LIFE SCIENCE

Module 1: Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

1.A. Lesson Proper:
[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery,
and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending
on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the
circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or
chemical reaction level.]
1.A. Activity: Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide
specific functions within multicellular organisms.

1.B. Lesson Proper:

Mitosis can be divided into five phases. In prophase the mitotic spindle forms and the chromosomes condense.
In prometaphase the nuclear envelope breaks down (in many but not all eukaryotes) and the chromosomes attach to the
mitotic spindle. Both chromatids of each chromosome attach to the spindle at a specialized chromosomal region called
the kinetochore. In metaphase the condensed chromosomes align in a plane across the equator of the mitotic
spindle. Anaphase follows as the separated chromatids move abruptly toward opposite spindle poles. Finally,
in telophase a new nuclear envelope forms around each set of unraveling chromatids.

1.B. Activity: Use a model to illustrate the role of cellular division (mitosis) and differentiation in producing and
maintaining complex organisms. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include specific gene control mechanisms
or rote memorization of the steps of mitosis.]

1.C. Lesson Proper:

Cellular respiration, the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff molecules, diverting the chemical
energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and discarding, as waste products, carbon dioxide and water.
Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation. (For longer treatments of
various aspects of cellular respiration, see tricarboxylic acid cycle and metabolism.)

1.C. Activity: Use a model to illustrate that cellular respiration is a chemical process whereby the bonds of food
molecules and oxygen molecules are broken and the bonds in new compounds are formed, resulting in a net transfer
of energy. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the conceptual understanding of the inputs and outputs of the
process of cellular respiration.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment should not include identification of the steps or
specific processes involved in cellular respiration.]

Module 2: Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

2.A. Lesson Proper:

Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions Through photosynthesis and cellular respiration, producers and consumers can obtain
the energy required to cycle matter. Producers use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into chemical energy and
glucose. Producers require most of this energy, but consumers can obtain some of the energy when they consume
producers. Consumers also obtain glucose, which can be broken down during cellular respiration to produce additional
energy. It is important to note that producers AND consumers can perform cellular respiration, but ONLY producers can
perform photosynthesis. When organisms have oxygen available, they can perform a type of cellular respiration called
aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen and glucose to produce large amounts of chemical energy, or
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP can be used or stored by the cells of the body for energy.
If oxygen is not available, organisms can perform a type of cellular respiration called anaerobic respiration, or
fermentation. Anaerobic respiration can use glucose to produce small amounts of chemical energy. Large consumers can
only survive on the energy produced from anaerobic respiration for a short amount of time due to their large energy
demands. Prolonged use of anaerobic respiration for energy will eventually lead to muscle fatigue.

2.A. Activity: Construct and revise an explanation based on evidence for  the cycling of matter and flow of energy
in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on conceptual understanding of the role of
aerobic and anaerobic respiration in different environments.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the
specific chemical processes of either aerobic or anaerobic respiration.]

Module 3: Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

3.A. Lesson Proper:

Meiosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division. However, these two processes distribute genetic material among the
resulting daughter cells in very different ways. Mitosis creates two identical daughter cells that each contain the same
number of chromosomes as their parent cell. In contrast, meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells, each of which
has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates cells that are destined to
become gametes (or reproductive cells), this reduction in chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two
gametes during fertilization would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes!
Apart from this reduction in chromosome number, meiosis differs from mitosis in yet another way. Specifically,
meiosis creates new combinations of genetic material in each of the four daughter cells. These new combinations result
from the exchange of DNA between paired chromosomes. Such exchange means that the gametes produced through
meiosis exhibit an amazing range of genetic variation.

Errors during Replication

DNA replication is a highly accurate process, but mistakes can occasionally occur as when a DNA polymerase
inserts a wrong base. Uncorrected mistakes may sometimes lead to serious consequences, such as cancer. Repair
mechanisms can correct the mistakes, but in rare cases mistakes are not corrected, leading to mutations; in other cases,
repair enzymes are themselves mutated or defective.

Recognize the impact of DNA mutations

Over a lifetime, our DNA can undergo changes or mutations in the sequence of bases: A, C, G and T. This
results in changes in the proteins that are made. This can be a bad or a good thing.

A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result
of environmental factors such as UV light and cigarette smoke. Mutations can occur during DNA replication if errors are
made and not corrected in time. Mutations can also occur as the result of exposure to environmental factors such as
smoking, sunlight and radiation. Often cells can recognize any potentially mutation-causing damage and repair it before
it becomes a fixed mutation.

