity head in the pipe: 2
V
Hm = K f
2g

38
Minor Losses

Head loss due to bends

The head loss produced at a bend was found to be dependent of the
ratio the radius of curvature of the bend (R) to the diameter of the
pipe (D). The loss of head due to a bend may be expressed in terms
of the velocity head as

V2
H m = Kb
2g

For smooth pipe bend of 900, the values of Kb for various values of
R/D are listed in following table.

39
Minor Losses

40
 Numerical Problems

41
 Numerical Problems

42
 Thank you

Questions….

Feel free to contact:

43
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Dynamics:
(ii) Hydrodynamics: Different forms of energy in a flowing
liquid, head, Bernoulli's equation and its application, Energy
line and Hydraulic Gradient Line, and Energy Equation

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

1
Forms of Energy

(1). Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion of body. A body of

mass, m, when moving with velocity, V, posses kinetic energy,
1 m and V are mass and velocity of body
KE = mV 2
2

(2). Potential Energy: Energy due to elevation of body above an
arbitrary datum
Z is elevation of body from arbitrary datum
PE = mgZ m is the mass of body

(3). Pressure Energy: Energy due to pressure above datum, most

usually its pressure above atmospheric

PrE = γh !!!

2
Forms of Energy

(4). Internal Energy: It is the energy that is associated with the
molecular, or internal state of matter; it may be stored in many
forms, including thermal, nuclear, chemical and electrostatic.

3
HEAD

Head: Energy per unit weight is called head

Kinetic head: Kinetic energy per unit weight

KE 1 2 V2 QWeight = mg
Kinetic head = =  mV  / mg =
Weight  2  2g

Potential head: Potential energy per unit weigh
PE
Potential head = = (mgZ ) / mg = Z
Weight

Pressure head: Pressure energy per unit weight

PrE P
Pressure head = =
Weight γ
4
TOTAL HEAD

TOTAL HEAD
= Kinetic Head + Potential Head + Pressure Head
V2 P
Z
2g γ

P V2
Total Head = H = Z + +
γ 2g

5
Bernoulli’s Equation

It states that the sum of kinetic, potential and pressure heads
of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady
flow when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

i.e. , For an ideal fluid, Total head of fluid particle remains
constant during a steady-incompressible flow.

Or total head along a streamline is constant during steady flow
when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

P V2
Total Head = Z + + = constt
γ 2g
P1 V 21 P2 V 2 2 2
Z1 + + = Z2 + +
γ 2g γ 2g
1
H1 = H 2 Pipe

6
Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Consider motion of flow fluid
particle in steady flow field as
shown in fig.

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law in s-
direction on a particle moving
along a streamline give
Assumption:
Fluid is ideal and incompressible
Flow is steady
Flow is along streamline
Velocity is uniform across the section and is equal
to mean velocity
Only gravity and pressure forces are acting

Fs = mas Eq(1)

Where F is resultant force in s-

direction, m is the mass and as is
the acceleration along s-direction.

dV dsdV dsdV dV
as = = = =V Eq(2)
dt dsdt dtds ds

7 Fig. Forces acting on particle along streamline

 Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation
Fs = PdA − (P + dp )dA − W sin θ Eq(3)

Substituting values from Eq(2) and

Eq(3) to Eq(1)
dz
dV sin θ =
ds
PdA − (P + dp )dA − W sin θ = mV
ds
dz dV
− dpdA − ρgdAds = ρdAdsV
ds ds
Cancelling dA and simplifying

− dp − ρgdz = ρVdV Eq(4)

Fig. Forces acting on particle along streamline
Note that VdV =
1
dV 2
2
1 W=weight of fluid W = mg = (ρdAds )g
− dp − ρgdz = ρ dV 2 Eq(5) Wsin(θ )= component acting along s-direction
2 dA= Area of flow
8
ds=length between sections along pipe
Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Dividing eq (5) by ρ
Hence Eq (9) for stead-
incompressible fluid assuming no
dp 1 frictional losses can be written as
+ gdz + dV 2 = 0 Eq (6)
ρ 2
P1 V 21 P2 V 2 2

