CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

HAND BOOK

BY. JASON R. WHYTE

Table of Contents

Preface
Introduction: Safety
General Health & Safety Procedures
Safety Gears & Accessories
 First Aid & Accident Reports
Maintenance of Common Hand Tools
Module 1: Building Team & Trades
Members of the building Team
Roles of Building Trades
Module 2: Preliminary Site Work
Factors Affecting Site Selection
Site Preparation
Hoarding
Reasons for Hoarding
Temporary Services & Shelters on a Site
Layout of a Simple Structure
Methods for Checking Squareness of a Building
Module 3: Building Materials
Concrete & Mortar
Aggregates
Cements
Batching & Ratios
Plastics & Waterproofing Materials – Properties, Uses
Timber & Timber Products – Hardwood vs Softwood
Cross-section of a Tree
Felling, Conversion, Seasoning
Timber Defects
Manufactured Boards – Definition, Properties, Types
Calculate Board Measure, Identify Pieces of Lumber – planks, lathes etc
Ironmongery – Categories, Types, Uses, Diagrams

Module 4: History of Buildings

Factors Influencing Building Designs
Building Features that Influence Caribbean Buildings
Module 5: Foundations
Definition
 Functions
Types – Diagrams/Working Drawings of Each Type
Methods of Excavation – Tools in Each Method
Timbering – Methods
Prepare Concrete Mixes – Slump Test, Cube Test (Compression Test)
Handling & Placing Concrete
Curing – Definition, Reasons, Methods
Module 6: Walls
Definition, Categories
Functions
Types – Diagram of Each Type
Materials for Making Walls, Section Through Block Wall
Bonding – Definition, Diagram Bonded/Unbounded Wall
Types of Wall Bonds, Diagrams of Types,
Treatments to Wall Openings – Diagrams
Ladders & Scaffolds
Construct Block Wall, Wall/Block Calculations
Stud Partition – Diagram, Parts
Shoring – Definition, Applications, Types
Module 7: Roofs
Functions, Categories
Types of Pitched Roofs – Diagram of Each Type
Parts of the Roof
Section through Roof
Types of Roof Covering
Calculation of Rafter Lengths (Pythagoras’ Theorem)
Eaves – Types, Functions
Ceilings – Types, Functions
Roof Trusses – Advantages, Types
Construct Pitched Roof

Module 8: Floors
 Functions
Categories
Solid on Grade, Timber with Stairwell – Diagrams & Parts of Each Type
Section through Floors
Types of Floor Covering
Floor Construction – Solid, Timber
Columns & Beams – Definition, Sketches, Materials
Module 9: Stairs
Definition, Functions,
Types of Stairs – Diagrams of Each Type
Parts of a Stair
Section through a Stair- String, Riser, Tread
Materials Making Stairs
Calculation of Risers & Treads
Regulations Governing Stair Construction
Stair Construction

Module 10: Windows

Functions, Requirements
Types of Windows – Diagrams of Each Type
Parts of a Window
Section through a Window in a Masonry Wall
Glazing
Window Construction
Window Ironmongery

Module 11: Doors

Functions
Types of Doors – Diagrams of Each Type
Parts of a Door
Section through a Door in a Masonry Wall
 Door Construction, Swing a Door
Door Ironmongery
Module 12: Related Services
Plumbing Principles, Drain, Pipe Sizes, etc
Drainage Disposal – Gutters, Soak-away, etc
Drainage System – Combined, Separate
Methods of Sewage Disposal – Pits, Septic Tank, etc
Module13: Finishes
Rendering, Plastering
Paints, Varnish – Types, Application Methods, Properties
Use of Solvents
Application of Tiles to Wood, Concrete
Use of Glass Blocks
Module 14: Career Opportunities
Engineering
Production
Maintenance
Ethics & Workplace Norms
Use of Computers

SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE

Safety is freedom from danger: protection from, or not being exposed to, the risk of harm or
injury in the workshop or on site.
THE BUILDING TEAM

Building is essentially a team process in which each member has an important role to play. Figure 1

below shows the organizational structure of a typical team for a large project.
Building Owner: Also referred to as the client. This person or organization finances and

commissions the work. They directly and indirectly employ all other personnel

who serve on the building team.

Architect: This person or organization is usually engaged by the client as an agent to

design, advise and ensure that the project is kept within cost and complies with

the design and other building regulations of the specific location.

Clerk of Works: Employed on large contracts as the architect’s on-site representative. The main

function is to liaise between the architect and the main contractor and to

ensure that the construction process proceeds in accordance with the design.

They can offer advice but directives must come from the architect.

Structural Engineer: Employed on large contracts to assist the architect when the stress and loads on

the proposed building exceeds those of a simple house. They ensure that the

structure can sufficiently bear and transfer the loads of the structure safely to

the foundations without failure or collapsing.

Site Agent: Also referred to as the Contracts manager. Employed on large contracts as the

Contractor: employed by the client on the architect’s advice to carry out the constructional

works. He takes his instructions from the architect.

Engineer: a specialist such as a structural engineer employed to work with the architect

on particular aspects of the design.

Quantity surveyor: engaged to prepare bills of quantities, check tenders, prepare interim valuations

and advise the architect on the cost of variations.

Function of members of the building trades:

Carpenter – erects structural framework and constructs roofs

Electrician – carries out wiring works and installation of fixtures

Plumber – lay pipes, install taps, toilet bowls, etc.

Painter – responsible for finishing the building by applying paint, wall paper, etc.

Mason/tiler – works with concrete and mortar, lay concrete blocks, plaster walls etc.

Preliminary site work

Factors Affecting Site Selection

1. Topography: This refers to the degree in slope of the land, whether it is steep, gently
sloped or flat.
2. Cost: This affects the choice of a site where as a client may not be able to
purchase a lot because he/she cannot afford it.
'
3. Zone: Zone affects site selection where the client will have to choose a zone
based on his/her needs. The various zones include Industrial zone [for
factories], Agricultural zone [for rearing animals], Commercial zone [for
offices and businesses] and Residential zone [for dwellings].
4. Access to available Facilities:
A housing site should have adequate access to schools, shopping centers,
parks, hospitals, police station etc. Access to all these facilities will
influence a client when selecting a site.
5. Access to available Services:
A site should have adequate roads so that one can get immediate access to
services such as water mains, electricity, cable, internet, sewer treatment
plants etc.
6. History of the land:
The history of the land affects its likelihood of being selected as a building
site. The client will have to be aware of the all previous use of the;
whether it was used as a cemetery, does a spring exists, is it flood prone
etc.
7. Shape: The shape of a site will definitely affect site selection because the
proposed structure should reflect the shape of the lot.

8. Aspect: The aspect of a site is important as it will determine the amount of sun
received on the various elevations of the building.
Clearing of a site: This refers to the demolition of existing buildings, the removal of
boulders and bushes from a site.

Stripping of a site: This refers to the removal of unwanted topsoil from a site, which tends to
make the site unstable for building purposes.

