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BASIC CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY MODULE

General Introduction

This Basic Construction Technology is a module made for the specific capacity building / training needs
for the earthquake reconstruction programme.

It is specifically focusing on the practical implementation level and provides a wide range of essential
information to communicate to masons and supervisors during theoretical and on the job trainings.
It also contains photos and sketches / drawings which have been collected from various reference sources
that add clarity to the context.

It is also divided into four separate small modules:

Module one provides Definitions, Tools, Materials and Building team as introduction.

Module two gives essential part of a building, Building Materials and Quality Standards for Stones, Sand,
Cement, Water, Bricks and concrete blocks

Module three describes skilled working principles for Mortar, Brick masonry, stones masonry, Curing,
Plastering, Flooring and Setting out of a building.

Module four describes essential working safety measures to avoid occupational accidents.

Because of this system, some practices that are actually wrong have now become “good practice standard”
and therefore some present construction qualities are not up to professional quality standards.

There is a genuine need and high demand for formal building construction training by masons.
This has been recognized as a high priority and expressed the necessity of professional and
practical construction training program.

MODULE 5 MODULE 4 MODULE 3 MODULE 2 MODULE 1

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MODULE ONE
Definitions
Mason: Mason is a skilled labourer who constructs the buildings or other different infrastructures.

Masonry: This is an art of construction in which building units are arranged systematically and bonded
together with mortar in order to form an homogeneous mass.
Masonry is normally used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and similar structural
components of buildings. The building units may be bricks, precast blocks of concrete and stones.

Shelter
This is a form of shed, cabin or hut which is used to provide protection against weather and other
environmental hazards, generally in form of a building. It should protect human beings, animals and goods
from adverse elements of environment including rain, noise, wind, fire, heat and moisture (dampness and
many others)

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Tools used in masonry
Tape measure and folding ruler: This is used for measuring.
Pencil: Used for marking
Spirit level: Is used for levelling the horizontal plane of the masonry works and to stretch the
verticality of the masonry work piece.
Building line: This is used for horizontal levelling and setting out of a building
Claw hammer: Is used for fixing and putting out the nails
Brick hammer: Is used for cutting bricks, fixing the nails and for demolishing works.
Club hammer: used to break and rectify stone
Masonry chisels: used for splitting bricks
Bolster: used for cutting bricks
Steel square: This used for controlling right angles when building the walls and setting out
Plumb bob: It is used for stretching (levelling) vertically.
Bucket: Used for carrying water.
Shop broom: It is used for keeping the work area clean
Spade / shovel: It is used for mixing sand, cement, collecting the materials, loading and off loading
Wheelbarrow: This is used for carrying materials.
Gauge box: Is used for measuring the proportion of the materials, to control the ratio by volume
Hand saw: It is used for sawing of the boards and timbers.
Hack saw: It is used for steel and plastic cutting.
Pan: It is used for carrying materials
Wooden float: Is used for making rough surface on wall plastering and screeding.
Steel float: Is used for making finish surface (smooth surface).
Mortar hawk: Is used for holding mortar
Straight edge: used to check the flatness of the wall and to ensure that all bricks are laid to the same level
in each course.
Brush: It is used for cleaning and also for painting.
Pincers: This is used for cutting building line, nails and binding wire.
Pointed trowel: Is used for jointing, pointing and for scraping the access mortar.
Brick trowel: This is used for placing the mortar.
Jointers: This is used for jointing and pointing.
Brick bat gauge: Used when cutting bricks to maintain the regular size to the cuts
Corner shaper (angle tool): Used for making corners
Outside: for outside corner shaping
Inside: for inside corner shaping
Scraper: This is used to remove extra mortar from walls, floors, and to scrap the wall ready for painting.
Scratching tool: This is used for making scratches on plaster while plastering.
Pick axe: It is used for digging and excavations
Hoe: Is used for digging
Machete: It used for shaping the pegs and for cutting the timbers and poles.
Axe: This is used for cutting timbers or trees

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Float Plaserer’s long straight edge

Tape measure Shovels or spades

Wire brush
Wheel barrow

Brick trowel Hack saw Spatter dash apparatus

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Club (or lump) Hammer Bolster Masonry chisel

Pincers Brick hammer Spirit level

Brick Bat Gauge Hawk Bucket

Jointers

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Materials used in Masonry work

1. Cement: used as a binding material


2. Lime: Used as a binding material and also for painting.
3. Building units: bricks, blocks for walling and paving and stones.
4. Water: For mixing of concrete, watering and curing.
5. Boards or timbers (facilitating materials): These are used for formwork, scaffolding and also for
construction of foundations, floors, walls, roofs, pillars and frames.
6. Nails: Nails are available in different sizes and are used to join boards, timbers, ceilings
and profiles.

7. Steel: Is used for reinforcement of concrete eg: column, slab and beam.
8. Binding wire: they are in different sizes/diameter for binding of the steel bars
9. Aggregates: Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.
Fine aggregate: are those, which will pass a standard 5mm sieve.
These are generally called ’’sand”

Coarse aggregate: Are those, which are retained on a standard 5mm sieve, crushed stones or
gravel to 60mm grains.

10. Stones: These are pieces of all classed of natural rocks which are finished as small building
units for masonry construction: used in foundations bases, filling up on the floors
as hard core , and for facing works.

