AR 1102: Building Materials & Constructions I

Ashima A,
Assistant Professor, TKMSA
Module-I

Introduction to construction as a subject and its relevance to architectural design.

Construction and the logic of stability as its basis, construction principles with respect to structural
stability. Support and supported elements, concept of span and span - loading co-relation.
Building elements, types and subtypes, basic understanding of elements from foundation to roof
vis-à-vis its purpose, function, utility and necessity.

Module-III
Basic structural systems, load-bearing, frame structure and composite
structure, load transmission, suitability, merits, demerits etc.
Introduction and understanding of various subsystem such as horizontal, vertical and foundation,
sub systems with respect to stability, utility and its application in building design and construction.
CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Architecture is the result or the product of several sequences and efforts, the
combination of many talents and skills, the real manifestation of a real concept.

The process of delivering the finished project is simply called ‘construction’.

STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

1 – PRE-DESIGN

The first objective is to discuss with the client and

determines overall project vision and goals.

Irrespective of the industry being residential,

healthcare, industrial, hospitality etc., there are
some key areas to discuss the project – scope,
features, purpose, and functionality.
STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

2 – SCHEMATIC DESIGN

In this phase, series of rough sketches/drawings

that illustrate the basic concepts of the design are
made.
Also, initial research of local compliance and
regulations are completed at this time.
STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

3 – DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

Design development collects the results from

the schematic design phase and takes them
one step further.

This phase involves finalizing the design and

specifying items such as materials, window
and door locations and general structural
details.
STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

4 – CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

Preparation of construction drawings/blueprints,

notes, and technical specifications necessary for
bidding, construction, and permit application

Construction contractors will use these detailed

drawings and specifications to prepare for the
construction.
STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

5 – CONSTRUCTION

During this phase, build as per the design intent.

It ensure that alterations are compatible with
owner’s vision for the project.

This is the last phase and at the end of this phase, a

project is ready for the use/occupancy.
CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

• The architects needs to know about the process of construction since it

inevitably starts with architecture at first.

• For an architect, it is necessary to know about building materials, structural

designs, site and project and time management.
CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

• One does not master all of them, but need to have a background enough to
anticipate how it is going to be easy or challenging, economically feasible or
pushing the budget hard, and so on.

• Particularly, an architect needs to understand when and why he/she must

compromise his/her design due to the engineering systems (e.g. modeling
calculations, material and component production and transportation, and etc.)
Building Systems: Definitions

1. Foundation/Subgrade (SITE)
2. Superstructure (STRUCTURE)
3. Exterior Envelope (SKIN)
4. Interior Partitions (SPACE PLAN)
5. Mechanical Systems (SERVICES)
6. Furnishings (STUFF)
Elements of building
A building can be divided into substructure (foundation) and superstructure, the plinth level being the
dividing line between them.

• Foundation
• Plinth
• Plinth Beam
• Floor
• Walls
• Damp proof course (DPC)
• Stairs
• Columns
• Beams
• Lintels
• Parapet
• Roof
Elements of building
substructure (foundation) and superstructure, the plinth level
A building can be divided into
being the dividing line between them.

The substructure is part of the

building that is underneath the ground,
while the superstructure is everything
that is above ground.
Elements of building

Substructure. The purpose of the

substructure of a building is to transfer
loads of the superstructure to the soil
that is underneath.

https://civiconcepts.com/blog/components-of-building
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
1. Foundation/ Subgrade structure
i. Dead and live load transfer

2. Superstructure
i . Dead and Live load transfer
ii. Lateral force resistance and stability Six General Performance Mandates

3. Exterior Wall 1. Spatial Performance

i. Maintenance of interior environment 2. Thermal Performance
3. Air Quality
4. Interior Partitions 4. Acoustical Performance
i. Programmatic spatial definition 5. Visual Performance
ii. Acoustic separation 6. Building Integrity

5. Mechanical Devices
i. Maintenance of interior environment
Elements of building Superstructure.
• Plinth.
• Damp Proof Course.
• Plinth Beam.
• Floor.
• Brick Wall.
• Sill Level.
• Window.
• Lintels and Chajjas.
• Column.
• RCC Slab.
• Parapet Wall.
• Coping.
• Weathering Course.
• Stairs

Substructure.
• Bedding for Footing.
• Footing.
Elements of building

Foundation
A Foundation is the lowest part of the building
structure resting on soil below ground level.
All loads of building are transferred to the
foundation through beam and column
arrangement.