SITE
PREP Reasons for stripping a site:
1. To remove unstable topsoil
2. To provide a level base to lay the foundation.
3. To remove/prevent growth of vegetation, which may affect some building
materials.
4. To get to suitable subsoil

WHAT IS HOARDING?
Hoarding is a temporary perimeter fence erected around a building site.

REASONS FOR HOARDING:

1. Public Protection:

The fence helps to protect passers-by from any dangerous activity that may be carried out on
 the site e.g. Falling debris, welding parks, etc.
2. Material Protection:
Hoarding provides a barrier for reducing the theft of materials from the site, by means of
keeping out idlers and thieves from the site.
3. To Keep out stray animals:
The fence acts as a barrier for keeping out stray animals so that they do not wander unto the
site and cause accidents or fall into excavations.
4. To Reduce Noise & Dust Pollution:
The fence acts as a barrier which helps to REDUCE noise and dust pollution, it cannot
eliminate them it only reduces the amount that escapes the site.
5. To Reduce Interference & Interruption:
Hoarding helps to reduce interference & interruption because unauthorized persons are not
able to gain access unto the site without permission, hence the work will not be hindered or
slowed down.
6. For Protection from Vandalism:
Unauthorized personnel are kept off the site so that the proposed structure will not be
vandalized by these unscrupulous persons.
WHAT ARE THE TEMPORARY SHELTERS FOUND ON A SITE?
1. Site Office
2. Material Storage
3. Change Area
4. Canteen
5. Security Post
6. Latrine

WHAT ARE THE TEMPORARY SERVICES FOUND ON A SITE?

1. Water
2. Electricity
3. Gas
4. Telephone
5. Internet
 PROFILE BOARDS:
Profile boards are used to set out structures/buildings on a site. A profile consists of two vertical
timber posts with a horizontal piece joining them. Profile boards are L-shaped and are at the
corners of buildings. They are placed four feet from the excavation trench for the foundation [so
that they are not disturbed during the excavation/digging processes]. Typically eight profile
boards will be required for a simple rectangular shaped building. Profile boards are sometimes
called batter boards.

Typical profile board

CHECKING THE SQUARENESS OF A BUILDING:

The methods for checking the squareness of a building are:

1. Using Pythagoras' Theorem [3:4:5 method]
2. Using a builder's square
3. Using diagonals [measuring the diagonals, if both are equal then the structure is squared]

Building materials

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATES:
1. Clean
2. Solid
3. Strong
4. Well-graded
5. Sharp/smooth

WHAT IS CONCRETE?
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, gravel and water in specific proportions.
WHAT IS MORTAR?
Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water in specified proportions.

WHAT IS BATCHING?
Batching is the proportioning of the ingredients when mixing concrete or mortar. It can be done by
one of two methods;
1. Batching by Volume
2. Batching by Mass

Batching by Volume:
This method is usually carried out by using an open-bottomed box called a Gauge Box. For a
1:2:4 mix the gauge box is filled once with cement, twice with sand {fine aggregates} and four times
with gravel {coarse aggregates}. The top of the box is struck off level each time.
Batching by Mass:
This method involves the use of a scale which gives the exact mass of materials as they are placed on
the scale. This is a better method since it has a greater accuracy.

In both cases of batching the moisture content of the aggregates can affect the mix and therefore
should be determined for each batch.

PLASTICS AND WATER-PROOFING MATERIALS

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS:
Lightweight, strong, waterproof, flexible, flammable, rustproof, brittle, comes in a variety of
colours, buoyant, can be reshaped, good insulator of electricity, has elasticity.
 
 USES OF PLASTICS:
Conduits
PVC Pipes
Seals
Tiling [spacers]
Skirting
For curing concrete [as tarpaulin]
For damp-proofing [as dpm, dpc]

TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS:

The Cross-section of a tree
 Bark: This is a protective covering to protect the tree from damage and extremes of
temperature.  It is made of the outer layers of bast as they die.
 Bast: This is also referred to as the inner bark, it has thin tube like cells which carries
plant food to all parts of the tree.
 Cambium Layer: This is also referred to as the growth layer because the cells are very
active.  It completely surrounds the sapwood, on the inside the cells form new sapwood
and on the outside the cells form new bast.
 Sapwood: The sapwood lies between the cambium layer and the heartwood. It carries
crude sap to the leaves and is referred to as the living part of the tree.
 Heartwood: This is the commercially most useful part of the tree.  It resists decay and
attack from insects and is more durable than the sapwood.
 Annual Rings: Also referred to as growth rings.  Each year two growth rings appear, one
in the spring [early wood] and one in the summer [late wood], with the latter one [early
wood] being darker in colour. These rings are used to calculate the age of trees when they
are felled.
 Medullary Rays: This consists of rays that extend like spokes of a wheel from the
cambium layer to the pith.  They carry and store plant food.
  Pith: This is the center of the trunk, consisting of the original sapling from which the tree
grows. It is often times soft and sometimes rot and leaves the center hollow.

Cross-section of the tree

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF HARDWOOD vs SOFTWOOD TREES:

HARDWOOD: Mushroom shaped, they shed leaves, they have broad leaves, they bear fruits
and they are found in the tropics.
SOFTWOOD: Slender shaped, they do not shed leaves, they have needle-like leaves, they do
not bear fruits and they are found in the temperate [cold] areas.
 
DEFINITIONS:
Felling: This is the trade term used to describe the cutting of trees for use as lumber and for
making furniture.
Conversion: This is the trade term used to describe the cutting up of logs into marketable
lumber. There are three main methods used; Plain sawn [also called slab sawn or through &
through], Quarter sawn [also called radial sawn] and the Tangential sawn method.

 
Plain sawn (Through and Through) Quarter sawn
 

Seasoning: This is the process by which moisture is being extracted from timber by applying
heat and/or air. It is mainly done by two chief methods; Natural drying [air drying] and Kiln
drying [oven drying].
Air seasoning Boards are stacked in the open air with sticks between them to allow air to
circulate. The stack is raised clear of the ground on piers and has a roof to protect it from the
weather. The ends of the boards are painted or have metal strips nailed across them to prevent
end splitting.
Advantage: It is cheap and requires little skill.
Disadvantage: It takes very long to dry a piece of wood.
It's difficult to control the final moisture content.

Kiln seasoning Boards are stacked on trolleys with sticks between them, and pushed into a kiln.
Steam is injected at low temperature to force moisture out of the wood cells.
Advantage: It takes only a few days or weeks and it kill worms present in the wood.

Disadvantage: Kilns are very expensive to build and operate.

It requires more attention and skill.