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BUILDING TEAM
Building Team is a team of efforts in which each of them has an important role to play.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF A BUILDING TEAM

BUILDING OWNER

ARCHITECT

CONTRACTOR CLERK OF WORKS QUANTITY ENGINEERS


SURVEYOR
SITE AGENT

CONTRACTS SURVEYOR ESTIMATOR PURCHASER ADMISTRATO


MANAGER R

GENERAL FOREMAN COSTING

TRADES FOREMAN ACCOUNTS

OPERATIVES OFFICE STAFF

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Building owner: The client, the person who commissions the work directly or indirectly employs
everybody.
Architect: Engaged by the building owner as his agent to design, advise and ensure that the project is kept
within cost and complies with the design.
Clerk of work: Employed on large contract and he represents the architect on site but he cannot issue
instructions on his behalf; he can only offer advice.
Quantity surveyor: engaged to prepare the bills of quantities, check and call tenders, prepares the interim
valuations and advises the architect on the cost of variations.
Engineers: Specialists such as structural Engineer normally called Consulting Engineers, employed to
work with the architect on that particular aspect of the design.
e.g: Structural, mechanical, electrical and plumbing.
Site Agent: Employed on large contracts and he represents the engineer on site, and controls the supply of
materials.
Contractor: Employed by the building owner on the architect's advise to carry out the construction works
and he takes his instructions from the architect.
Surveyor: Employed by the contractor to check and assist the quantity surveyor in the preparation of the
interim valuations and final accounts. He may also measure the work done for bonus and sub contractors
payments.
Estimator: Prepares units rates for the pricing and tenders and carries out pre- tender investigation into the
cost aspect of the proposed contract.
Buyer / Purchaser: orders materials, obtains quotations for the supply of materials, services, and
collaborates with the site agent.
Accountant: Prepares and submits accounts to clients and makes payments to supplies and sub- contractors
and workers payments.
Administrator: Organizes the general clerical duties of the contractor's office for payments of wages,
insurance, all necessary correspondence and settles the disputes.
Contracts manager: Liaises between the office and site and has overall responsibility for the site
operations also deals with the tenders.
General foreman: Contractor's on site representative, responsible for the day to day work running of the
site and collaborates with the engineer.
Trades foreman: In charge of the trade gang e.g. Masonry, carpentry, plumbing and electrical.
Operatives: The main work force on site, including tradesmen, apprentices and labourers.

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MODULE TWO
Basic Building Parts
ODULE 1ODULE 1
Content

1. Building
1.1 Foundation 1.8 Stairs
1.2 Plinth 1.9 Roof
1.3 Damp proof course (DPC) 1.10 Surfaces / Finishes
1.4 Plinth beam
1.5 Floor 2. Service facilities
1.6 Walls 2.1 Water supply
1.7 Openings 2.2 Drainage and sewerage
2.3 Garbage disposal
2.4 Electricity
Building
A building provides shelter against natural elements such as rain, sunshine, noise, wind, fire, heat and
moisture (dampness). It also provides security and privacy.

A building consists of the following basic parts:

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BUILDING MATERIALS AND QUALITY STANDARDS
Raw materials needed for masonry works are:
Stones, Sand, Cement, Water, Bricks and concrete blocks

1. STONES
Building stones are derived from various types of rocks that are found in the crust of the earth. Stones can be used
in foundations, walls, floors, roofs, as well as for roads, dams etc.

1.2 Quality of building stone


The fundamental requirements of building stones are strength, density and durability.
A good building stone must be hard, tough, compact grained and uniform in texture and color.

1.2.2 Quality tests


However, in the field there are basically three tests where one can define the suitable quality of a stone.
 Hammer test
Take a hammer and check the stone for its sound.
A hard ringing sound indicates that the stone is of good quality and has no major defect such as holes or cracks.
 Visible test
Check the stone for any defects such as cracks, patches with soft materials, discoloring etc.
 Porosity or absorption test
Weight a stone of reasonable size and place it for 24 hrs into a water-bucket.
A good building stone should not absorb more than 5% of its weight of water after 24hrs immersion.

2. SAND AND AGGREGATES


Sand and aggregates are very essential building construction raw materials and deserve special attention.

2.1 Classification of sand and aggregates


Material retained on a 4.75 mm IS (Indian Standard) sieve is classified as coarse aggregate, and below that size as
fine aggregate or sand.
The material passing a 75-micron IS sieve is generally considered to be clay, fine silt or fine dust in an aggregate.

2.1.1 Coarse aggregate


There are mainly three sources from where coarse aggregates originate namely:
 Natural deposits
 Crushed stones
 Brick aggregates

2.1.2 Sand
There are mainly four types of sand namely:
 Pit sand
 Sea sand
 River sand and
 Crushed sand
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2.2 Quality of sand and aggregates
The quality of the mortar is directly linked to the characteristics and condition of the sand.
Sand and aggregates must be free from clay, loam, vegetables and any other organic material.

Clay or dirt coating on aggregates prevents adhesion of cement to aggregate, slows down the setting and
hardening process and reduces the strength of the mortar.
Therefore, clay and silt content should not exceed 10%, otherwise the sand needs to be washed.

2.2.2 Testing the sand quality


There are two main sand quality-testing methods, namely:
 Visible test
Check the sand for impurities such as organic materials (mud, leaves, roots etc.) Remove them before using the
sand.
 Clay and silt content test
The clay and silt content test can be in two ways:
 Hand test
The sand sample is rubbed between damp hands. Clean sand will leave the hands only slightly stained.
If the hands stay dirty, it indicates the presence of too much silt or clay.
 Bottle test
Take a bottle and fill in the sand until it is half full. Fill in clean water until the bottle is three quarters full. Shake
up vigorously and leave it to settle for about one hour. Clean sand will settle immediately, silt and clay will settle
slowly on top of the sand.
The thickness of the clay and silt layer should not exceed one-tenth or 10% of the sand below.
This test is also called decantation test. This test is not applicable to crushed stone sands.
Dirty sand should never be used in masonry because it will reduce the adhesive value of the mortar considerably.

3. CEMENT
3.1 Hydration of cement
When water is added to cement, the cement hydrates and during the chemical reactions, which take place while
the cement is setting, an increase in temperature occurs and a considerable quantity of heat is generated

3.2 Setting/Hardening
The terms setting and hardening have different meanings. Setting is the process which changes a fluid concrete to
a solid but weak state. Hardening is the process by which the weak set concrete attains strength.

