CHANNEL FLOW

CHAP 1 INTRODUCTION

1. CONCEPTS

Channel flows are flows that take place in natural or artificial channels under the influence of
gravitational forces, and are subjected to atmospheric pressure with a free surface.

Figure 1 Pressure and Gravity Flows

1.1 TYPES OF CHANNELS

(I) Natural Open Channels

Includes all channels that exist naturally on the earth. They are generally very irregular in
shape. Example: Rivers, streams and irrigation ditches.

Figure 2 Stream (Natural channel)

(I) Artificial Open Channels
Are channels developed by man, and are usually designed with regular geometric
shapes (prismatic). Examples are: Lined irrigation canals, laboratory flumes, spillway
chutes, drops, culverts, roadside paved gutters, etc.

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 Figure 3 Man-made channel
(II) Prismatic and Non-Prismatic Channels.
A channel with unvarying cross-section and constant bottom slope is called a
prismatic channel. All artificial channels are usually prismatic. The rectangular,
trapezoid, parabola and circle are the most commonly used shapes of prismatic
channels.

Figure 4 Flow Profile Figure 5 Rectangular Figure 6 Triangular

Figure 7 Trapezoidal Figure 8 Circular Sewer Figure 9 Culvert Box

(III) Rigid and Non-Rigid Boundary Channels
Channel with an immovable bed and sides, with unvarying cross-section and a
constant bottom slope is called a prismatic channel. All artificial channels are usually
prismatic. Examples are man-made lined canals, sewers, and non-erodible unlined
canals of sectional shapes such as rectangular, trapezoid, parabola and circle; being
the most commonly used shapes of prismatic channels.

A channel with either varying cross-section or varying bottom slope is called a non-
prismatic channel. Examples are stream, river channels.

Figure 10 Rigid Rock Canal Figure 11 Rigid concrete Canal Figure 12 Non-Rigid Earth Canal

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(IV) Small and large Slope Channels
An open channel having a bottom slope of less than 1 in 10 is called a channel of small
slope (Chow, 1959). The slopes of ordinary channels, natural or artificial fall in this
category (𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎).

An open channel having a bottom slope greater than 1 in 10 is called a channel of large slope
(Chow, 1959). Man-made channels fall in this category- artificial channels like drops and chutes
have far more than 1 in 10.
(V) There is a clear contrast between full bore pipe and free flow channel hydraulics:

S/N Pipe Flow Cannel flow

1. Fluid completely fills the conduit
cross section and no free surface
2. Fluid flow is due to pressure force
above atmospheric pressure
3. Hydraulic grade line does not
coincide with water surface
4. Maximum velocity occurs at the
centre of the pipe
5. Velocity distribution is symmetrical
about the axis of the pipe
6. All the fundamental principles of
conservation of momentum, energy
and mass are applicable flow
Fluid flows with upper surface exposed to the
atmosphere
Fluid flow is due to gravitation force that is
slope influenced.
Hydraulic grade line does coincide with water
surface
Maximum velocity occurs a little distance
below water surface
Velocity distribution depends on the roughness
of the conduit.
All the fundamental principles of conservation
of momentum, energy and mass are applicable
to channel flow

Figure 13 Profiles for Pipe and Open Channel Flows

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Figure 14 Channel flow Figure 15 Pipe flow

(VI) The similarity of the energy concepts in both pressure and gravity flows.

• The longitudinal profiles are identical in pressurized and channel flows. The free
surface may be defined by the hydraulic gradient, total energy and specific energy with
reference to the datum and channel bed respectively.
• The changes in (y) in an open channel follow the pattern of pressure (p) changes in
pipe flow.

Figure 16 Total and Specific Energy Profiles

Flow Parameters and Geometric Elements

• Depth of y is vertical measure of water depth

• Normal depth d is measured normal to the channel bottom
• For most applications 𝑑 = 𝑦𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
• For most applications 𝑑 = 𝑦𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 ≤ 100

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 Figure 17 Flow profile

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2. FLOW CLASSIFICATION

The fundamental types of flow have been discussed in the last semester(s). [Read: laminar,
turbulent, ideal, real rotational, non-rotational etc]. However, it is appropriate here to expand those
descriptions as applied to open channel hydraulics. Recalling that flow may be steady or unsteady,
uniform or non-uniform, rotational or irrotational, gradually varied or rapidly varied, laminar
[lamina open channel flow is very rare in practice] or turbulent. The major classifications applied
to open channels are presented in the following flow diagram and the accompanying short notes.

Figure 18 Flow Classifications

Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow:

Time as the Criterion: Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the flow parameters such as
depth (d), cross-sectional area (A) of flow, velocity (v) and discharge (Q) do not change or if it
can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration.