Moisture Content

Wet weight – Dry weight x 100 = % Dry weight

MANUFACTURED BOARDS:
These are man-made boards usually made from saw dust and chips of natural wood which is
mixed with glue and heated to a very high temperature. Manufactured boards includes: Plywood,
Chip board, Stout heart plywood.
 PROPERTIES OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS
 They come in larger sizes
 They are of uniform texture
 They have smooth surfaces (finished ply)
 They are of standard sizes
 They are of predictable quality {eg form is used for heavy duty work while finished ply is
used for inside work}
 They warp less

PLYWOOD
This is made from layers or piles of wood glued together so that the grain of each ply is at right
angles to the next. There is always an odd number of piles so that the grain runs the same way on
both outside pieces and hence stresses are balanced.
Plywood can be faced with a veneer of decorative hardwood to improve its appearance, or with
melamine to give a harder wearing surface.
Plywood is graded for interior or exterior use depending on the water resistance of the glue used,
and this is shown by the code letters on each sheet.
WBP Weather and boil proof
BR Boil resistant
MR Moisture resistant
Int. Interior use only
Plywood is also graded by the smoothness of the surface andf number of defects in it. Plywood
can be nailed near the edge without splitting. Thin plywood is flexible and can be formed into
curved shapes.
Usual sheet sizes are 2440 x 1220mm and 1525 x 1525mm. common thickness are 4, 6, 9, and
12mm.
BLOCKBOARD AND LAMINBOARD
These are made by sandwiching strips of softwood between two plies. The strips are narrower in
laminboard than in blockboard. They are usually made in interior grade only. The grain of the face
plies runs at right angles to the core strips. The core strips are arranged with the heartside alternately
on top and underneath (as when edge jointing boards) to avoid warping. Both block and laminboard
can be faced with veneers of decorative hardwood.It is usually cheaper to make blockboard than to
make multiply over 12 mm thick. Usual sheet size is 2440 x 1220mm. Common thickness is 18mm.

CHIPBOARD

Chipboard is made by gluing wooden chips together under heat and pressure. Most chipboard is of
graded density, having smaller chips packed tightly together on the outside to give a smoother and
stronger face. It is suitable only for interior use. Veneered and melamine-faced chipboard is widely
used for worktops, shelves and furniture making. Usual sheet size is 2240 x 1220mm. Common
thicknesses are 12mm and
18mm.

HARDBOARD
Hardboard is made by mixing wood fibres with water and synthetic resin glue, hot-pressing it into
sheets and leaving it to dry. It is not very strong and is usually fixed onto a wooden frame.
Standard grade is for interior use.
Tempered grade is impregnated with oil for exterior use and for bending to make curved shapes.
Can be melamine-faced or ready painted.

CALCULATION OF BOARD MEASURE

Board size = L x W x T = m3
Example: Length = 13' Width - 10" Thickness = 3" LxWxT
156 x 10x3 = 4680x25 = 117000mm 3
= 117m3

How to calculate board foot (BF)

L x W x T = BF
12

Example: Length = 6′, 2″ Width = 8″ Thickness = 5″

74 x 8 x 5 = 2960 = 246.67BF
12 12

Activity

Calculate the following board foot.

L W T
27′,9″ 11″ 10′
67″ 13″ 6′
9′,5″ 7″ 4″
14′ 8″ 3″

FOUNDATIONS:
DEFINITION:
The foundation is the part of the building where the base meets the ground.
 
FUNCTIONS:
 They provide a base for the building
 They distribute the building loads over a wider surface area
 They provide anchorage and stability for the building
 
TYPES:
 Strip [wide, deep, narrow, ordinary, simple THESE ARE ALL STRIP
FOUNDATIONS!]
 Raft
 Pad
 Stepped
 Pile [replacement, displacement]
 Steel grillage
 Pier

Let them note that two methods of excavation are Manual and Mechanical and tools used for
each are pick axe and shovel and backhoe.
TIMBERING: This is the temporary supports placed at the sides of foundation trenches and
excavations to prevent the soil from falling back into the opening. Timbering is done to;
 Protect the workers while they work in the excavation
 Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench.
DIAGRAMS ARE IN THE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY BOOK 3RD ED BY
CHUDLEY ON PAGE 32 & 33.

Walls
 Functions of walls
1. They offer protection from the elements
2. They provide privacy
3. They separate spaces inside a building
4. They support the roof
5. They act as a barrier by separating boundaries
6. They act as a shore by retaining soil thus preventing landslides

Categories of walls
1. External load-bearing walls: These walls are used for buildings that are one or more
storeys high. They support the weight of the roof and any other upper floors
2. External non load-bearing walls:These walls are usually built from corrugated or
galvanized sheets attached to a framework of timber or steel rails and columns.
Support is provided by the framework, not the sheets/zinc.
3. Internal load-bearing walls: These walls give additional support to roof and upper
floors where needed. They must stand on a concrete foundation.
4. Internal non load-bearing walls: These walls divide the internal space in a building.
They stand independently of the main structure.

Types of walls
1. Perimeter walls: This type of wall usually encloses a property. It spans the length
and width of the property. This wall establishes boundaries for properties.
2. Cavity walls: This wall consists of two leaves separated by a 50-75mm cavity. The
cavity is designed to prevent the transfer of moisture from the outside to inside leaf.
It also insulates heat and cold form outside to inside. These walls are used in
countries that experience extreme weather conditions especially Britain where the
weather can be extremely cold.
3. Party walls: This wall is a shared wall used to separate two dwellings, such as
attached dwellings. Examples of these walls are used on the attached houses in
Portmore, where five dwellings are attached.
4. Parapet walls: This wall projects above roof level. They are used as a method of
finishing concrete roofs, and they are also used to channel water run-off from the
roofs to rainwater gutters. A parapet wall can be seen on top of the rural staff room
building.
5. Retaining walls: This wall has a higher level of earth on one side than the other. It is
designed to withstand overturning due to the pressure exerted by the soil of the higher
ground. These walls can be seen on the hillsides to help prevent landslides.
6. Curb walls: These walls are used on road ways. They are built along the length of
the roads on both sides to indicate the width of the road. They also indicate a raise
above the road level to accommodate sidewalks for pedestrians to walk.
7. Partition walls: This is an internal wall used to divide spaces. They are usually
made from timber. An example of this wall is in the lab, it was recently put up by
you and Mr. Heaven.
8. Internal walls: These walls usually separates spaces in a building and can be either
load-bearing or non load-bearing.
9. External walls: These walls encloses a structure and can either be load-bearing or
non load-bearing.

Materials used to make walls

1. Blocks
2. Timber
3. Zinc
4. Stone
5. Bricks
6. Decorative blocks
7. Concrete

Parts of a framed wall section

 Bonding
Bonding is term used to describe the arrangement of blocks bricks in a wall. It is the overlapping
of blocks/bricks to avoid continuous vertical joints. Bonding increases the strength of the wall
by distributing the load throughout the wall.

Types of wall bonds

1. Stretcher bond: In this method, one brick course overlaps another by half its length
to make a regular simple pattern. This is the most commonly used bond in the
Caribbean, and it is the only bond that block work is used in.
2. Header bond: This bond is built by laying the bricks lengthwise across the wall,
meaning the length of the bricks become the thickness of the wall, resulting in a
simple pattern which looks similar to the stretcher bond pattern.
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond

Lintels
A lintel is a beam that spans across a horizontal opening and supports the load just above the
opening. Lintels can be timber or concrete. Timber is fine for short spans, but is not durable.
For this reason, most lintels are built from reinforced concrete.
The lintel can be covered with a skin of decorative brickwork, which needs support. This is
done by:
1. bolting a galvanised steel angle to the concrete lintel;
2. building the decorative brickwork on the edge of the angle;
3. tying the brick joints to the lintel with metal ties.