Its main function is to distribute the load

evenly and safely to the ground.
Elements of building
Foundation
In framed structures, Footings are generally used as
foundations to support the structural load of the
building.

Standard Dimensions
Foundation size and depth totally depend on the
structural and site ground condition. So, there are
no standard dimension recommendations for it.

But, For small structures like row houses depth of

the foundation should be at least 1.5 m from
ground level.
Elements of building
Foundation
In framed structures, Footings are generally used as
foundations to support the structural load of the
building.

The following are various types of foundations and

footings used in construction:
Shallow foundation
• Individual footing or isolated footing
• Combined footing
• Strip foundation
• Raft or mat foundation

Deep Foundation
• Pile foundation
• Drilled Shafts or caissons
Elements of building
Substructure
Elements of building

Plinth Level
The Plinth level or Plinth is the offset created between
ground level and the superstructure of the building. It is
made by constructing a wall from ground level to the ring
level of the building.

Its main function is to prevent the entry of moisture

from the ground surface to the building superstructure.

Standard Dimensions
The plinth height of any building must be at least 45 cm
or 3 feet from the ground level.
Elements of building

Earth Filling
An Earth Filling or Soil Filling is done between
the plinth wall. It is essential to fill the open
space left between the ground level to the
plinth level.

Earth filling must be very well compacted so

that the flooring gets a sufficiently hard
surface base.

Standard Dimensions:
Earth must be filled to the top of the plinth
level. Different materials can utilize as earth
fills like soil, coarse aggregate, waste
materials, Brick Bat, etc.
Elements of building
DPC (Damp Proof Course)

DPC is a layer of waterproofing material such as asphalt

or waterproof cement at the plinth level.

The superstructure walls are constructed above the DPC

layer so that no dampness rises from the ground surface
into the walls.

Standard Dimensions
Generally, DPC is laid on brick masonry construction up
to the plinth level. So the width of DPC is the same as
the width of the Brick wall and thickness may vary from
2.5cm to 5cm.
Elements of building
DPC (Damp Proof Course)
In short, DPC prevents the rise of water to
superstructures.

If dampness rises in the wall of the superstore it reduces

the strength of the walls and creates unhealthy living
conditions.

Also, it created many defects in paint and plaster and

ultimately increases maintenance costs.

In the case of Plinth, beams are provided above ground

level DPC is not required. Because the plinth Beam itself
performs as a DPC layer to restrict the entry of
dampness.
Elements of building
Flooring
Flooring is an important component
of the home. It is one that provided
an attractive and pleasant look to the
house. Flooring is made by laying tile
on it.

There are different types of flooring

designs and materials available,

• Timber Flooring
• Laminate Flooring
• Vinyl Flooring Standard Dimensions
• Porcelain or Ceramic Tile Flooring Flooring is provided above the earth filled with a base made
• Natural Stone Flooring – Marble, of cement concrete (1:2:4). The flooring material should
Granite, etc. have sufficient thickness and strength.
Elements of building
RCC Column
Columns are vertical members constructed
to support any structural frame.
Load Coming from the Slab, Beam
transferred to column and column transfer
load to the footing safely.

Building structures may have two types of

columns.
structural columns and non structural
columns.
non structural columns primly used to
increase the aesthetic appearance of a Standard Dimensions
building while a structural column takes the Columns may have various sizes as per the structural load
load coming from the slab above and requirements. But, for minimum dimension for any structural
transfers it safely to the foundation. column is restricted to 9” x 9” or 225mmx 225mm.
Elements of building

Sill Level
It is the base point of any window in the house or it is
a level where windows are placed.
The Sill level is very important to ensure evenness in
all window levels.
A sill is a height which is ensuring that the proper
amount of light enters the house.
It also provides easy habitat to look outside through
the window without any discomfort.
It provides a solid base for window installment.

Standard Dimensions:
The sill level of any house should be around 600-900
mm
Elements of building

Lintel
Lintels are constructed from reinforced
cement concrete. It is provided above
the wall openings like doors, windows,
etc.
The Lintel actually takes the load
coming on window and door openings. Lintel

In Sort, the lintel safeguards the door

and window from excess load coming
from above.
In residential buildings, lintel can be
constructed from concrete or brick
masonry.
Elements of building

Standard Dimension

Generally, the lintel width is as same as the width of the

wall, and the thickness is between 10-12cm
Elements of building

Ceiling
The ceiling is not a separate part but is the bottom face of
any slab.
The ceiling is the most important part of any room
because it can be decorated to increase the aesthetic
appearance.
POP (Plaster of Paris) is a material used for making false
ceilings.
It is a location where we can hang decorative items, fans,
etc. to increase the architectural view of the room.