3.3 Different types of cement


There are total five different kinds of cements. Cements are classified by their properties and chemical
composition.
The names of these five kinds of cements are:
 Ordinary Portland Cement
 Rapid hardening Cement
 Quick setting Cement
 Blast – furnace Slag Cement
 High Alumina Cement

3.4.1 Cement storage


Cement can be safely stored in bags for a few months if kept in a dry room. Paper bags are better for storing than
jute bags because paper bags perform better in regard to quality deterioration due to moisture.
Cement bags should be stored on a raised wooden platform (e.g. timber pallets) about 15 to 20 cm above the floor
level and about 30 to 50 cm away from walls. The cement stack should not be more than 10 bags high.
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The bags should be placed close together to reduce circulation of air.
A cement bag should never be opened until its immediate use for mixing.
4. WATER
The workability of a mortar increases as the water content of the mix is increased. Water lubricates the mixture.
However, increased water content will cause a decrease in strength, produce cracks (shrinkage) and decrease
density.

4.1 Type and quality


Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can be used as mixing water for
making cement mortar. Water suitable for making cement mortar, however, may not be fit for drinking.

4.1.1 Seawater
Seawater should not be used as mixing water for cement mortar.
4.1.2 Collected rainwater from roofs
Rainwater collected from roofs can be used for mixing mortar or concrete.
4.1.3 Oils
Various kinds of oil are occasionally present in mixing water.
Water mixed with any kind of oil shall not be used for mixing mortar or concrete.

4.2 Water storage


Water should be stored where no contamination is possible. Water stored in clean drums or covered tanks is
preferred. The age of the water, or the storage time does not affect the cement mortar quality in any way.

4.3 Testing the water quality


Water of questionable suitability can be used for making cement mortar cubes. The water in question should
achieve the strength in 7 and 28 days equal to at least 90% of comparable specimens made with drinkable water.

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5. BRICKS AND BLOCKS
The most common walls are constructed using bricks (burnt clay) or sand/cement blocks.
The main difference between them is their sizes.

5.1 BRICKS
Brick is defined as a walling unit with some standard sizes and not exceeding 20.0 cm in length, 9.5 in width and
6 to 7cm in height

Bricks must be of good quality and without visible cracks for a load-bearing wall. A hard ringing sound emitted
when two bricks are stroked together indicates that they have been burnt satisfactorily.
Generally, the bricks should be true to size and shape, with straight edges and even surface, to facilitate laying
them into position without using too much mortar.

5.1.1 Classification of bricks


5.1.2 Facing bricks
These bricks are thoroughly burned and uniform in colour, and having plane rectangular faces and sharp straight
right angled edges. They are used in the exposed face of the brickwork without any plaster or surface treatment.
The bricks must have sufficient resistance to penetration by rain and weathering agencies.

5.1.3 Solid bricks


A solid brick is a brick with less holes or perforations of 25% of its volume, in which frogs do not exceed 20% of
its volume.
5.1.4 Cavity bricks
A burnt clay hollow block or brick with holes larger than 20mm wide, which exceed 20% of its volume.
 Perforated: Those in which holes passing through exceed 25% of its volume and the holes are
small and very many = perforated ones.

 Hollowed: Those in which the holes pass through the bricks and exceed 25% of its volume and the
holes are larger than those defined as small holes; they are also used as cinder blocks for
decorations.
5.1.5 Special shaped bricks
These are usually solid bricks of various shapes suited to a particular construction.
e.g. Cellular: Those with grooves on the sides or at one end, reduce the volume and weight of the brick, they are
also used for decoration purpose, and paving works.

Shape and size


The brick should be rectangular with straight and sharp edges.
All bricks should have the same dimensions and no broken corners or edges.
The size of the bricks varies slightly from region to region.
Standard size is normally 230 x 115 x 70 mm in India and 200 x 95 x 60 to70 mm in Rwanda.
Soundness
The quality of a brick is good if there is a clear ringing sound
when two bricks are struck together.
Fall test
A brick should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from
a height of about one meter.
Scratch test
A good burned brick has surface so hard that the fingernail
cannot scratch it.
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5.2. CONCRETE BLOCKS
These are larger than bricks. They are mainly pre-casted standard blocks.
Concrete blocks are nowadays very common and time proofed walling materials, they can be produced by hand
and by machine. Handmade blocks are usually of lower quality, because machine made blocks are better
compacted by a vibrator table. They are made from cement and coarse sand with small size aggregates and are
used with very low water/cement ratio.

Hollow blocks have better thermal properties than solid blocks of the same material and total thickness.
Hollow blocks have certain advantages over bricks, they can be laid about four times rapidly and are of ample
strength for all purposes for which ordinary bricks are used except under concentrated loads.
The advantages of hollow walls are better in insulation against heat and sound.

6.1 Classification of concrete blocks


Concrete blocks are classified into two main groups;
 Solid blocks
 Hollow blocks

6.2 Quality of concrete blocks


The basic quality requirements of concrete blocks are; strength, uniform in size and degree of water resistant.

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MODULE THREE

1. PRINCIPLES OF MORTAR
1.1 What is mortar?
Mortar may be defined as a material composed of fine aggregate (sand) and cement, which forms a hardened
mass after mixing with water.
-It is used for construction in the beds and side joints of masonry work, in order to bind the stones, bricks or
blocks together and distribute the pressure throughout the block-work.
-Mortar is further used also for plastering works, pointing works, flooring and topping works.

1.2 Type of mortars according to materials used


Generally there are four common types of mortars in use for masonry and plastering work, namely:
 Cement mortar
 Lime mortar
 Cement – lime mortar and
 Mud mortar
1.2.1 Cement mortar (cement + sand + water)
Cement mortar is nowadays the most commonly used mortar for brick as well as stones or concrete block
masonry work. It provides high strength properties. Mix proportion varies according to requirements of the
masonry structure.
1.2.2 Lime mortar (lime +sand + water)
This is a mixture of quicklime (burnt limestone) and sand in the proportion of 1 part lime and 3 parts sand, in
addition to water. Lime mortar was once the principal material used for bedding and jointing bricks and stones. It
is used less frequently now as it develops strength very slowly and is not easily available in the market.
1.2.3 Cement – lime mortar (cement + lime + sand + water)
This was the most usual general-purpose mortar comprising 1 part cement 2 parts lime and 9 parts sand.
The addition of lime improves the workability and makes it easier to use.
Cement – lime mortar is mainly used for internal works.