Constructing concrete lintel

Structural engineers design lintels for larger buildings, but you can follow these basic guidelines
to construct a lintel for domestic-scale construction.
The design of the lintel should use these additional measurements:
1. one reinforcement bar for each 112 mm width of lintel;
2. the width must be at least l/20th of the span;
3. the bearing of the lintel must be more than 150 mm;
4. at least 25 mm of concrete must cover the bottom of the reinforcement bar;
5. at least 50 mm of concrete must cover the ends of the bar.

After designing the lintel, it should be cast (or made). Lintels can be cast in situ or
precast.
The span will determine the height of the lintel, which should correspond to the height of
full brick courses.

Example
2 bricks + 1 joint = 140 mm lintel
3 bricks + 2 joints = 215 mm lintel
4 bricks + 3 joints = 290 mm lintel

Span Depth Reinforcement bar diameter

900 mm 150 mm 10 mm
1200 mm 150 mm 12 mm
1500 mm 215 mm 12 mm
1800 mm 215 mm 16 mm
A lintel spanning an opening Steel reinforcement for the lintel

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary structure made from poles of wood or metal that lets you work on
parts of buildings that you cannot reach from the ground.
Technical words for parts of a scaffold

Scaffolding uses many technical words such as those in this list to describe its parts.
Base boards timber boards that support the base plate on soft or uneven ground.
Base plates square metal plates that fit into the bottom of scaffold tubes to spread the load.
Braces poles fixed diagonally to stiffen the scaffold by forming a triangle.
Bridles short lengths of tubing that are fitted to each side of a window opening and
clamped to the transom. They fix the putlog scaffold to the surface of the building.
Guard rails horizontal poles that are fixed above the working platform to stop workers falling
off.
Ledgers the horizontal poles that connect the standards. They are parallel to the building.
Putlogs cross pieces that have one end built into the wall of the building.

Reveal pins metal pins which tighten struts wedged vertically in window openings.

Types of scaffolding

There are two types of safe scaffolding:

1. the putlog scaffold, which is supported at one end by the building under
construction. One end of the
working platform rests on the external
wall and the other end is supported by
vertical poles
2. the independent scaffold, which has a horizontal working platform that rests on
vertical poles at both ends. See Figures 13.2 and 13.3 for examples of standard
methods of construction for independent metal scaffolds.

Scaffold poles are timber or tubular metal. The platforms are always made of timber
boards which measure 225 x 2000 mm.
 shoring

All forms of shoring are temporary supports applied to a building or structure. These relate to
work on structures where there is a perceived risk of accidental collapse and danger to any
person on or adjacent to the site. Although shoring is an interim measure while a permanent
support structure is built, it can remain in place for a considerable time. Therefore it is no less
important than other aspects of construction. Regardless of the time it is to remain in place, it
must be subject to planned safety procedures and competent supervision during assembly,
dismantling and any associated demolition.

The following situations may justify application of shoring:

1. To give support to walls which are dangerous or are likely to become unstable due to subsidence,
bulging or leaning.
2. To avoid failure of sound walls caused by the removal of a subjacent support such as where a
basement is being constructed near to a sound wall.
3. During demolition works to give support to an adjacent building or structure.
4. To support the upper part of a wall during formation of a large opening in the lower section of the
wall.
5. To give support to a floor or roof to enable a support wall to be removed and replaced by a beam.
Structural softwood is the usual material used for shoring members; its strength to weight ratio
compares favorably with that of structural steel and its adaptability is superior to steel. Shoring
arrangements can also be formed by coupling together groups of scaffold tubulars.
 SHORING SYSTEMS

There are three basic shoring systems, namely:

1. Dead shoring.
2. Raking shoring.
3. Flying shoring.

DEAD SHORING

This type of shoring is used to support dead loads which act vertically downward. In its simplest
form it consists of a vertical prop or shore leg with a head plate, sole plate and some means of
adjustment for tightening and easing the shore. The usual arrangement is to use two shore legs
connected over their heads by a horizontal beam or needle. The loads are transferred by the
needle to the shore legs and hence down to a solid bearing surface. It may be necessary to remove
pavings and cut holes in suspended timber floors to reach a suitable bearing surface; if a basement
is encountered, a third horizontal member called a transom will be necessary since it is
impracticable to manipulate a shore leg through two storeys.

The sequence of operations necessary for a successful dead shoring arrangement can be
enumerated thus:

1. Carry out a thorough site investigation to determine:

• Number of shores required by ascertaining possible loadings and window

positions.
• Bearing capacity of soil and floors.
• Location of underground services which may have to be avoided or bridged.

2. Fix ceiling struts between suitable head and sole plates to relieve the wall of floor and roof loads.
The struts should be positioned as close to the wall as practicable.
3. Strut all window openings within the vicinity of the shores to prevent movement or distortion of
the opening. The usual method is to place timber plates against the external reveals and strut
between them; in some cases it may be necessary to remove the window frame to provide
sufficient bearing surface for the plates.
4. Cut holes through the wall slightly larger in size than the needles.
5. Cut holes through ceilings and floors for the shore legs.
6. Position and level sleepers on a firm base, removing pavings if necessary.
7. Erect, wedge and secure shoring arrangements.

Upon completion of the builder's work it is advisable to leave the shoring in position for at least
seven days before easing the supports to ensure the new work has gained sufficient strength to be
self-supporting.

Dead shores

RAKING SHORES

This shoring arrangement

transfers the floor and wall loads to the ground by means of sloping struts or rakers. It is very
 important that the rakers are positioned correctly so that they are capable of receiving maximum
wall and floor loads. The centerline of the raker should intersect with the centrelines of the wall
or floor bearing. One raker for each floor is required and ideally should be at an angle of between
40° and 70° with the horizontal; therefore the number of rakers which can be used is generally
limited to three.

The operational sequence for erecting raking shoring can be enumerated thus:

1. Carry out site investigation as described for dead shoring.

2. Mark out and cut mortices and housings in wall plate.
3. Set out and cut holes for needles in external wall.
4. Excavate to a firm bearing subsoil and lay grillage platform and sole plate.
5. Cut and erect rakers commencing with the bottom shore. A notch is cut in the heel so that a
crowbar can be used to lever the raker down the sole plate and thus tighten the shore. The angle
between sole plate and shores should be at its maximum about 89° to ensure that the tangent
point is never reached and not so acute that levering is impracticable.
6. Fix cleats, distance blocks, binding and if necessary cross bracing over the backs of the shores.