Mutations contribute to genetic variation within species. Mutations can also be inherited, particularly if they have a
positive effect. For example, the disorder sickle cell anaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that instructs the
building of a protein called hemoglobin. This causes the red blood cells to become an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape.
However, in African populations, having this mutation also protects against malaria.
3.A. Activity: Make and defend a claim based on evidence that inheritable genetic variations may result from (1) new
genetic combinations through meiosis, (2) viable errors occurring during replication, and/or (3) mutations caused by
environmental factors. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on using data to support arguments for the way variation
occurs.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the phases of meiosis or the biochemical mechanism of
specific steps in the process.]

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Module 4: Earth's Place in the Universe

4.A. Lesson Proper:

The Universe and Its Stars The study of stars’ light spectra and brightness is used to identify compositional
elements of stars, their movements, and their distances from Earth. The Big Bang theory is supported by
observations of distant galaxies receding from our own, of the measured composition of stars and non-stellar
gases, and of the maps of spectra of the primordial radiation (cosmic microwave background) that still fills the
universe. Other than the hydrogen and helium formed at the time of the Big Bang, nuclear fusion within stars
produces all atomic nuclei lighter than and including iron, and the process releases electromagnetic energy.
Heavier elements are produced when certain massive stars achieve a supernova stage and explode. PS4.B
Electromagnetic Radiation Atoms of each element emit and absorb characteristic frequencies of light. These
characteristics allow identification of the presence of an element, even in microscopic quantities. astronomical
evidence of light spectra, motion of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe.

The Universe and Its Stars

 The study of stars’ light spectra and brightness is used to identify compositional elements of stars, their
movements, and their distances from Earth.
 The Big Bang theory is supported by observations of distant galaxies receding from our own, of the measured
composition of stars and non-stellar gases, and of the maps of spectra of the primordial radiation (cosmic
microwave background) that still fills the universe.
 Other than the hydrogen and helium formed at the time of the Big Bang, nuclear fusion within stars produces all
atomic nuclei lighter than and including iron, and the process releases electromagnetic energy. Heavier elements
are produced when certain massive stars achieve a supernova stage and explode.

Electromagnetic Radiation

 Atoms of each element emit and absorb characteristic frequencies of light. These characteristics allow
identification of the presence of an element, even in microscopic quantities.

Interdependence of Science, Engineering, and Technology

 Science and engineering complement each other in the cycle known as research and development (R&D). Many
R&D projects may involve scientists, engineers, and others with wide ranges of expertise.
  motion of distant

Activity 4.A.: Construct an explanation of the Big Bang theory based on astronomical evidence of light spectra, motion
of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the astronomical
evidence of the red shift of light from galaxies as an indication that the universe is currently expanding, the cosmic
microwave background as the remnant radiation from the Big Bang, and the observed composition of ordinary matter of
the universe, primarily found in stars and interstellar gases (from the spectra of electromagnetic radiation from stars),
which matches that predicted by the Big Bang theory (3/4 hydrogen and 1/4 helium).]
Lesson Proper 4.B.

The History of Planet Earth

 Although active geologic processes, such as plate tectonics and erosion, have destroyed or altered most of the
very early rock record on Earth, other objects in the solar system, such as lunar rocks, asteroids, and meteorites,
have changed little over billions of years. Studying these objects can provide information about Earth’s formation
and early history.

Nuclear Processes

 Spontaneous radioactive decays follow a characteristic exponential decay law. Nuclear lifetimes allow
radiometric dating to be used to determine the ages of rocks and other materials.

Stability and Change

 Much of science deals with constructing explanations of how things change and how they remain stable and early
history.

 
Activity 4.B.: Apply scientific reasoning and evidence from ancient Earth materials, meteorites, and other planetary
surfaces to construct an account of Earth’s formation and early history.

Module 5: Earth's Systems

5.A. Lesson Proper:

Earth Materials and Systems

 Earth’s systems, being dynamic and interacting, cause feedback effects that can increase or decrease the original
changes.

Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions

 Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surface
and provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. Plate movements are responsible for most
continental and ocean-floor features and for the distribution of most rocks and minerals within Earth’s crust.

Stability and Change

 Change and rates of change can be quantified and modeled over very short or very long periods of time. Some
system changes are irreversible.

Earth Materials and Systems

 Earth’s systems, being dynamic and interacting, cause feedback effects that can increase or decrease the original
changes.
Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions

 Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surface
and provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. Plate movements are responsible for most
continental and ocean-floor features and for the distribution of most rocks and minerals within Earth’s crust.

Activity 5.A.: Develop a model to illustrate how Earth’s internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and
temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how the
appearance of land features (such as mountains, valleys, and plateaus) and sea-floor features (such as trenches, ridges,
and seamounts) are a result of both constructive forces (such as volcanism, tectonic uplift, and orogeny) and destructive
mechanisms (such as weathering, mass wasting, and coastal erosion).] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not
include memorization of the details of the formation of specific geographic features of Earth’s surface.]