1.2.4 Mud Mortar: (soil + water)


Mud mortar is prepared from a mixture of puddle mud (soft mud) and water.
In this, clay is pugged or puddle with water until it acquires the required consistency.
It is generally used in villages and urban areas for masonry works. It is also used in plastering the huts.
Single or double storied building can be built by using mud mortar but these houses have to be pointed or
plastered with cement mortar.

1.3 Types of mortar according to the quantity of water used


-Stiff mortar
-Plastic mortar and
-Liquid mortar

1.4 MIXING MORTARS


The sand is placed on a clean platform, the correct amount of cement is added to it, both, sand and cement are
thoroughly mixed before water is added and the mass gradually worked up into a plastic condition.
The general rule is that sand and cement are mixed dry together at least 3 times before water is added.
This is important for achieving the proper plasticity.
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1.4.1 Types of mixing mortar
For small quantity, mortar is mixed by hand and large quantities are mixed by machine. A gauge box is used for
measuring the quantity of material when batching by volume. Weight batching is, however, a more accurate
method of batching.

When using hand mixing


Place the measured quantity of fine aggregate on a platform (on site a platform is usually a layer of lean concrete
worked to a flat surface).
Next, measure the cement, place on top of the heap of sand and spread evenly with the mixing shovel / spade.
The dry materials are mixed together with spade turning the mixture from side to side on the platform three times.
When the heap shows an even colour throughout, the mix is ready for the addition of water.
Water is added to a chased formed in the middle of the heap. But water added from buckets on to the heap tends
to wash away the cement in the mix before the mixer has time to mix the concrete.
The mixture is further turned with spade/shovel until it reaches a plastic state without being too wet.

1.4.2 Method of mixing mortars


a) Weight method
Mortar mixtures are also expressed in kg of cement per 1m3 of cement mortar.
For example: PC 250 means that 250 kg of Portland Cement (PC), 1000 liters of sand and 120 liters of water are
used to obtain about 1m3 mortars.
This method is mainly used for large constructions in cities for bridges, hotel and shopping complexes etc.

b) Volumetric method
Usually on small and rural construction sites the more practical volume batching method is applied.
The volumetric method is a very appropriate way to mix raw materials.
Special care must be given to ensure that the workers measure each time the same volume.

1.5 Categorization of mortars and their mix ratio


Mortars are categorized in mainly three groups, namely:
Group 1
Highly stressed masonry incorporating height strength structural units as used in multistory load bearing
buildings.

Group 1 batching 16
Group 2
Normal load bearing applications such as external house walls, parapets, and balustrades, retaining structures,
freestanding garden walls and other walls exposed to severe dampness.

Group 2 batching

Lightly stressed non-structural walls

Group 3 batching

Properties of a good mortar:


1. It should be cheap and durable
2. It should be easily workable
3. It should have a good adhesion with bricks, blocks and stones
4. It should set harden quickly, so that speed of construction work may be maintained.
5. It should offer a good resistance to the penetration of rain water.

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2. PRINCIPLES OF BRICK MASONRY

The craft of the bricklayer is concerned with embedding bricks in mortar and suitably arranging them so that the
mass, called brickwork conforms to certain requirements such as strength and appearance.
But the wall strength depends upon the type of the bond used.
There are many rules for bonding and mainly related to the different types of bonds.

2.1 Brick overlap between layers


The amount of lap is generally half of the length of a brick but the minimum lap is ¼ of the length of a brick.

2.2 Size of bricks


Uniformity in the size of bricks is essential; the correct size of a brick for a proper bonding should be twice its
width plus the thickness of one vertical joint.
UL

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2.3 Rules for joints
Basically, the mortar joints are the weakest as well as the most expensive part of the masonry.
Therefore, care must be taken to be as economically as possible with all type of joints so not to make the masonry
wall unnecessary weak and expensive.

2.3.1 Horizontal joints


For horizontal joints “Bed joint” a thickness of 12 mm is recommended for brickwork to ensure:
 Leveling of the brick in the mortar bed
 Placing the brick completely in the mortar
 No uneven or incomplete support of the bricks due to stones in the mortar
If the horizontal joints are too thick (more than 15 mm) the result is a waste of expensive mortar (cement) as well
as weakening of the structure.

2.3.2 Vertical joints


For vertical joints “Cross joint and Collar joint” a thickness of 10 mm is recommended for brickwork. The
reduction of approx. 2 mm to the horizontal joints is possible because the contact area is much smaller at the side
than at the bottom.
Care must be taken to ensure that the entire vertical joint is filled with mortar; otherwise the brick masonry wall
is prone to leakages.

2.4 Selection of bricks


Where good and bad quality of bricks is supplied in one truck load, it is advisable to select first of all the good
quality out of the supplied bricks. This is especially important where bricks are used for constructing load bearing
walls and foundations. Bad quality bricks should generally not be used for wall construction purpose. However, if
it is unavoidable to use bad quality of bricks, then it should be used in the Flemish double bond brick wall as
center fillers.
2.5 Brick cuttings
Before to cut a brick it is advisable to look just around and confirm that there is no cut brick already there.
Otherwise, use first the cut bricks available.
In order to avoid too much wastage, only good bricks (without crack) should be cut.
The mason needs to check each brick (sound test with a hammer) and must reject bricks that are faulty.
The correct size to be cut should be marked on the brick. A brick-cutting hammer is the most appropriate tool to
cut a brick, avoid cutting bricks with a trowel. The trowel is not meant for this work.
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2.6 Brick soaking
Before a brick is placed for masonry work, it needs to be thoroughly soaked in water. The minimum watering
time is 6 hours. Dipping the brick into a water bucket just before placing it will not be good enough. Essentially,
the soaking of bricks is done for two reasons:
 Dust
The surface of the brick is always covered with a lot of dust, sometimes-even dirt. If this dust or dirt layer is not
properly removed, the binding between the brick and the mortar will not be effective, hence the entire brick
masonry wall will be weakened and the appearance of cracks will be very likely.