Standard Dimension
The ceiling height is kept from 3-3.5m (it can be more or
less as per requirement)
Elements of building

RCC Beam
It is an important component in any frame
structure. The beam is a horizontal member
which connects columns on both sides.

Its main function is to take the load from the

upper structure and transfer it to the column.

Standard Dimension
Beam minimum dimension is 30x 30cm (Thumb
Rule)
Elements of building

RCC Beam
Generally, the column-to-beam
connection is called direct support
while the beam-to-beam connection is
called indirect support.

In most cases, the beam is supported

by two columns, and the most rarely
used is the cantilever beam.
Elements of building

Roof or RCC Slab

The roof is an essential structural component of
building any structure, which provides protection
against environmental factors like sun, wind, and rain.

Generally, All roof rests on sidewalls and required

anchoring so that wind and another mechanical impact
cannot destroy them.

Roofs may have different shapes, but flat and sloped Standard Dimension
roofs are more popular. Generally, RCC Slab Thickness can have a
Typically most roofs are constructed from RCC, stone minimum dimension of 10 to 15cm as per
slabs, tiles, etc. requirement.
Elements of building
Doors
Doors are the main entry and exit points of any
house. Provides security in the house.
They are the ones that separate one room from
the others.

Doors have a lock-key facility.

They are made of strong materials like steel,
wood, and iron.

Standard Dimension
The main door of the drawing room, bedroom, the
kitchen may have a width up to 0.9 m to 1m, and
in other rooms like the bath, W/C is 0.75 to
0.85cm. The height of the Doors is almost 2.1m
every time or up to the lintel level.
Elements of building
Doors
There are different types of doors used in the
house,

• Hinged Doors • Sliding Doors

• Dutch Doors • Pivot Doors
• Roller Doors • French Doors
• Bifold Doors • Panel Doors
• Flush Doors • PVC Doors
Elements of building
Windows
Windows are one of the essential components of
any house or building. It is one that allows fresh
air and light to enter the house.

Windows are provided at sill level and their

height is extended up to lintel level.
There are various types of windows used in
houses like

• Single Hung Windows • Garden Windows

• Arched Windows • Glass Block Windows
• Awning Windows • Round Circle Windows Standard Dimension
• Bay Windows • Skylight Windows Window opening width may change depending on
• Bow Windows • Sliding Windows requirement but its height is generally kept at 1.4m
• Casement Windows • Transom Windows from sill level or up to the bottom of the lintel. Varies
according to the sill level
Elements of building
Parapet Wall
It is a low-height wall built along the edge of the roof, terrace,
walkway, balcony, etc.

Parapet walls can be constructed using different materials like

reinforced cement concrete, steel, aluminum, glass, etc.
It is generally constructed with a single brick wall.

Standard Dimensions:
The parapet wall height is 3 ft or 0.90 m.
Elements of building

Waterproofing on the Terrace

The damp proof course is the protective layer to restrict
the movement of moisture, and water through the roof
slab.

For DPC on the roof flexible materials are used which

provide a lesser number of joints like mastic, asphalt,
bitumen felts, plastic sheets, etc.
Elements of building

Copping
Coping is a structure that is constructed on top of
Boundary walls & parapet walls etc. to protect from
rainwater directly store on brick masonry walls.

The main function of coping is to drain off rainwater

during the rainy season & improve the aesthetics of the
structure/wall.
Elements of building
 Structure
• Architectural structure is to say that it is the part of a building which resists
the loads that are imposed on it.
• The surfaces which form the built envelope, that is the walls, the floors and
the roof of the building, are subjected to various types of loading:
• External surfaces are exposed to the climatic loads of snow, wind and rain;
• Floors are subjected to the gravitational loads of the occupants and their
effects; and most of the surfaces also have to carry their own weight.

• Loads tend to distort the building envelope and to cause it to collapse; it is

to prevent this from happening that a structure is provided.