Integrating Z1 + + = Z2 + +
γ 2g γ 2g Eq (10)
 dp 1 2 (Total Head )1 = (Total Head )2
∫  ρ
 + gdz +
2
dV  = contt

Eq (7)

Assuming incompressible and

steady flow
Above Eq(10) is general form of
Bernoulli’s Equation
P 1
+ gz + V 2 = contt Eq (8)
ρ 2

Dividing each equation by g

P V2 Eq (9)
+z+ = contt
9 ρg 2g
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line
P V2
+z+ =H
γ 2g
Pressure head + Elevation head + Velocity head = Total Head
Multiplying with unit weight,γ,
V2
P + ρgz + ρ = contt
2

Static Pressure : P

Dynamic pressure : ρV 2 / 2

Hydrostatic Pressure: ρgZ

Stagnation Pressure: Static pressure + dynamic Pressure
2
V
P+ρ = Pstag
2

10
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

Measurement of Heads

Piezometer: It measures
pressure head ( P / γ ).

Pitot tube: It measures sum of

pressure and velocity heads i.e.,
P V2
+
γ 2g

11 What about measurement of elevation head !!

Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

Energy line: It is line joining the total heads along a pipe line.

HGL: It is line joining pressure head along a pipe line.

12
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

13
Energy Equation for steady flow of any fluid

Let’s consider the energy of
system (Es) and energy of
control volume(Ecv) defined
within a stream tube as shown
in figure. Therefore,
out in
∆Es = ∆ECV + ∆ECV − ∆ECV Eq(1)

Because the flow is steady,

conditions within the control
volume does not change so
∆ECV = 0 Figure: Forces/energies in fluid flowing in

Hence streamt ube
out in Eq(2)
∆Es = ∆ECV − ∆ECV

14
Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Now, let’s apply the first law of thermodynamics to the fluid system
which states ” For steady flow, the external work done on any system
plus the thermal energy transferred into or out of the system is equal to
the change of energy of system”

External work done + heat transferred = change of energy

(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = ∆Es Eq(3)
(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = ∆ECVout − ∆ECV
in
Eq(4)

Flow work: When the pressure forces acting on the boundaries

move, in present case when p1A1 and p2A2 at the end sections move
through ∆s1 and ∆s2, external work is done. It is referred to as flow
work.
p1 p2
Flow work = p1 A1∆s1 − p1 A1∆s1 = γ 1 A1∆s1 − γ 2 A2 ∆s2
γ1 γ2
Eq(5)
p p 
15 Flow work = g∆m 1 − 2  Q ρ1 A1∆s1 = ρ 2 A2 ∆s2 = ∆m Steady flow
 γ1 γ 2 
Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Shaft work: Work done by machine, if any, between section 1 and 2
weight energy  ds 
Shaft work = time =  γ 1 A1 1 hm ∆t
time weight  dt 
Shaft work = (γ 1 A1∆s1 )hm = ( g∆m )hm Eq(6)

Where, hm is the energy added to the flow by the machine per unit
weight of flowing fluid. Note: if the machine is pump, which adds energy
to the fluid, hm is positive and if the machine is turbine, which remove
energy from fluid, hm is -ve

Heat Transferred: The heat transferred from an external source
into the fluid system over time interval ∆t is
 ds 
Heat transferred =  γ 1 A1 1 QH ∆t
 dt 
Heat transferred = (γ 1 A1∆s1 )QH = ( g∆m )QH Eq(7)

Where, QH is the amount of energy put into the flow by the external
heat source per unit weight of flowing fluid. If the heat flow is out of the
16 fluid, the value QH is –ve and vice versa
Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Change in Energy: For steady flow during time interval ∆t, the weight of
fluid entering the control volume at section 1 and leaving at section 2 are
both equal to g∆m . Thus the energy (Potential+Kinetic+Internal) carried by
g∆m is;

 ds1  V12   V12 

 z1 + α + I1 ∆t = (γ 1 A1ds1 ) z1 + α + I1 
in
∆ECV =  γ 1 A1
 dt  2g   2g 
 V12 
in
∆ECV = g∆m z1 + α + I1  Eq(8)
 2g 
 ds2  V22   V22 
 z 2 + α + I 2 ∆t = (γ 2 A2 ds2 ) z 2 + α + I 2 
out
∆ECV =  γ 2 A2
 dt  2g   2g 
 V22 
∆Eout
CV = g∆m z2 + α + I 2  Eq(9)
 2g 