 Soakage of Water by Brick


Further, a dry and porous brick will immediately consume away the water from the mortar. It is however exactly
this water which is required for ensuring the proper hardening and controlled setting of the cement.
If the cement does not have enough moisture to ensure a proper hydration process the final mortar strength will
be considerably reduced and the masonry wall weakened in general.

2.7 Maximum brick wall height per day


The maximum brick wall height per day should not exceed more than 12 to 14 layers.

2.8 Curing
A brick wall needs to be cured for at least 7 days.
Several times a day, water needs to be poured over the brick wall. The walls are mostly very much exposed to
wind and sunshine and the water (moisture) of the wall will be dried out very quick.
However, to gain the appropriate bearing strength, the mortar needs certain moisture content for hardening.
Therefore, all brick masonry needs regular curing for at least 7 days.

2.9 Bonding
Bonding means the arrangements of bricks/blocks on a wall, column and pier laid to a set of pattern to maintain
an adequate lap. Bonds are essential for any wall to carry loads and to prevent structural failure.
The bonding must distribute the load evenly throughout the whole wall, so that each part carries a small part of
the load.

Those arrangements must be done in such a way that no vertical joint of one course is exactly over the one below.
This means that the brick is laid in such a way that it overlaps and breaks the joint below.
An un-bonded wall, with its continuous vertical joints, has little strength and stability and such joints in general
must be avoided.
In addition to the distribution of loads , stability is also archived by correct bonding at corners, attached piers and
junctions, and ensuring that they are well tied together (Show Bonded and unbonded wall)

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2.9.1 RULES OF BONDING OF BRICKS (20x9.5x7cm
1. Bricks are laid in several kinds of bonds according to the requirements of construction or the wish of the
customer.
2. The minimum lap of the brickwork on the face of a wall should be ¼ brick eg (5.5cm) and across the wall ½
eg (10.5cm) and in case of a half brick wall in stretcher bond.
3. No vertical joint should extend into the next course.
In forming right angles, the quoin in stretcher bond is whole brick across, block bond, cross bond and mix
bond, the header adjoining the coin stretcher is a ¾ bat.

2.9.2. RULE OF BONDING OF BLOCKS (40x20x10cm)


1. Blocks are laid in a kind of Stretcher bond with no special other arrangements of bonds like brick walls.
2. Horizontal joints always should be laid in level, no sloping ups or down in each course are permitted.
3. No vertical joint should extend into the next course.
4. The minimum lap is ¼ of a brick or 10 cm, the normal lap is ½ of a block or 20cm.
Walls have to be built accurately in length, height and also horizontally and vertically, according to the provided
drawings.

2.9.3. TERMS OF BONDING

Stopped end or closed end: is introduced to a wall finally, such at windows, doors or at the end of a screen wall.
Toothing: is introduced to stop a wall for the meantime (at the end of day’s work) and to be completed the
next day. Toothing is done when the space for racking back is not sufficient.

Racking Back: is introduced to stop a wall for a meantime or on building – corner where the
corners are raised ahead. Racking back is done where there is sufficient place for it.
Bed Joints: are mortar joint parallel to the beds of the blocks or bricks and therefore horizontal
in general walling. The thickness varies from 1-1.2 cm for brick work and 1.5 to 2cm for block work.

Vertical Joint: These are between the ends of blocks in general walling and always plumb.
The thickness is usually 1cm (1-finger thick).
Course: A complete layer of bricks or blocks. A header course consists of headers and stretcher course consists
of stretchers.
Quoin: A corner or external angle of a wall. We have normally a right angle quoins.
Tie Bricks: in the bonding of right angled quoins.

Lap: the horizontal distance which one brick or block project beyond a vertical joint in a course immediately
above or below. It is minimum ¼ of the length of a brick or block, the normal lap is ½ of a brick or block and ¼
lap also for one brick wall or more brick wall thickness.21
Hang: is the part of a brick or block which overhang protruding from the ends of course below or above hanging
part.
2.10. TYPES OF BONDS:

When laying bricks the manner in which the bricks overlap is called the bond. A brick laid with the longest side
exposed is called a stretcher brick, as opposed to a header, where only the smallest end of the brick is exposed to
the weather. The length of one stretcher is the same as two header bricks, side -by-side, including the 10mm joint
between.

The thickness of a brick wall is measured using a unit of length known as 'the brick'. This standard can be used
consistently with the wide variety of brick sizes available. The length of the longest face for a particular size of
brick equals "one brick", for the purposes of measuring a wall built from such bricks.

2.10.1. Stretcher bond


Stretcher bond (also known as running bond or monotonous stretcher bond) is the most common bond in
modern times, as it is easy to lay, with little waste.
Entirely comprised of stretcher bricks, set in rows (or "courses") that are offset by half a brick.
Stretcher bond uses no header bricks, allowing for a thin wall of one layer (half of a 'brick' unit).
Two such walls may be built close together with a gap between

All bricks are placed as stretchers.


Alternate layers start with a half bat.
All joints break at the center of the brick below
Stretcher walls are generally used in half brick walls
like partition or compound walls etc.

2.10.2. Header bond: Consists of headers in every course.

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All bricks are placed as headers.
Overlap is achieved by laying a three quarter bat in alternative course at the corners
Header bond walls are generally used for footings in foundation and walls curved in plan.
2.10.3. English bond (Block Bond)
This bond is made up of alternating courses of stretchers and headers. This produces a solid wall that is a full
brick in depth. English bond is fairly easy to lay and is the strongest bond for a one-brick-thick wall

One brick thick

One and half brick thick

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2.10.4. Flemish Bond (Mix Bond):
It is created by alternately laying headers and stretchers in a single course. The next course is laid so that a header
lies in the middle of the stretcher in the course below. Again, this bond is one brick thick
One brick thick

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One and half brick thick

2.10.5. Flemish Stretcher Bond


Like stretcher bond but with single rows of block bond (alternating headers and stretchers) every n rows.

2.10.6. Common Bond or American Bond or English Garden Wall:


A pattern made like stretcher bond but with a row of headers replacing every nth course (n is usually odd).
The headers are centered on the headers in the row of headers below. It is strong.