• The function of a structure - supply the strength and rigidity which are
required to prevent a building from collapsing.
Structure

Basic forms
• Solid or Load bearing
walls
• Framed structure
Structure LOAD BEARING WALLS
Almost all walls are load bearing
Wall should be provided with foundation
Basic forms
Load bearing wall are taken deep into
subsoil foundation
• Solid or Load bearing
Any load bearing wall should have min
walls
thickness of 20cm
• Framed structure
• Composite structures Walls with bricks or stone
For multistorey building every wall on the
floor above there must be a corresponding
wall in continuation in floor below
For multistorey building the wall thickness
increase as we descend from a floor above
to one below it
FRAMED STRUCTURES
Walls are not load bearing. Wall serves as
partition or screen.
Walls have no foundation, Walls do not go
deep below plinth beam
Only columns is taken deep into subsoil
and provided with footing.
Exterior walls subjected to weathering
elements- 20cm, other walls can be thinner
Columns and beams -RCC
No such necessity. Can have independent
walls.
As they do not take loads need not be
thicker
Structure
LOAD BEARING WALLS
Basic forms All load bearing wall once constructed
shall remain in position and should never
be dismantled in full or part
• Solid or Load bearing Does not favor many openings as the
walls strength of load bearing walls will be
reduced
• Framed structure
May not withstand seismic forces and
other vibration force because it is
composed of different blocks as bricks
and stones are bonded together
FRAMED STRUCTURES
Can be displaced at will as they are
lighter and non load bearing
Space between columns can remain open
as the case with multistoried buildings GF
is left with no walls for easy parking of
vehicles
More rigid and can withstand seismic
forces because the entire frame(column,
beam, slab) act a one unit.
Structure

Basic forms
• Panel or box
• Folded plate
Structure

Basic forms
• Shell structure
(Domes)
Structure

Basic forms
• Shell structure
(Conoid shells,
hyperbolic
paraboloid,
translational dome,
barrel vault)
Structure

Basic forms
• Tension cable structure
Structure

Basic forms
• Tension membrane
Structure

Basic forms
• Space frame
• Space deck
STRUCTURE
Structures must be designed to maintain a state of equilibrium; resisting external
loads without moving. It should be capable of withstanding the most severe
combination of forces that are likely to be applied.

Equilibrium
Equilibrium is the condition of a system in which all competing influences
are balanced.
A structure is in equilibrium when all forces or moments acting upon it
are balanced.
Every structure that can be seen to remain standing on a daily basis is
equilibrium.
It is at rest and each of its members, combination of its members or any
part of a member that is supporting a load, are also at rest.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

A force is any push or pull. Forces act on all structures. Whether the structure is small
or large, it must be designed and built to withstand the forces it will face.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES- Forces can be external or internal.

External force
• Those forces come from outside the structure are
external forces.
• Gravity is an external force that acts on all
structures all the time. Gravity constantly pulls
structures toward Earth's center.
• Everyday use of a structure can also involve external
forces.
For example, a ladder is designed to support the weight
of the person climbing it. The person is applying a force
to the ladder.
When you pull out a drawer, you are exerting an
external force on the drawer.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

A force is any push or pull. Forces act on all structures. Whether the structure is small
or large, it must be designed and built to withstand the forces it will face.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES- Forces can be external or internal.

Internal force.
There are 3 types of internal forces:
• Other forces are caused by one part of structure
acting on other parts of the structure. This type • Compression
of force is called an internal force. • Tension
• Examples include the tension in stretched elastic • Shear
and the compression caused by the weight of a When more than one of these forces
roof pressing down on the walls of a building. act on a structure they are called
• If the structure is not strong enough to complementary forces
withstand the forces that can act on them, it
may experience structural failure.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

COMPRESSION

• Compression force is the force generated from

compressing or squeezing an object.
• Particles of a material are pushed against each
other, causing them to shorten, or compress.
• These forces act along the alignment of the
structural member and attempt to shorten the
body.
• In a building, compression usually comes from the
top. ie When a column supports a load from
above, it is under compressive stress.
• The compression strength of a material is its ability
to withstand this external forces that push on it.
• Compression is a factor in all buildings, since loads
and forces eventually have to be directed into the
ground.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

TENSION

• Tensile force is the stretching forces acting on

the member leading to lengthening or
expansion o the member.
• It is the opposite of compression, in which a
pulling force is working to lengthen the
material.
• Tensile forces exist when there is an opposite
pull on same object. It is a linear force.
• The three conditions are
1. the two forces should be equal in magnitude
2. they should act in opposite direction
3. should act on the same object

