Water Res. Vok 16. pp. 1319 to 1325. 1982 0043-135~ 82 081319-07503.

00 0
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright © 1982 Pergamon Press Ltd

EVAPORATION OF CRUDE OIL AT SEA

R. REIJNHART and R. ROSE
Koninklijke/Shell-Laboratorium. Amsterdam. The Netherlands

(Receired February 1981)

Abstract--A simple model for describing the simultaneous evaporation and spreading of oil spills at sea
has been developed and tested. A previously reported theory was used for calculating the aerodynamic
part of the evaporation process. Here, the thermodynamic part, i.e. the oil characterization and the
weathering processes, is described in detail. By comparison with the results of laboratory evaporation
experiments and sea trials the model is shown to work quite adequately. Also, the influence of the
mixing of oil into the water column, e.g. due to wave action, is shown to be small enough to be
neglected. The spreading model was purposely kept as simple as possible, in view of the uncertain
influences of wave action and emulsion formation. The velocity of the edge of the oil slick is prescribed
and a critical thickness beyond which the slick stops spreading is introduced. The latter turns out to
have a significant influence on the rate of evaporation. Examples of crude evaporation are given and the
influence of temperature and wind velocity is investigated.

NOMENCLATURE formula. The procedure for taking into account

Co = equilibrium concentration of vapour, kg m- a
d+r~, = critical slick thickness, m
g = acceleration of gravity, m s- 2
Gz = mass of evaporating liquid, kg
M~ = average molar weight of liquid, kg kmol- '
M~ = average molar weight of gas, kg kmol- L
M, = average molar weight of source, kg kmol-
Pl = vapour pressure of component i, N m -2
p,o, = total vapour pressure, N m-2
Q,, -- rate of evaporation, kg s-
Q, = source strength, kg s-t
S= surface area of evaporating liquid, m-2
~:o = average wind velocity at 10 m height, m s- L
V,d~c = velocity of edge of slick, m s- 1
xi = mol fraction of component i in liquid
xi.+ = mol fraction of component i in source
y+ = mol fraction of component i in gas
~t = constant defined in equation (12), m s-
Z= constant of proportionality in equation (11).
I. INTRODUCTION
In previous papers (Reijnhart & Rose, 1980; Reijnhart
et al., 1980, 1982a, b; Reijnhart & Toneman, 1982),
physical models have been presented for calculating
the evaporation of liquid mixtures and the dispersion
of vapours in the atmosphere. Special attention was
given to the calculation of changes in liquid compo-
sition and temperature with time and procedures were
introduced for calculating heat fluxes from different
kinds of ground towards spreading liquid pools.
In this paper, evaporation of oil from the sea sur-
face will be considered. The thermodynamics of
changes in composition (Reijnhart et al., 1982b) will
be taken into account in a straightforward manner,
contrary to what has been published before. For
example, Blokker (1964) did not allow for changes in
composition; Goodwin et al. (1976) and Makay &
Matsugu (1973) took a transfer coefficient approach,
and Yang & Wang (19=/7) used a first-order decay
1319
changes in composition and the method of character-
izing the oil will be discussed in Section II.
In order to test the model, batch experiments were
carried out in which various oils were allowed to
evaporate under well-defined conditions of tempera-
ture, stirring, etc. In particular, we investigated
(Section IIl) how the evaporation of oil changes when
it is thoroughly mixed with water, as happens in
stormy weather at sea. In Section Ill, the results of
some theoretical crude oil evaporation calculations
are compared with experimental data and the rela-
tively simple thermodynamic mixture model is shown
to work satisfactorily. Spreading of the oil is taken
into account in a rather simplified model. However,
as will be argued in Section V, the model is expected
to describe the various processes rather well, in spite
of the fact that reality is far more complicated.
It. CHARACTERIZATION OF CRUDE OIL
Crude oil is a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbon
compounds which vary in molar weight from very
light (C~) to very heavy (C~o). C~ is an artificial hy-
drocarbon compound which represents all com-
ponents more volatile than n-C4, and, similarly, C~o
represents all components heavier than n-C2o. In
order to describe the evaporation of such a multicom-
ponent mixture, we characterize it by 27 single com-
ponents, including C~ and C~o (Table 1). The tool
fractions of these components are determined from a
so-called true boiling point curve. In Fig. 1 an
example of an Ekofisk oil is given. The weight frac-
tion of oil which boils off between, for example, 125.7
and 139.1°C (i.e. 3% w/w) is now represented by the
pure component 10 (i.e. m-xylene), which boils at
139.1°C. The next heavier fraction (2% w/w) is rep-
resented by n-Cg, etc. The tool fraction of C.~ is deter-
1320 R. REIJ:',.HART and R. ROSE