2.10.7. Monk Bond


A variant of Flemish (block) Bond with two stretchers between the headers in each row, and the headers
centered over the joint between the two stretchers in the row below

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2.10.8. Flemish Garden Wall Bond
A variant of Flemish Bond with three stretchers between each header, and the header centered over the
stretcher in the middle of a group of three in the row below.

2.10.9. Stack Bond:


A pattern made up of rows of stretchers with each stretcher centered on the stretcher below it. All joins run
vertically down the entire wall. Not a strong bond at all, it is used only for decorative purposes

2.10.10. Rat-trap bond:


Rat-trap bond is a type of bond in which the stretchers and headers are laid on their sides, with the base of the
stretcher facing outwards. This gives a wall with an internal cavity bridged by the headers, hence the name. The
main advantage of this bond is economy in use of bricks, giving a wall of one brick thickness with fewer bricks
than Flemish and block bond.

Where to use Rat Trap bonded brick masonry?


Rat Trap bonded brick masonry are used where good quality of bricks are available.
Bricks used in a rat trap masonry wall need a minimum compressive strength of more than 35 kg
per square centimeters.
Advantages
- Compared to others bonds, like Flemish bond in brick wall, consumption of brick are reduced by 25% in rat trap
bond.
- Due to reduction in number of bricks, the consumption of cement mortar is also reduced.
- Stability of wall is not affected as the excess material is eliminated from around the center line.
- Acts as a good thermal insulator due to the cavity in the wall.
- Plastering of the outside face is not needed as well as inside plaster is minimized since both surfaces are fair
faced.
Limitations
 Not a good sound insulator.
The rat-trap bond is a masonry technique that reduces brick and mortar consumption.
Bricks are placed with a cavity between two leaves of brick-on-edge.
The cavity provides for thermal insulation. 25
Rat trap bond T-Junction

2.10.11. Cross Bond: Bond consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers with an
interceptive header on every second stretcher course, with the ¾ bat quoin.

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POINTING AND JOINTING (STRIKING)
The main reasons for pointing the surface of stone, block or brickwork joints are to increase its weather resistance
and to give a neat looking finish to the work.
Jointing work can be carried out as construction of the brickwork proceeds, using ordinary mortar in which the
bricks are bedded.
Another method is to finish the masonry work first and then make the pointing work with1:2 or 1:3 of cement
mortars later. The joints must be raked out to the depth of about 1 to 1.5 cm, brushed, washed and filled with
cement mortar
Jointing or striking is a finishing the mortar joints between newly laid bricks.
Pointing is applying a small amount of mortar into the face joint between bricks in old brickwork. Pointing can
apply harder mortar to increase weather protection on exposed
27 faces.
STYLES OF JOINTING / POINTING
Whether striking or pointing, the basic finishes are the same:

Struck
Flushed
Keyed or bucket handle

Recessed key
Weathered

Procedures for Striking/jointing


Bricklaying should be stopped at a convenient point to allow enough time to strike the section of wall laid.
Except for the recessed finish, the first job is to fill in any parts of the mortar joints which show surface voids,
use a small amount of fairly stiff bricklaying mortar and apply using a small pointing trowel.
Do the vertical joints (called 'cross-joints') first, and then the horizontal joints (the 'bed-joints').

Procedures for Pointing


Chip out the old mortar to the depth of about 12mm from the brick surface using angle grinder. Use an angle
grinder with care otherwise damage to the actual bricks could result.
When the wall is ready to be pointed, the joints should be wetted before being filled with pointing mortar and
finished off as for striking above. The mortar should be a fairly stiff mix.
Put a small amount of the mix on a hawk and use a small pointing trowel to cut off a slither of mortar.
Pick the mortar up on the edge of the trowel and press the mortar into the joints to be filled, drawing the blade
backwards at the same time, repeat this until the mortar is flush with the face of the bricks.
When the joints over about one square meter have been filled, finish off using the required style.

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3. PRINCIPLES OF STONE MASONRY
Evidently for building purpose, a good stone should possess strength, durability, cheapness and fine appearance.
The strength of a stone under compression and cross strain is an important factor for the weight of the masonry.
Floor loads must be supported, resulting in considerable pressure on the lower course. Therefore, for a given
load, the lower the compressive strength of the stone, the thicker the wall should be for safe loading.
3.1 Stone surfaces
For the proper shaping of stones, it is important to know the different surfaces of the stone.

 Face: This is the exposed surface of a stone in elevation.


 Returned face: This is the exposed face to the side elevation e.g. a corner stone.
 Bed: This is the top or the bottom of a stone. The lower surface on which the stone rests and the upper
surface which supports the stone immediately above.
 Joint (Side): These are the surfaces prepared to meet other surfaces, (e.g. Limestone).

3.2 Rules for stone shaping


Stone shaping must be made by a very experienced stonemason to avoid unnecessary wastage. He needs to have
a good feeling to assess the potential use of each stone. Since stone handling and cutting is quite an accident
prone activity, it is important that basic safety rules are followed such as:
 Workers shaping stones should always use eye protection glasses and wear good shoes.
 All the stones should be of a size and weight that can be carried by one person only.

The following general stone cutting and shaping rules are relevant
 Select the stone and then choose the way you want to shape it.
 Cut it first roughly on all sides, if possible according to its natural shape.
 No angle of the face to side surface should be more than 90 degrees.
 Dress the face straight and check it with a square or a straight edge.
 Select the stones, which could be used as corners and shape the reverse face.

3.2.1 Line stones


Cut out the sides to form the beds and the joints. The beds should be such that they can keep the stone when laid
without supports. If the joints and the beds are shaped, the face can now be produced.
Lay the stone down with the intended face up and cut off the high parts with a chisel, bush hammer etc. to a
plain surface. Use a straight edge to check the surface.

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3.2.2 Cornerstones
Cornerstones are the stones placed at the external angle of a building and prepared to bond with other stones in
the wall in each direction. In any building good corners are essential therefore good cornerstones must be used
for easy plumbing.
A good cornerstone must have good arises and the two faces must be squared to each other.
Cut first the beds and the joints and give particular attention to the returned face. If the joints and the beds are
well prepared, lay the stone with the intended face up, shape it and make sure that it is straight by using a
straight edge. Then shape the returned face by chiseling and squaring it to the face.
Care must be taken not to damage the arises.