α is kinetic energy correction factor and ~ 1

17
 Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Substituting all values from Eqs. (5),(6), (7), (8), & (9) in Eq(4)
(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = ∆ECVout − ∆ECV
in

 p1 p2   V22   V12 
  
g∆m −  + ( g∆m )hm + ( g∆m )QH = g∆m z 2 + α  
+ I 2  − g∆m z1 + α + I1 
 γ1 γ 2   2g   2g 
 p1 p2   V22   V12 
 −  + hm + QH =  z 2 + α + I 2  −  z1 + α + I1 
 γ1 γ 2   2g   2g 

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 − z1 + α + I1  + hm + QH =  + z 2 + α + I 2  Eq(10)
 γ1 2g   γ2 2g 

This is general form of energy equation, which applies to liquids, gases, vapors
and to ideal fluids as well as real fluids with friction, both incompressible and
compressible. The only restriction is that its for steady flow.

18
Energy Equation for steady flow of
incompressible fluid

For incompressible fluids
γ1 = γ 2 = γ

Substituting in Eq(10), we get
 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 − z1 +  + hm + QH =  + z 2 +  + (I 2 − I1 )
γ 2g   γ 2g 

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 − z1 +  + hm =  + z 2 +  + (I 2 − I1 ) − QH
γ 2g   γ 2g 
Q hL = (I 2 − I1 ) − QH
 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 − z1 +  + hm =  + z 2 +  + hL Eq(11)
γ 2g  γ 2g 

Where hL=(I2-I1)-QH= head loss. It equal to is gain in internal energy minus

any heat added by external source.

Hm is head removed/added by machines. It can also be referred to head loss
due to pipe fitting, contraction, expansion and bends etc in pipes.
19
Energy Equation for steady flow of
incompressible fluid

In the absence of machine, pipe fitting etc, Eq(11) can be written as

 p1 2   2 
 + z1 + V1  =  p 2 + z 2 + V2  + hL Eq(12)
 γ 2 g   γ 2 g 


When the head loss is caused only by wall or pipe friction, hL

becomes hf, where hf is head loss due to friction

20
Power

Rate of work done is termed as power
Power=Energy/time
Power=(Energy/weight)(weight/time)

If H is total head=total energy/weight and γQ is the weight flow rate
then above equation can be written as

Power=(H)(γQ)= γQH
In BG: 1 horsepower=550ft.lb/s
Power in (horsepower)=(H)(γQ)/550
In SI:
Power in (Kilowatts)=(H)(γQ)/1000

21
Reading Assignment

Kinetic energy correction factor

Limitation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Application of hydraulic grade line and energy line

22
 NUMERICALS

5.2.1

23

5.2.3

24

5.3.2

25

5.3.4

26

5.3.6

27

5.9.6

28
Momentum and Forces in Fluid Flow

We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an aircraft
is exerted by the air moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose
exerts a force on whatever it hits.

In fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in

solid mechanics - by use of Newton’s laws of motion.

i.e., F = ma which is used in the analysis of solid mechanics to relate applied

force to acceleration.

In fluid mechanics it is not clear what mass of moving fluid we should use
so we use a different form of the equation.

d (mV )s
∑ F = ma =
dt
29
Momentum and Forces in Fluid Flow

Newton’s 2nd Law can be written:

The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting
on the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.

d (mV )s
∑F =
dt
∑F = Sum of all external forces on a body of fluid or system s
mV = Momentum of fluid body in direction s

The symbols F and V represent vectors and so the change in momentum must be
in the same direction as force.

∑ Fdt = d (mV )s
30 It is also termed as impulse momentum principle
Impact of a Jet on a Plane

31
Impact of a Jet on a Plane

32
 Thank you

Questions….

Feel free to contact:

33