Raking shores

FLYING
SHORES
These shores fulfill the same functions as a raking shore but have the advantage of providing a
clear working space under the shoring. They can be used between any parallel wall surfaces
providing the span is not in excess of 12.000 m when the arrangement would become
uneconomic. Short spans up to 9.000 m usually have a single horizontal member whereas the
larger spans require two horizontal shores to keep the section sizes within the timber range
commercially available.
It is possible with all forms of shoring to build up the principal members from smaller sections
by using bolts and timber connectors, ensuring all butt joints are well staggered to give adequate
rigidity. This in effect is a crude form of laminated timber construction.
The site operations for the setting out and erection of a flying shoring system are similar to those
enumerated for raking shoring.
 Floors
The main functions of floors are:
1. To support the loads from the finishes, people, machines, furniture and fixtures.
2. To provide a level surface for normal uses in a building.
3. To provide a level surface for any floor finishes that is applied.
4. Should be constructed with a gentle slope to allow water to run off.
5. Should be elevated from ground level to prevent/ reduce flooding
6. Provides stability for the structure
7. Prevent/reduce moisture from entering the building

Categories of Floors
 Ground Floor (concrete/timber)
 Upper Floors (concrete/timber)

Ground floors are either concrete slabs land directly on the ground on hardcore beds or
suspended timber structures supported on honeycomb sleeper walls that stand on concrete slabs.
Upper floors are either reinforced concrete slabs or suspended timber structures that are
supported on load-bearing walls.
(insert diagram here)

Concrete Floors

Parts of a timber Floor

Common Joist: this is a joist spanning from support to support. (supports can be load-bearing
walls). Joists are usually spaced at 357-450mm centre to centre. The maximum economic span
for joist is between 3500-4500mm.

Support: the end of the joists must be supported by load-bearing walls. The common method are
to build in the end or to use special metal fixings called “Joist Hangers”, other methods are
possible but seldomly used.
Trimming Joist: span as for common joist but it is usually 25mm thicker and supports a timmer
joist.

Timer Joist: this is a joist at right angles to the main span supporting the trimmed joists and is
usually 25mm thicker that a common joist.

Trimmed Joist: a joist can short to form an opening and is supported by a trimmer joist, it spans
in same direction as common joists and is of the same section size.

Steel Columns
 ROOFS

Functions of Roofs:
1. Provides protection from sun and other natural elements (whether)
2. To keep the interior of the building cool during summer and warm during winter
3. Should be designed to accommodate all stresses encountered
4. To provide lateral restraint and stability to adjacent walls
5. To resist penetration of fires and spread f flame from external sources
6. Provides shelter/occupants
7. Security
8. Encloses the structure
9. Ensure that the structure is weighted down
10. Provides light/ventilation
11. Should be designed to accept movement due to changes in temperature and moisture
content

Types of roofs
1. Hip
2. Flat (Concrete)
3. Gable
4. Monopitch
5. Lean-to
6. Gambrel
7. Mansard
8. Saw-tooth
9. Butterfly
10. Dutch

Categories of Roof
  Flat
 Pitched

(insert diagram)
Flat Roofs
Flat roofs can be made of timber or reinforced concrete, and are popular forms of roofing for
houses. The advantages of a flat roof are:
 They are very easy to put up
 They can create extra usable space, if they are accessible
 They are easy to maintain.

The main disadvantages are:

 They lose heat
 They are not as weather-proof as pitched roofs

Principles for building flat roofs

The structure of the flat roof requires:
 A deck or slab
 A method for disposing of rainwater
 A water tight covering
 Some form of insulation

Basic steps in building a reinforced concrete roof

1. Erect the formwork
2. Position the services
3. Fix the reinforcement
4. Pour the concrete
5. Cure the concrete
6. Remove the formwork (mould)

Pitched Roofs
The roof of a house refers to the framework of timber, steel or concrete on which a covering of
thatch, corrugated sheets, asphalts etc. is attached. The common components of a roof are shown
on the diagram below. (insert diagram)

Part of a pitched roof:

1. Common rafters: This is a sloping timber extending from the eaves to the ridge of a
roof.
2. Hip: This is the edge or angle formed when two roof surfaces meet to form an external
angle, which exceeds 180˚.
3. Jack rafter: This is a short rafter between the hip rafter and eaves or between the valley
rafter and ridge.
4. Ridge: this is a timber at the apex of the roof that takes the tops of the rafters.
5. Purlins: These are horizontal timbers in a roof at right angles to rafters and carried on.
6. Wall plate: the timber member fixed to the top of a wall to secure a flat roof joist or
rafter.
7. Eaves: This is the lowest part of a sloping roof, otherwise called the “overhang”.
8. Overhang: This is an extension of the roof covering between the outer face of the wall
and the eaves line or verge.
9. Hip end: This is the sloping triangular end of a hipped roof.
10. Gable end: This is form when the wall is carried up to the under-wise of the roof.
 11. Pitch: this is the ratio of the rise to the span.

There are two types of eaves

 Open
 Closed
Purposes of eaves
 Protection of roof members
 Protection of walls
 Appearance/Aesthetics
 Ventilation

The projection of an eave varies but in most cases, it varies between 300-450 mm.

CEILINGS
Types of Ceiling
1. Suspended (closed)
2. Close boarded (open)

Function of ceilings
1. Tying together opposite side of walls and roofs
2. Supporting upper floors/roof
3. Aesthetics
4. Insulation

Types of Roof covering

1. Asphalt
2. Bituminous felt
3. Thatch
4. Tiles (clay, plain, etc)
5. Galvanized zinc
 6. Shingles
7. Corrugated fibre sheets

How to calculate rafter lengths

 Overhang = rise/run = x/overhang

 Values of x = (rise x overhang)/ Run
 Total rise = Value of x + original rise
 Total run = Run + given overhang

Using Pythagoras Theorem

True length of rafter =  (total rise) 2 + (total run) 2

Example
Rise = 1.6m
Run = 2.4m
Overhang = 300mm (0.3m)

Solution

Overhang = 1.6/2.4 = x/0.3

x = (1.6 x 0.3)/ 2.4
x = 0.2m (200mm)

Total rise = 1.6 + 0.2 = 1.8m

Total run = 2.4 + 0.3 = 2.7m

True length of rafter =  (total rise) 2 + (total run) 2

=  1.82 + 2.72
= 10.53
= 3.245m

Activity
Rise Run Overhang
(m) (m) (mm)

1 2 300
1.8 2.6 450
 2 2.8 450
0.9 1.2 300
1.4 2.2 450
DOORS

A door is a movable barrier that separates internal and external spaces. It is usually attached to a
frame on one side by hinged. Ironmongery is an important part of door furniture.
Functions of a door
A door depending on the type should meet certain standards for
 Weather resistance
 Security
 Fire resistance
 Sound insulation
 Privacy
 Ventilation
 Access/Exit

 Weather resistance
External doors need a minimum gap of 2mm to allow free movement. This gap should
be sealed with suitable draught and water excludes to make the doors weather-resistance.

 Security
The security of a door depends on the materials used, the quality of the frame and the
ironmongery. Internal doors only need to provide minimal security, e.g. a bathroom door
might be fitted with a simple lock.

 Durability
Doors are in constant use. Their construction should be strong enough to withstand
considerable activities. A door should not fall of the edge fixed to a frame under its own
weight.
  Privacy
Solid doors are the most private. If light is needed while retaining privacy, then glass
should be fitted.

 Fire resistance
Internal doors that separate spaces are usually made of materials that prevent rapid spread
of fire.

 Sound insulation
Heavier doors provide better sound insulation.