3.2.3 Arch stones


Unlike the cornerstone the arch stone is shaped like a wedge and is more difficult to shape than any other stone,
because it has to be shaped to specific measurements and dimensions.
First cut out the beds to the required height of the arch. Then cut the joints and form the wedge, giving special
attention to the dimensions required. Finally cut out and shape the face, checking it with a straight edge.

3.3 Unsquared rubble masonry


Stone masonry may be classified in various ways, as for instance, according to the kind of stones used, surface
finished, bonding etc. Rubble masonry is composed of unsquared stones. They are found in a quarry or are dug
and broken out of the field, the irregularities being made up by filling with mortar, as the stones are set.
However, fieldstones are much used in the building of houses. There are three kinds of rubble masonry known
as:
 Uncoursed rubble
 Random coursed rubble
 Coursed rubble

3.3.1 Uncoursed rubble


This kind of masonry covers all kinds and all sizes
of stones in which faces, joints and beds are roughly
shaped. No special attention is given to the level of
the courses.
With a good surface finish (joint finish, flash joints)
an attractive wall will result.

3.3.2 Random coursed rubble coursed rubble smaller stones are used than in
In this kind of rubble masonry all the stones, which uncoursed rubble.
are used, beds, joints and faces are well shaped. In random coursed rubble smaller stones are used
In laying the stones special attention is needed to than in uncoursed rubble.
bring each course to as near a level as possible.
The difference of uncoursed and random coursed
rubble can be seen in the surface finish. In random

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3.3.3 Coursed rubble
In coursed rubble particular attention is given by shaping the stones. The faces are roughly squared and the
height of all the stones should be nearly the same. Special attention by laying of the stones is given to the bond
stones, the height of each course and a proper alignment.

3.5 Bonding  Stratified stones should be laid on their


In stonework too it is important to secure a proper natural beds (Sandstones).
bonding.
In bonding the following rules should be strictly
observed:
 Headers should extend not less than 2/3 the
thickness of the wall.
 The vertical joints of each course should
break with the joints of the course below.
 The largest stones should be used for the
lowest courses!
3.6 Curing
The walls are mostly very much exposed to wind and sunshine and the water (moisture) of the wall will be dried
out very quick. However, to gain the appropriate bearing strength, the mortar needs certain moisture content for
hardening. Therefore, a stone masonry wall needs to be cured for at least 7 days. Several times a day, water
needs to be sprinkled over the stone masonry wall.

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4. PRINCIPLES OF CURING

4.1 What is curing?


Curing must be made with every building material, construction part or product that is using cement as part of
the raw material. This is because Cement requires water to initiate the hydration process and to control the
internal temperature generated by this process in order to obtain optimal hardening and strength of the cement.
This internal temperature controlling with water is called curing.
Uncontrolled hydration process initiated temperatures will lead to overheating of cement and a very substantial
loss of hardness and final strength of the cement product such as concrete, mortar etc.
Good curing means that evaporation should be prevented or reduced.

4.2 Type of curing


There are generally 3 main type of curing used in the construction sector, namely:
- Water curing
- Vapor curing
- Steam curing

5. PRINCIPLES OF PLASTERING
5.1 What is plastering?
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other building components
with thin coat of mortars to form a smooth durable surface. The coating of mortar is termed as plaster.
Plastering is done to achieve the following objects:
 To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rainwater and other atmospheric agencies.
 To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
 To give decorative effect.
 To protect surfaces against vermin.
 To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship.

5.2 Requirements of good plaster


The plaster material should fulfill the following requirements:
 It should adhere to the background, and should remain adhered during all variations in seasons and other
atmospheric conditions.
 It should be hard and durable.
 It should possess good workability.
 It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
 It should be cost efficient.
 It should effectively check penetration of moisture.

5.3 Factors to consider when selecting types of plaster


The selection of type of plaster depends upon the following factors:
 Availability of binding materials.
 Durability requirements.
 Finishing requirements.
 Atmospheric conditions and variations in weather.
 Location of surface (i.e. exposed surface or interior surfaces).

5.4 Number of coats of plaster


The background over which plastering is to be done depend upon the type of wall construction, such as random
rubble (R.R.) masonry, coarsed rubble masonry, brick masonry
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5.4.1 Background and number of Coats
Stone work 3 or 2
Brick work or hollow blocks 2 or 1
Concrete cast in situ 2 or 1
If plastering is done in single coat only, its thickness should not exceed 12 mm and less than 6 mm.

5.5 Preparation of background


For plastering new surfaces, all masonry joints should be raked to a depth of 10 mm in brick masonry and 15
mm in stone masonry for providing key to the plaster.
- Single coat plaster
- Two coat plaster
- Three coat plaster
The thickness of rendering coat, floating coat and finishing coat are kept 9 to 10 mm, 6 to 9 mm and 2 to 3 mm
respectively. The rendering coat is made rough.
The floating coat is applied about 4 to 7 days after applying the first coat. The finishing coat may be applied
about 6 hours after the application of floating coat.

6. PRINCIPLES OF FLOORING

6.1 What is flooring?


The layer that separates the ground from the floor finish is called the flooring (2,3)
Four components of a pavement
1. Sub grade of pavement, in clay or sand lady,
2. Basis of the pavement, sometimes consolidate in stony materials, quarry stones, burnt bricks or in concrete
3. Body of the pavement, in mortar of cement,
4. Finishing layer (uppermost layer), in rich cement mortar.