E.g. Pulling a rope by two people in opposite direction. The rope is in tension and will tend to elongate.
If a beam is being compressed from the top, it will be in compression at the top and in tension at the
bottom.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

SHEAR

• An opposing force that pushes in opposite directions causing slippage on a plane

• Shear force is an internal force in any material which is usually caused by any external force
acting perpendicular to the material, or a force which has a component acting tangent to the
material.
• Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction, and
another part of the body in the opposite direction.
• When the forces are aligned into each other, they are called compression forces.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

SHEAR

• In other words, a shearing force that causes layers to

slide across each other in opposite directions.
• Buildings need shear walls to resist lateral, or shear,
forces.
• When a structural member experiences failure by
shear, two parts of it are pushed in different
directions, for example, when a piece of paper is cut
by scissors.
• The main difference between shear stress and tensile
stress is that tensile stress refers to cases where a
deforming force is applied at right angles to a surface,
whereas shear stress refers to cases where a
deforming force is applied parallel to a surface.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

TORSION (Twisting):
• A force that twists.
• Torsion force is created when a moment or
"turning force" is applied to a structural member
along the longitudinal axis, making it deflect at an
angle (twist).
• A moment that causes twisting is called a twisting
or torsional moment or torque. Torsion produces
shear stresses inside the material.
• Torsional moment is produced by two unequal
moments; one in the clockwise direction and
other in the anticlockwise direction.
FORCES ACTING ON STRUCTURES

TORSION (Twisting):
• When a beam is twisted around its axis there will be
friction between adjacent sections along the beam. These
sections will try to resist rotation.
• This will produce stress in the cross sections which will
radially increase from the centre to the ends resulting in
the cracking of the beams.
• Examples in daily life - draining a wet cloth, turning a key
in the keyhole.
Structure

Support systems
Basic types

Refer printed notes

Structure

Basic types
Structure

Basic types
Concept of span
Span is the distance between two intermediate
supports for a structure, e.g. a beam or a bridge.

• A general engineering principle is the longer the

span, the deeper the structural component will have
to be to safely support its self-weight and whatever
it must carry, e.g. a floor.

• Thus, a beam may be supported at either end, in

which case it is said to span between the two points,
and a floor may span between two (or three or even
four) continuous supports.

• The span of a beam or slab is the length of that

element between its support points.
Concept of span

Single span and continuous span

• Single Span Beams are beams

supported at two points only.
• Continuous Span Beams are
beams supported at three or
more points along their length.
Concept of span
CLEAR SPAN
The span of the beam without measuring the
length of support is known as the clear span of
the beam.
The clear span can be calculated by subtracting
the width of the support, i.e., column, along
the direction of the beam span from the total
span of the structure.

EFFECTIVE SPAN
The effective span of beam is different for
different types of beams. It depends upon the
clear span, width of support, and depth of the
beam as well. The effective span of the beam is Effective span for Simply supported
required to analyze the structure for safety and beam-
Center to center ( c/c ) distance between
economics. supports.
Concept of span

Types of span
• Total span
• Clear span
• Effective span

TOTAL SPAN
The outer to outer distance between two supports
is called effective span.
 Concept of span

A cantilever beam or slab performs

different again to a single span or
continuous span.
A cantilever beam or slab is one
which has a fixed support (or close to
fixed support) on one end and a free
end on the other.
MAIN FACTORS IN CONSTRUCTIONS DESIGN:

MAN: NATURE:

Dimensions and proportions Construction factors

-dimensions of the human body -mechanical, physical
-the space a person takes while moving or in rest -chemical, biological, etc.
Physiological needs Geographical conditions
-temperature, humidity -hydrographic landscape
-lights, aesthetics -climate (wind, temperature, rainfall)
-fresh air, hygiene, etc. -fauna, flora
Human activity -raw material deposits
-work, training Geotechnical conditions
-rest, entertainment -field geology
-health, etc. -geomorphology
-seismicity
Concept of span
I. structural layout;
II. vertical elements
III. horizontal elements.