Consider flow profile as show in Figure:

Figure 19 Steady Flow

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑄
[ 𝛿𝑡 ] = 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] = 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] = 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] = 0 respectively.
1 1 1 1
The flow is said to be unsteady if the depth changes with time

Figure 20 Unsteady Flow

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑄
[ 𝛿𝑡 ] ≠ 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] ≠ 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] ≠ 0, [ 𝛿𝑡 ] ≠ 0 respectively.
1 1 1 1

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 In most open channel problems, it is necessary to study flow behavior only under steady
conditions. In most problems encountered in steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the
reach of the channel under consideration. Considering the continuity principles:

𝑸 = 𝑽𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑨𝟐 ------[𝟏].

Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. Equation [1] is obviously invalid if the
discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along the channel, that is, where water runs in or out
along the course of flow. This type of flow is, known as spatially varied or discontinuous flow, is
found in road-side gutters, side channel spillways, the effluent channels around sewage treatment
tanks.

Uniform flow and Non-uniform

Space as the criterion: Open channel is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are
𝛿𝑑 𝛿𝑣 𝜹𝑺 𝛿𝐴
the same at every section of the channel [𝛿𝑋 = 0 or 𝛿𝑋 = 0, 𝜹𝒙𝒐 = 𝟎 and 𝛿𝑋 = 0 ]. In addition, in
uniform flow, the energy line, water surface and channel bottom are parallel, i.e. the slopes are
equal. This is normally true in prismatic (constant geometry and slope) channels.(𝑺𝒇 = 𝑺𝒘 = 𝑺𝟎 = 𝑺)

Figure 21 Uniform Flow

𝜹 𝜹 𝜹 𝜹𝑨
The converse is true for a Non-uniform flow regime [𝜹𝑿 𝒚 ≠ 𝟎,
𝜹𝑿
𝑽 ≠ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝜹𝒙
𝑺𝒐 ≠ 𝟎,
𝜹𝑿
≠ 𝟎 ].

Figure 22 Non-Uniform Flow

Changes in the channel geometry may give rise to a non-uniform flow. A uniform or varied flow
may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth of flow changes with time.

Figure 23 Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow Regimes

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Steady uniform flow

This is the type of flow in which the depth is constant, both with time and distance thus
𝜹𝒅 𝜹𝒅
| 𝜹𝒕 | = 𝟎, | 𝜹𝒍 | = 𝟎.
𝟏−𝟏 𝟎−𝑳
Steady uniform flow constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel in which the
gravity forces are in equilibrium with the resistance forces.

Figure 24 sloping Bed Channel section

Unsteady Uniform Flow

This is a type of flow in which the depth varies with time, but not distance.
𝜹𝒅 𝜹𝒅
| | ≠ 𝟎, | | =𝟎
𝜹𝒕 𝟏−𝟏 𝜹𝒍 𝟎−𝑳

Figure 25 Steady-Unsteady- Uniform-Non Uniform flows

In hydraulic analysis, the flow may be either (a) gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a)
requires the joint application of energy and frictional resistance equations. Type (b) requires the
application of energy and the momentum principles.

Varied Flow

This is the type of flow in which the depth of flow varies with both time and distance [unsteady-
non-uniform flow is very rare]. Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly (abrupt) or
gradually (smooth) varied. The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A gradually varied flow produces
draw-down and backwater effects.

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Figure 26 Gradually varied Flow
A rapid change in a steady open channel flow produces what is known as a hydraulic jump. On
the other hand, a rapid change in unsteady channel flow produces a hydraulic surge or bore.

Figure 27 Flow Regimes

Figure 28 Flow Regimes

Laminar and Turbulent flows

In laminar flow the fluid particles will appear to move in definite smooth paths or streamlines. It
is known to occur in shallow overland or sheet conditions. Turbulent flow is the most common
type occurring in open channel facilities and is the type considered for most hydraulic procedures.

Figure 29 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

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Reynold’s number (𝑅𝑒) is used to characterize the low as laminar, turbulent or transition state.
The Reynold’s number is defined as the ratio of the viscous force to the inertia force (Dimensional
analysis). If Reynold’s number is less than 500 (𝑹𝒆 < 𝟓𝟎𝟎), the flow is said to be laminar, for
Reynold’s number (𝟓𝟎𝟎 ≤ 𝑹𝒆 ≤ 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎), the flow is said to be in transitional state and the flow
𝜌𝑉𝑅
is said to be turbulent if (𝑹𝒆 > 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎). Reynold’s number equation (𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇 )

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