Parts of a door
1. Cill: This is a horizontal member at the base of an external door that separates the
internal and external structures. It should slope so that rainwater follows outside rather
than inside.
2. Frame: This is a solid timber or metal structure fixed to the wall. It is constructed so that
it forms a seal when the door closes and supports the door’s weight.
3. Head: This is a horizontal piece at the top of the frame.
4. Jamb: The vertical member of the frame that is fixed to the wall.
5. Lining: The timber framework inserted into an opening in an internal wall.
6. Rebate: A recess in the door frame that seals the edges of a door.
7. Stop: A thin piece of timber fixed to head and jambs of the lining to form a rebate.
8. Threshold: The access point in the doorway where you enter or exit. The cill is a part of
the threshold.
9. Weather board: A metal bar fitted into the cill of an external door to prevent water
flowing inside.
10. Stile: The outer vertical piece of the door frame. There are three (3) types of stile:
a) Hanging stile: that the door swings on
b) Close stile: that holds the lock or latch
c) Meeting stile: where a pair of doors meet in the middle.
Types of Doors
1. Panel door (single, double, triple, etc)
2. Flush door
3. Ledge door, braced and battered door
4. Casement door (wood or glass)
5. Bead and butt door
Contemporary door

Panel door: Panel doors are suitable for internal and external uses. They are mainly made from
solid timber frames with solid or glazed panels.
Flush doors: Flush doors have a projection or recess on either surfaces of the door. These doors
are usually made of large sheets of plywood of hardwood. Flush doors may have glazed panel to
allow light to come in.
Parts of a Flush Door
1. The core: This is the inner part of the door. The external sheets are fitted to it.
2. Flush panel: This is a 3mm plywood or hardwood sheet fitted to either side of the core.
3. The lipping: This is a thin wooden strip that projects the edges of a flush door panel.
4. The lock block: This is the piece fitted into the internal framework of the door to make
the recess for the lock.

Ledged, braced and battened door: This is a very simple door that can be used for both
internal and external purposes. It is also cheap to make.
Framed, braced and battered door: This door is stronger than the ledged, braced and battened
door, because the battened are set inside a timber frame.

General steps involved in constructing a door

1. Mark out
2. Cut
3. Sand
4. Gravelling
5. Sand
6. Seal
7. Sand
8. Varnish – spray
 WINDOWS

Windows provide natural light and ventilation to the interior of a building while excluding rain
and insects. The glass in the window must be strong enough to resist wind pressure. This means
that the thickness of the glass increases as the size of the glass plane increases. Windows are
usually made of timber or steel but other materials such as plastic or aluminum are also popular.
Since windows provide a point of entry to the building, they may need locks and burglar bars for
security.
Parts of the window
1. Bottom rails: This is the bottom member of a sash
2. Head: This is the top piece of a window which is fixed to the underside of the masonary
3. Casement: A side, top and bottom hung opening window. Some are stationary.
4. Cill: This is the bottom piece of a window which is fixed to the bottom of the opening.
5. Mullion: This is a fixed vertical piece in the window framework, which separates the
fixed and moving parts.
6. Jamb: This is the vertical side piece fixed to the surface of the window.
7. Opening light: This is another word for sash.
8. Sash: This is the wide moving part of a window including the glass
9. Stile: This is the side member of a sash.
10. Top rail: This is the top member of a sash.
11. Transom: This is the fixed horizontal piece that separates the fixed and moving parts of
the window.
12. Ventilation: This is a small sash which is often top-hung to provide secure ventilation.

Building Regulations for Windows

Windows dimensions are usually related to normal brick/block dimensions. The height should
suit a 75mm brick course. The most practical height ranges from 300mm-1500mm. To make a
taller window you can use an extra horizontal bar to join windows if they are made from steel.
Window heights are usually increased in increments of 300mm.

Factors that influence the height of windows are:

1. The requirement for security; small windows are more secure.
2. Heart again. Heart from surrounding surfaces enters through a window.
3. Glare. The intensity at the light entering from outside may need to be restricted.
4. Handling. The practicalities f lifting end transporting window units may determine the
best size.

Window Types
Windows may be classified in three different ways on a combination of them.
1. Method of opening
a) Casements that are side hung, top hung, bottom hung, fill or turn.
b) Pivot hung either horizontal (reversible), vertical or coupled sash (dial sash).
c) Sliding: either vertical (double high sash) or horizontal.
d) Miscellaneous: roof
2. Size o window
3. The material from which they are made

Types of windows
1. Casement (French, glass)
2. Louvre (glass, timber, metal)
3. Awning
4. Slide
5. Pivot
6. Hopper
7. Sash (slide, top, bottom hung)

1. Casements
a) French casements: when casements extends to the floor s that they can be used as doors, to
give access to balconies, gardens, etc. they are termed as “finish casements”. French
casements may be provided singly or in pairs and frequently open inwards. They may have
side lights added to give additional light to rooms and entrances.
b) Horizontal Sliding Casements: casements can be fitted to slide horizontally in a similar
manner to sliding doors. They can be fitted with rollers to the bottom rails running on a
brass track fixed to the cill and the top rail sliding in a guide channel incorporated in the
frame.

2. Louvre
These consist of a number of horizontal glazed units of their ends so as to move from a
vertical plane when closed to a diagonal or horizontal plane when opened. They can
provide up to 90% of open area with little projection from the vertical plane and are safe for
children. They are also relatively easy to clean from the inside.

3. Sash Windows
a) Side hung: These are windows, which have hinges in one side and the fastening latch and
handle on the other side.
b) Top hung: These are windows, which have hinges at the top and a screwing stay at the
bottom. These windows open out.
c) Bottom hung: These windows have hinges at the bottom and a screwing latch at the top.
These windows open inward.
4. Pivot - hung window
Centre pivot: hung windows are quiet popular for use as small windows for toilets and in
positions high up from the floor and in upper storey of buildings. This type of window has a
solid frame and the casement is pivoted to allow it to open.
 Types of Windows

Combination Window width

Window Combination Width
(mm)
1 One casement 600
2 One casement and one 1200
fixed light
3 One casement and one 1500
900mm fixed light
4 Two casements and one 1800
600mm fixed light
5 Two casements and one 2100
900mm fixed light
6 Two casements and one 2400
 1200mm fixed light

Building Regulations for Windows

Windows are usually put together in combination of opening and fixed lights to comply with the
regulations for health and hygiene in habitable rooms. Habitable rooms must have adequate
fresh air and light in rooms used for living, eating and sleeping. The standard requirements in
most building regulations are usually:
1. The minimum area of a window in a habitable room should be 10% of the floor area.
2. The minimum opening area of the window in habitable rooms should be 5% of the floor
area.

Windows may be custom made or standard. Custom made means that the window is designed
for specific building. Standard means that a manufacturer produces a range of windows to fit a
typical window opening. It is cheaper for a building designer to design openings to fit standard
openings.