• Type A is a multiple-span structure

of walls & beams.
• Type B is a multiple-span structure
of walls & slabs.
• Type C is a single-span structure of
walls & slabs.
The structure of a building can be grouped according to several categories (purpose, material, location, the importance they
have in the building, etc.) According to the main criterion- the purpose or importance in the service life of a building, the
elements can be grouped in the following categories:

Structural Non-structural Technical equipment

• elements, without which the
building in itself could not exist,
or could not be used.
• supporting elements
(exclusively) which ensure
strength and stability to the
building (and which transmit
the actions to the foundation)
• secondly some supporting
elements that also have
purposes other than that of
sustaining the building (closing,
subdivision, circulation, etc.)
• elements have a well-determined and
important purpose in the building,
but their presence is not a deciding
factor in the building process
(building can be constructed, but
cannot ensure the functionality
needed by a person).
• Amongst these there are subdivision
and closing elements, finishing and
decorative elements, elements for
ventilation and natural illumination,
as well as elements of isolation and
protection (against humidity, cold and
heat, noise, fire, corrosion, etc.).
• elements (or installations) are meant
to ensure comfort for the lives and
activities of people working in the
building.
• This includes installations for power
and illumination, heating, water and
gas supplies, ventilation, garbage
disposal, fire-proofing,
telecommunications, etc.

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/4-461-building-technology-i-materials-and-construction-fall-2004/pages/lecture-notes/
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT ELEMENTS
(INSTALLATIONS)
foundations subdivision elements (interior walls)
-isolated closing elements (exterior walls) • water supplying
-continuous finishing • used water disposal
vertical elements -ground coats • heating
-walls -coverings • ventilation
-pillars -paintings • electric (illumination, power)
horizontal elements -revetments, wallpapers • warnings, telecommunications
-platforms -floors • garbage disposal
-beams -doors, windows • mechanical transportation
special elements Ditches • combustible gas supplies
-domes Ducts
-cables chimneys
-arches, etc. coverings
roofs isolating elements
-roof trusses -hydro-insulators
-flat roofs -thermal insulators
staircases, banisters -acoustic insulators
 Structural members are the primary load bearing components of a building, and each have their
own structural properties which need to be considered.

Such members include:

Beams : Horizontal members which transfer loads to supports.

Columns : Vertical members which transfer compressive loads to the ground.

Bracing : Members that interconnect and stiffen columns and beams.

Roof trusses : Load-bearing frames constructed of connected triangular shapes.

Retaining walls : Support soil where a sloping site requires excavation.

Concrete slabs : Span horizontally between supports, used as floors and sometimes as roof systems.

Footings : Transfer load from the structure to the foundations.

Equilibrium
Equilibrium is the condition of a system in
which all competing influences are
balanced.
A structure is in equilibrium when all forces
or moments acting upon it are balanced.
Every structure that can be seen to remain
standing on a daily basis is equilibrium.
It is at rest and each of its members,
combination of its members or any part of
a member that is supporting a load, are
also at rest.
WALL SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
WALL SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
WALL SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
WALL SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
POST – LINTEL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
POST – LINTEL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
POST AND SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
POST AND SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
 FOUNDATION

• A foundation is a integral part of the structure which transfer the load of the
superstructure to the soil.

• A foundation is that member which provides support for the structure and it's
loads.

• It includes the soil and rock of earth's crust and any special part of structure that
serves to transmit the load into the rock or soil.
 Deep
FOUNDATION
foundations
❖ Building foundation is the lowest part of a building which provides a proper base and strength for
the building.
❖ The purpose of a building foundation is to hold up and hold together the load in form of any
structure above it.

The soil beneath structures

responsible for carrying
the loads is the
FOUNDATION. The
structural element(part of
foundation) which
transmits the load to the
soil is the footing.
 Deep foundations
FOUNDATION
Purpose of Foundation
❖ To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring the
intensity of load within the safe bearing capacity of soil.
❖ To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate to avoid differential settlement.
❖ To prevent the lateral movement of supporting material.
❖ To attain a level and firm bed for building operations.
❖ To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

❖ Foundation design: Because of the variety of soil, rock, and water conditions that are
encountered below the surface of the ground and the unique demands that buildings make upon
their foundations, foundation design is a highly specialized field combining aspects of
geotechnical and civil engineering.
❖ Essential Requirement of good foundation design.
❏ Location
❏ Stability
❏ Settlement
 Building Foundations
Foundations

Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations

When Depth less than or equal to breadth When Depth greater than breadth
 Building Foundations
Foundations

Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations

When Depth less than or equal to breadth When Depth greater than breadth

Shallow foundation
Load is transferred to the soil which lies immediately below the foundation. They are constructed in
open excavation in visible manner. Extent of soil disturbance is limited to very small zone.