 Waterproof
6.2 Components of flooring  Absolutely level
 Sub-floor (also called base)
 Floor Finish

7.2.1 Sub floor


This is the waterproofing layer
It prevents water from seeping up from the ground
to the floor. 6.2.2 Floor finish
It also provides the solid bedding for the final This is the visible and usable floor. Thus, it must
finish. Thus, it must be be:
 Solid and hard, dense  Easy to clean
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 Resistant to dampness
 Durable with long life
 Hard
 Easy to maintain

7. PRINCIPLES OF SETTING OUT OF A BUILDING


CHOICE OF A BUILDING SITE

7.1. Factors to consider when selecting a building site

Elevation of site; e.g. elevated site is generally preferable to low lying ones, being drier and easier to drain.
Availability of facilities; e.g. Hospitals, transport, schools etc
Availability of services; e.g. water, electricity, sewage, etc
Types and conditions of subsoil; e.g. gravel, sand, clay etc
Water table; Buildings should essentially be erected well above the highest ground-water level.
Before any building work can commence, the area must be leveled i.e. reducing levels

7.2. Steps involved for setting out of a building

 Establish the baseline


 Set out the right angle at the correct length and check the diagonals.
 Set up the profile boards to allocate the width of the trench, foundation and walls. They should be far
apart and wide enough not to obstruct excavation works.
7.3. Methods of setting out a right angle building
 Typical builders square or steel square method
 3 – 4 – 5 method or Pythagoras theorem
 Levelling instruments.
 Prismatic square method

Procedures.

The 3, 4, 5 method
Mark out the base line from the road by measuring the required distance from the centre of the road or by
stretching a line along an existing building to the proposed site. The base line is then represented by a line
known as front line or ranging line, which also marks the front wall of the buildings.
Mark out the overall length of the building by driving pegs at A and B along the front line.
34
Obtain two steel tape measures; mark out two equal distances on the front line starting from the corner peg at
B. These distances may be in any unit of measurement, i.e. millimeters, meters sometimes, etc.

Pull a tape measure from point B to C and ask an assistant to hold it, ready with a hammer and a peg.
Pull the second tape measure from the first mark at A on the front line to point D on the first tape
The distance AC of 5m if using meters, should coincide with the distance BC of 3m on the tape.

DC Then the angle B is 90 0 (from Pythagoras’


theorem). If the points do not coincide, the tape BC
is either shifted outwards or inwards until 5m on
5m 3m the second tape coincides with the 3m mark on the
first tape.
Repeat the same procedure to obtain the right angle
for BAD, and mark out the overall widths of the
A B=900 building.
4m

Check if all sides are correct and the two diagonals are the same.
Establish corner pegs and erect profiles.
Profiles must be placed in position where they will not impede the work.
Mark the positions of partition walls on the profiles with either nails or saw cuts. Building lines are stretched
through these nails and the corner pegs to mark the ground to indicate the line of excavation for the foundation
trenches

The builder’s square method


Set out the front line in the usual manner with pegs
Place the builder’s square so that the front line touches one side of the square right through its length.
Stretch a line from the corner pegs so that it is parallel to the second side of the square and establishes the third
peg. A corner of angle 900 is thus obtained.
With the aid of tape measure, mark out the length and breadth of the proposed building.
Transferring the builder’s square to the remaining corners and repeating the above operations; a simple
rectangular building can be set out.
After establish the four corner pegs, profiles may be erected in the same way as described above.
Note that the builder’s square method can only be used with accuracy for small buildings.

Profiles

35
36
37
MODULE FIVE
Safety
Principles of safety
1. Introduction
“Accidents do not happen, accidents are made”
The main reasons for construction related accidents are carelessness, technical faults, inappropriate use of
tools, wrong reaction of workers, abuse of alcohol, and most important no proper awareness about potential
sources of accidents.
A construction site is the place where people come to work together mainly to earn money to support their
families. A place where people come together for doing a living must be safe; no economical consideration
justifies an accident. What a great tragedy for a family, if for the reason of a preventable working accident, no
more income is available.
Knowing the sources of potential and predictable accidents means that we can prevent them.
It is the duly of a construction supervisor to know the potential sources of accidents and to prevent them as far
as possible.
 No person without a valid license should be
allowed to drive a tractor, truck or any
other vehicle at the construction site.
 No fire shall be made at the construction
site.
 No ladder with structural default should be
used. The supervisor is responsible to order
for its repair and maintenance.
 Erect ladders in positions where people do
not have to walk underneath them.
 When going up or down a ladder, always
face the ladder.
 Do not leave discarded timber with nails
DUL sticking out. Shuttering timber must always
2. Rules to prevent accidents: be collected and stored in one place.
2.1 General rules:  Special care needs to be taken for
 Only professionals should make electrical scaffolding work. The scaffolding material
installations. needs to be strong and well fixed.
 No electrical wires would be allowed to lie
free on the ground.

38
 Scaffoldings need to be checked every day by the supervisor.
 Floor openings and floor holes must be covered or protected by a guardrail.
 Proper access path with side railings (claiming stairs) needs to be constructed for carrying material
from ground level to higher elevations.
 Always bend down or cover the ends of vertical steel bars that stick out of concrete.
 Weights more than 50 kg should not be carried by one person alone.
 Lifting stones, cement and other heavy building materials must not be made with a bent back. Always
lift the weight with a straight back.
 Prevent any material from falling down that could hurt people or could damage other materials or
construction.

2.2 Storage
 Storage of explosive and health hazardous materials should not be allowed at the construction site.
 Bricks or blocks shall not be piled up higher than 1 m at the storage as well at the construction site.

 Material such as steel bars, timber, sand and cement should be stored in such a way, that access to the
construction site is not blocked.
2.3 Conduct
 No alcohol consumption should be allowed at the construction site.

2.4 Working conditions


 For night work, proper lighting arrangements need to be in place.
 For stone cutting and chiselling works, the workers need to be instructed how to avoid eye injuries

2.4.1 Cleanliness, hygiene & resting place:


 A person shall be made officially responsible for the cleaning of the construction site.
 A toilet, separate for men and women must be provided for the construction workers.
 The construction site should be kept clean. Workers need to be instructed that the toilet must be used
and that no urination etc. is allowed inside the construction.
 An official resting-place protected from rain and sunshine should be established at site.
 Clean drinking water should be provided at the resting-place as well as at the working place.
 Mothers who attend to their children should do so at the official resting place only.
Pavement blocks dangerously piled up, workers at increased risk of accident

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