Glazing
Glazing is the securing of glass in prepared openings such as doors, windows and partitions.
Methods of Glazing
1. Glazing without beads
This is a suitable method for general domestic window and door panels. The glass is bedded
in a compound, secured with springs, pegs and clips, and fronted with thread surface putty.
Putty is a glazing compound which will require a protective coating of paint as soon as
practicable after glazing. Two kinds of putty in general use are:
a) Linseed oil putty: for use with metal of non-absorbent wood members and is made from
refined vegetable drying oil and finely ground chalk.
b) Metal casement putty: for use with prime wood members and is used from linseed oil and
whiting.
2. Glazing with beads
For domestic work, glazing with beads is generally applied to food class joinery. The beads
should be secured with either panel pins or screws; for hard woods, it is usual to use cups and
screws. The glass is bedded in a compound or a suitable glazing felt mainly to prevent
damage by vibration to the glass. Beads are usually mitred at the corners to give continuity
of any moulding.
Explanation for the term ‘anti-capillary groove’:
Anti-capillary groove refers to the grooves that are strategically placed in concrete or wood which will
extend beyond the exterior part of a building or structure.
Purpose of anti-capillary grooves:

To prevent water or moisture from getting into a building or structure by ensuring there is a break which
would allow water to drip off.
Two places where anti-capillary grooves can be found:
Anti-capillary grooves can be found on the under sides of concrete sills and beams, drips, door and
window frames.

STAIRS

Stairs is a means of providing access from one level to another.

Parts of a stairs
 Riser – encloses the space between two consecutive treads in a flight. It also gives support to the
tread.
 Tread – provides a platform for climbing the stair.
 Headroom – the clear vertical height measured from the ceiling to the nosing of the step which
provides unobstructed access from floor to floor.
 Handrail – provides support to the user when climbing or descending the stair.
 Balustrade – provides protection to the sides of the stair so persons do not fall off at a height.
 Newel post – provides support for the handrail and the staircase.
 STAIRS CALCULATIONS

1. A staircase has a total rise of 2.4M. Each riser is 190mm and the going is 280mm.
calculate:
(a) The total number of risers in the flight
(b) The total number of treads in the flight
(c) The total going of the staircase

SOLUTION: (a) 2400 (total rise) / 190 (height of riser) = 12 risers (# of risers)
(b) 12 (# of risers) – 1 = 11 treads (always one less the # of risers)
(c) 280 (distance of going) X 11 (# of treads) = 3080 mm (total going)

2. The total going in a staircase is 3M. If the stair has 12 treads and a total rise of 2.6M,
calculate:
(a) The dimension of the going
(b) The number of risers in the stair
(c) The dimension of each riser in the stair

SOLUTION: (a) 3000 (total going) / 12 (# of treads) = 250mm (dimension of going)

(b) 12 (# of treads) + 1 = 13 (# of risers)
(c) 2600 (total rise) / 13 (# of risers) = 200mm (dimension of rise
Floor

Important steps in Construction timer floors:

 Layer
 Measure and cut joist
 Fix joist to support
 Install bridging (if necessary)
 Install finish

Columns
What is column?
A column is a vertical member made of timber, concrete or steel which supports wall, floor, roof,
beam, etc.
What is a Beam?
A beam is a horizontal member made of timber, concrete or steel which supports roof, wall, etc.

Doors
Function of door:
 Protection from stray animals/weather element
 Security of valuable items
 Privacy
 Aesthetics/beauty
 Give access from room to room
 Give access to out from inside

Types of Doors
 Suding
 Flush
 Panel
 Ledge, brace and battened
  Framed, battened and brace

What is a door?
A door is a movable barrier that separates internal and external spaces. It is usually attach to a
frame on one (1) side by hinge. A door provides, access, protection, security and privacy.

A door depending on the type should meet the following standards for:
Whether resistance
Security
Fire retardant
Sound insulation
Privacy
Operation
Durability

Parts of a door

The Cill
This is a horizontal member at the base of an external door. It should slope so that rainwater
flows outside rather than inside.

The Frame
This is a solid timber of meter structure fix to a wall. It is constructed so that it forms a seal
when the door closes and supports the door’s weight.

The Head
This is the horizontal piece at the top of the frame.

The Jamb
This is the vertical part of the frame that is fix to the wall.
The Lining
This is the timber framework inserted into an opening in an interior wall.

The stile
This is the outer vertical piece of the door frame.

Rebate
This is a recess in the door frame that seals the edge of a door.

There are three types of Stile:

 Hanging stile that the door hangs on
 Closing stile that holds the lock or latch
 Meeting stile where a pair of door meets in the middle

The Stop
This is a thin piece of timber fixed to the head and jamb of the lining to form a rebate

The Threshold
This is the access point in the doorway where you enter or exit; the cill’s part of the threshold.

The Water bar

This is a metal bar fitted into the cill of an external door to prevent water flowing inside.

The Weatherboard
This is a horizontal piece fixed to the external bottom edge of a door to push water away from
the cill.
 Finishes

TYPES OF PAINTS

Emulsion Paints
Emulsions are a mixture of two substances that do not mix. One of the substances is dispersed in
the other. Emulsions have a clouded look due to the various substance boundaries that scatter
light rays passing through them. Emulsions are not formed naturally and are generally unstable.
The paint pigments are suspended in a solvent that is also used to control the viscosity of the
emulsion paint.

Properties of Emulsion Paints

Emulsion paints have fillers to thicken the film, support the paint structure and increase the
volume of the emulsion paint. Once the paint is applied, the emulsion paint becomes tack free on
solidifying. The hardening of the paint may result because of curing, evaporation or even phase
change, depending on the type of binder.

Emulsion paints are available in matt, egg shell, silk, satin and full gloss ranges.

Enamel paints
Enamel paint usually refers to any hard, glossy, opaque finish. Traditionally, enamel paints were
defined as oil-based enamel, but since water-based paints have become so common, the term is
usually used for any glossy paint used on trim, kitchens, bathrooms or anywhere a durable, shiny
finish is desired

Types

Enamel paints are any that are hard, washable and usually glossy. They can be oil-based or
alkyd-based, which dry slower and harder than water-based enamels. Oil-based paints have a
strong solvent odor, and all cleanup is done with paint thinner or mineral spirits. Water-based
(also called latex or acrylic) paints are easier to use, dry faster and have a fairly low odor.
Enamels may also be urethane or polyurethane, in either water or a solvent base. Enamels
 typically come in several sheens, from eggshell or low-luster to satin, semigloss and high-
gloss. Specialized enamels, often faster-drying, are used for painting appliances and flooring.
Some enamels are heat-resistant. Enamel paints can be applied by brush, roller or spray
equipment, depending on the type of paint and purpose.

Oil paints

Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a
drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a
solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, and varnish may be added to increase the glossiness of
the dried film. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood
in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and bridges.

How to Paint Concrete

Concrete can be dull, grey and boring, but it doesn't need to stay that way. Painting concrete can
spice up concrete walls, flooring, patios and outdoor surfaces with vibrant colors that dazzle the
eye. Although the process for painting concrete is different from the way you paint walls, it's
easy to do and doesn't take long.

 Clean the surface carefully to remove all traces of paint, dirt, moisture or other
substances.
 Repair any cracks or holes in the concrete with hydraulic cement.
 Seal the concrete with a masonry coating and let it dry completely.
 Apply a coat of primer using a roller or sprayer and let it dry completely.
 Apply a coat of paint using a roller or sprayer and let it dry completely.
 Apply additional coats of paint as needed allowing each to dry completely between
applications.
 Apply a coat of sealer and let it dry completely.