Suitability of Shallow foundation

❖ Bearing capacity of soil is more.
❖ ground water table(W.T) is low.
❖ dewatering of foundation is not required.
❖ top layers of soil are uniform and stable.
❖ Load on the structure is less.
 Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundation
❖ If the soil conditions immediately below the structure are sufficiently strong and capable of
supporting the required load, then shallow spread footings can be used to transmit the load.

❖ Must not settle excessively.

❖ Must be placed at depth sufficient to prevent damage from surface environmental
effects (frost, swelling and shrinkage, erosion and scour).
Design Considerations:
❖ Must
. not cause failure of supporting soil (Bearing Capacity criteria)

Advantages of using shallow foundation Disadvantages of using shallow foundation

❖ Cost (affordable) ❖ Settlement
❖ Construction Procedure (simple) ❖ Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining
❖ Materials (mostly concrete) wall)
❖ Labor (does not need expertise) ❖ Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion,
moment.
 Shallow Foundations
Design of shallow foundation-Involves 2 aspects.
Width of foundation Depth of foundation
❖ For simple footing the width of ❖ For shallow foundation min 800mm
foundation must be 3 times the below the natural GL unless hard soil is
thickness of the wall available at 800mm.
❖ For stepped footing the width at the ❖ Also obtained by drawing lines at 45 and
base is equal to twice the width of the 60 degree.
wall at the plinth level.
 Shallow Foundations

Shallow Foundations- Types

Spread Footing Strap Footing/ Combined Footing Raft Foundation

Cantilever
Isolated footing
Rectangular
Footing(column) Footing

Strip Trapezoidal
Footing(wall) Footing
 Shallow foundations
SPREAD FOOTING
❖ An enlargement at the bottom of a column or bearing wall that spreads the applied
structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
❖ It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
❖ Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a larger area.
❖ When spread footing is provided to support an individual column, it is called “Isolated
footing”.
 Shallow foundations
SPREAD FOOTING

❖ Square spread footings : Supporting a single

centrally-supported column.

❖ Rectangular spread footings : In cases that

obstructions prevent construction of a square
footing with a sufficiently large base area and
large moment loads are present.

❖ Circular spread footings : Supporting a single

centrally-supported column, but less common
than square footing. (flagpoles).
 Shallow foundations
SPREAD FOOTING

❖ These may be of different types

1. Single footing (pad footing)
2. Stepped Footings (used for high
columns)
3. Sloped/Tappered Footings
4. Grillage foundation
 Shallow foundations
STRIP FOOTING

❖ A strip footing is another type of spread

footing which is provided for a load bearing
wall.
❖ A strip footing can also be provided for a
row of columns which are so closely spaced
that their spread footings overlap or nearly
touch each other.
❖ In such a cases, it is more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a
number of spread footings in one line.
❖ A strip footing is also known as “continuous
footing”.
 Shallow foundations
STRIP FOOTING

❖ It is simply the enlargement of the

bottom of the wall that will sufficiently
distribute the load to the foundation soil.

❖ When length to the width ratio of

bearing area is greater than or equal to
10, this type of footing is called “strip
footing”.
L/B > 10
 Shallow foundations
SPREAD FOOTING

Grillage foundation

❖ A foundation consisting of one, two or more

layers of beams (typically steel)
superimposed on a concrete layer to
disperse the load over a large area is a
foundation for grilling.
❖ The Steel Grillage foundation consists of
joints or steel beams supplied in single or
double layers.
❖ Depth limited to 1 to 1.5m
 Shallow foundations
COMBINED FOOTING

❖ It is used when the two columns are

so close to each other that their
individual footings would overlap.
❖ A combined footing is also provided
when the property line is so close to
one column that a spread footing
would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line.
❖ By combining it with that of an
interior column, the load is evenly
distributed.
 Shallow foundations
COMBINED FOOTING
❖ A combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
❖ Trapezoidal footing is provided when
the load on one of the columns is
larger than the other column.
❖ If combined footings are designed on
the basis that line of action of the
resultant must coincide with the
centroid of the footing.
❖ By the provision of combined footing
the risk of differential settlement is
reduced.
 Shallow foundations
STRAP FOOTING
❖ It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever.
❖ The strap connects the footing such that they behave as one unit.
❖ The strap simply acts as a connecting beam.
❖ A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil
pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.
 Shallow foundations
STRAP FOOTING

❖ Strap footing with a grade beam : Provides

the necessary moment resistance in the
exterior footing with eccentric load and a
more rigid foundation system.
❖ Also called cantilever footing
 Shallow foundations
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION

❖ It is a large slab supporting a number of columns

and walls under entire structure or a large part of
the structure.
❖ A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure
is low or where the columns and walls are so close
that individual footings would overlap or nearly
touch each other.
❖ Mat foundations are useful in reducing the
differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils
or where there is large variation in the loads on
individual columns.
 Shallow foundations
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION
❖ Continuous in two direction
❖ When load coming on the soil is practically uniform.
❖ Raft is designed as an inverted RCC roof.
❖ Sometimes the design of Raft is such a way that the
weight of the excavated earth is just equal to the total
loading.
❖ Also known as floating foundation.
 Shallow foundations
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION

❖ If the sum of the areas of

individual footings is greater
than the half of the total area
of the building, it is economical
to provide a raft footing.

❖ Different types-
● Flat plate(solid slab raft)
● Plate thickened under columns
● Waffle slab
● Plate with pedestals
● Basement walls as part of mat
 Shallow foundations
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION

❖ The advantages of the mat foundation over

individual spread footings

i) Spreads the structure load over a larger

area, thus reduces bearing pressure.
ii) Provides much more structural rigidity
and thus reduces the potential for excessive
differential settlements.
iii) Is easier to waterproof.
iv) Has a greater weight and thus is able to
resist greater uplift pressure.
Module-IV
FLEMISH BOND

• This bond has one stretcher between headers,

with the headers centered over the stretchers
in the course below.
• When a course begins with a stretcher, the
course will ordinarily terminate with a
stretcher at the other end.
• Brickwork that appears as Flemish bond from
both the front and rear is Double Flemish
bond.
Flemish bond is further divided in to two different types namely-
Double Flemish Bond Single Flemish Bond

• same appearance both in the front and back elevation
• Every course consist of headers and stretchers laid
alternately
• best suited from consideration of economy and appearance
• enables the one brick wall to have flush and uniform faces
on both sides
• comparatively weaker than English bond
• combination of English bond and Flemish
bond
• facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond
and the backing consists of English bond in
each course
• can not be adopted in walls less than one
and a half brick in thickness
RAT TRAP BOND
•Rat trap bond is a brick masonry method of wall construction, in
which bricks are placed in vertical position or laid on edge
instead of conventional horizontal position and thus creating a
cavity (hollow space) within the wall.
•The height of each course in case of a brick size 230x110x75
mm, will be 110 mm plus mortar thickness such that the shiner
and rowlock are visible on the face of masonry
•This gives the wall with an internal cavity bridged by the
rowlock
• This cavity adds an added advantage as it adds a Green
building feature of help maintain improved thermal comfort
and keep the interiors colder than outside and vice versa and an
appropriate option as against conventional solid brick wall
masonry.
Laurie Baker

Laurence Wilfred "Laurie" Baker (2 March 1917 – 1 April 2007) was a British-born Indian architect,
renowned for his initiatives in cost-effective energy-efficient architecture and designs that maximized
space, ventilation and light and maintained an uncluttered yet striking aesthetic sensibility.
Laurie Baker
• Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and his own experiences in the
remote Himalayas, he promoted the revival of regional building
practices and use of local materials; and combined this with a
design philosophy that emphasized a responsible and prudent use
of resources and energy.

• He was a pioneer of sustainable architecture as well as organic

architecture, incorporating in his designs even in the late 1960s.

• concepts such as rainwater harvesting, minimizing usage of energy-

inefficient building materials, minimizing damage to the building
site and seamlessly merging with the surroundings.

• Due to his social and humanitarian efforts to bring architecture

and design to the common man, his honest use of materials, his
belief in simplicity in design and in life, and his belief in non-
violence, he has been called the "Gandhi of architecture.
 Laurie Baker

• Laurie has been called the "Gandhi of architecture.“

• Also Known as Poor man’s Architect
• COSTFORD (Centre of Science and Technology for Rural
Development), an organization to promote low-cost
housing.
Laurie Baker’s residence design Hamlet
Usage of local materials

• Based on Gandhian principle

• Simple and humble
• Low cost
• Locally available building material
• Reinventing the vernacular techniques of
construction – Filler slab construction, rat trap bond
• Traditional incorporation of trellises
Loyola complex contains a high school and a post-
graduate complex, both sharing a common chapel
Mitra Niketan old hospital building Laurie Baker’s residence design Hamlet