Rendering a wall is the act of applying a layer of material such as mud or earthen plaster, lime
plaster, plaster, cement or latex to a brick, straw bale or masonry wall to render it smooth. The
wall may then be painted if desired. Rendering makes the finished product look aesthetically
pleasing. As an option, colors may be added to the rendering materials to blend in with the
home's surroundings.

1. Step 1

Use the wire brush on the wall to be rendered, brushing away loose chips of old masonry,
paint, dirt, oil or grease and lichen buildup. This step must be done to ensure the render
adheres to the wall.

2. Step 2

Spray the surface of the wall to be rendered with a light spray of water to ensure the render
adheres properly.

3. Step 3

Mix the rendering material in a wheelbarrow with a shovel, adding enough water to make a
paste-like consistency that will stick adequately to the wall.

4. Step 4

Use the trowel to apply and float (make smooth) the rendering material, giving the illusion of
one smooth coat with no apparent joins or seams. Use a straightedge as a guide to make
sharp, clean corners.

5. Step 5

Spray the rendered wall down with a light spray of water to keep the rendering material from
drying out too fast and cracking. Allow the rendered wall to dry thoroughly before painting.
 RELATED services
Drainage
The design of a building needs to have accommodation for drainage. In domestic buildings
facilities are required for;
Washing
Disposal of human waste products
Preparing food and washing kitchen utensils
All these activities use water, which must be supplied to the building. After its use, the waste
water must be disposed of so it does not pollute the environment or cause health risk to the
occupants.
Water that contains human and domestic waste is called EFFLUENT or SEWAGE. It should be
collected from the building and drained into a system of pipes and sewers that ends at a sewage
treatment plant.
If there is no system of public sewers, then you need to supply an independent system for
collecting and treating sewage. These include; septic tanks, absorption pits, cesspool soakaways
etc.
Explanation of drainage terms:
 Cesspool – an underground chamber constructed for the reception and storage of foul
water from the building until it is emptied.

 Surface water drain – drain designed to carry only surface water, rather than soil or
waste.

 Sewer – pipe or closed channel that carries sewage.

 Sewage – domestic waste matter that is carried away by water in a system of sewer
drains.

 Drain pipe – pipe designed to carry waste water or sewage from the building.

 The Gully – this is the fitting on the drain that takes waste pipes from baths and basins
but not Wcs.

 Manhole – this is the access point to the drainage system for inspection and cleaning.

 Trap – this is a fitting that retains water in the drainage system. This prevents sewer gases
entering a building or escaping at ground level.

 Soil vent pipe – this is installed at the end of a drainage system for a building to expel
gases from the sewage system.
 Types of drainage systems
Combine sewer system

A combined sewer system is a sewer that accepts storm water, sanitary water/sewage, and
most likely industrial waste water which ideally is treated by a sewage/publicly owned
treatment works.

Advantages and disadvantages of a combined system of drainage and a separate drainage

system
Advantages of a combined system of drainage: -
 Very easy to maintain
 All drains are flushed when it rains
 It is impossible to connect to the wrong sewer

Disadvantages of a combined system of drainage –

 All discharge must pass through the sewage treatment installation
 When it rains heavily there is the possibility of overflow of the septic tank
 Separate drainage system
Separate sewer systems are designed to convey wastewater and stormwater in separate
pipes.

Advantages of a separate drainage system:

 One sewer receives the surface water discharge and conveys this directly to suitable out
fall without treatment
 There is no chance of over flow during heavy rains

Disadvantages of a separate drainage system:

 There is the risk of connecting to the wrong sewer line
 Soil drains are not flushed during heavy rains

Partially Separate System:

In this system, arrangement is made to permit early washings by rain into the sewers carrying
sewage. But when the quantity of storm water exceeds a particular limit, it is collected and
conveyed in open drains to the natural river of stream

Advantages of partially Separate System:

 It combines the advantages of both the above systems.
 The entry of storm water avoids silting in sewers.
 The problem of disposing storm water from houses is simplified.
  The sewers are of reasonable size.

Disadvantages of Partially Separate System:

 The quantity of storm water admitted in sewer may increase the load on pumping &
treatment unit.
 The velocity of flow is low in dry weather.

Septic tanks

A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system

common in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or
private corporations. Other components, typically mandated and/or restricted by local
governments

How a septic tank system works

When wastewater passes through the septic tanks, heavier solids sink to the bottom and undergo
bacterial digestion. This reduces the quantity of solids and also changes its composition to
sludge, which builds up in the bottom of the tank. Materials such as grease and oil float to the
surface in the tanks to forma crust over the liquid. The remaining liquid, called effluent, flows
from the tanks into the drainage receptacles to soak into the surrounding soil where it may
undergo further natural treatment processes.
Soakaway

This is a pit dug in permeable ground which receives the water discharge from the roof and
paved areas of building and allows the water to percolate into the surrounding subsoil
Soakaway pit should be sufficiently large to avoid flooding and overflow. The minimum
capacity of the pit should accommodate all the wastewater produced during one washing or in
one day, whichever figure is the greater.

Cesspools
Cesspools (or leaching pools) are pits into which concrete, brick or cement block walls have
been placed. Wastewater flows into the cesspool and drains or “percolates” into the soil through
perforated walls.

Tile Field - a series of perforated pipes which distribute the liquid from the septic tank to the
surrounding below ground soil.

GUTTERS

A rain gutter also known as a "rain catcher", is a narrow channel, or trough, forming the
component of a roof system which collects and diverts rainwater away from the roof edge.The
main purpose of a rain gutter is to protect a building's foundation by channeling water away from
its base. The gutter also helps to reduce erosion, prevents leaks in basements and crawlspaces,
protects painted or stained surfaces by reducing exposure to water, and provides a means to
collect rainwater for later use.
Traps

A trap is a device which is used to prevent sewer gases from entering the buildings. The traps are
located below or within a plumbing fixture and retains small amount of water. The retaining
water creates a water seal which stops foul gases going back to the building from drain pipes.
Therefore all plumbing fixtures such as sinks, washbasins, bathtubs and toilets etc. are equipped
with traps.
 History of building

Factors influencing the design of a building:

 History – history of the site, is it prone to flooding or land slide? Is it built-up? What was
its previous use?

 Material – choice and availability of materials

 Culture – influences the shape and style of the structure. Family custom.

 Climate – wet, hot, cold, windy, would determine where windows or balconies are placed
in a building

 Cost – determines affordability

Brickwork – is still in use in the Caribbean, so is the wooden casement window. The steep roofs
have been adopted since we build roofs which are covered with shingles. Arches are common
throughout the Caribbean so are staircases with balusters, all of which are from British and
French cultures.

European architectural features influencing building design in the Caribbean

Brickwork — walls made from bricks that are arranged in various patterns

Wooden casement — windows that have their sashes hanged to swing like doors

Steep roofs — these are pitched at 45º or more

Arches — curved member spanning openings to create a decorative feature

Staircases — built with decorative features such as balustrades to improve the interior of a building