Table 1. Weathering of 166,800kg Ekofisk crude oil

Mot fractions after (days~

Component 0 I 2 4 7

CI 0.0362
2-Methylbutane 0.024
2-Methylpentane 0.048
Benzene 0.062
2-Methylhexane 0.036
Toluene 0.054
m-Xylene 0.046
1-Methyl-2-ethylbenzene 0.042
1,2.4-Trimethytbenzene 0.011 0 0 0 0
i- Methyl-4-isopropylbenzene 0.008
Butane 0.038
Pentane 0,020
Hexane 0.026
Heptane 0.033
Octane 0.050
Nonane 0.035
Decane 0.013
Undecane 0.043 0.018 0.002
Dodecane 0.038 0.068 0.045 0.0t7 0.010
Tridecane 0.035 0.085 0.079 0,063 0.055
Tetradecane 0.032 0.086 0.088 0.087 0.085
Pentadecane 0,027 0.074 0.077 0.080 0.081
Hexadecane 0.021 0.056 0.060 0.063 0.064
Heptadecane 0.022 0.060 0.063 0.067 0.068
Octadecane 0.020 0.054 0.057 0,061 0.062
Nonadecane 0,018 0.050 0.053 0,056 0.057
C_:0 0,163 0.448 0.476 0.506 0.517

T = 2WC, i~Lo = 10 m s- t, de,, = 0.003 m, Z = 1.0 (see also Fig. 5).

mined by a summation of the mol fractions of all is found from

components lighter than C,~ (which are determined x-,+o = S_ x, (3)
from a G L C analysis): i>~20

Y', x i ' Mi
x:, = y . x,. (I) M.;o - i'.2o (4)
i<a,
x,
The molecular weight of Cg is found from the equation i~20

x," M, IIL EVAPORATION AND SPREADING

M~ - i,:4 (2) Evaporation of crude oil may be described by the
Y~ xi following mass and mole balance equations:
i<4
dG~
Similarly, the mole fraction and molar weight of C~-o -- = Q°,(s) + O,, (5)
dt
%w
I L- CO 15[, 2~ 4- TRIMETHYL(W.NZENE
80
2 n-C s t4n-Cto .}U~30
3 L- CG 15I - METHYL-ISOPROPY LSENZIENE 29~"-
2e
4 n-C a t6n-Cll 27~,I"
5 Ce'He Z6 /
60 6 L-C 7 2 5 /
7 n- C7 Z4.,~"
8 TOLUENE 2 5 /
9 n - C• 2 I~:~ "
I0 m- XYLENE zO.jf
I I n-C 9 19
I I~,~
12 I - METHYL-2-ETHYLBENZ, 1 7 Y
,.,, ,5 ~ ,'~'~ 25 n-Czo ~
,ocj~ 26 o-C. i
20 IO~j~l 4 27 n-el. { ,
e 9~ IZ
'= 28
2e .n-C
-c. ~lO
~'C=o
6~f z9 .-c,. ]
3,.Y 30 o-C;oj
0 1 I 1
0 tOO 200 300 400 500
°C
Fig. I. True boiling curve of Ekofisk crude oil (4 m Vigreux) characterized by 30 pure components.
 Evaporation of crude oil at sea
d {x i ~G~}=Y, Q.(S)
~+xi.,~-],
Q, i = I. . . . . N
in which N is the total number of components. Notice
that the rate of evaporation Q,v is a function of the
surface area S. A source term Q, has been included for
completeness. However, in the numerical examples
presented later (Section VI) Q, is set equal to zero,
and the initial configuration consists of a certain pre-
scribed quantity of oil on a given surface area. We
assume in this work that the oil remains isothermal at
the temperature of the sea water. In earlier work
(Reijnhart et al., 1982b) a third equation was added in
order to calculate changes in temperature as well. The
average molar weights Mj and M, of liquid (oil) and
gas are derived from the simple linear relationships
N In the following sections the mass of oil GL is calcu-
M~ = Z xi' Mi
i=!
N characterization scheme of Section II.
M, = ~ yi'M~.
l=l
In order to find the molar concentration Yi of
component i in the gas phase we apply Raoult's law
Pl
Yi = x ~ - - ,
Pto|
in which p, is the equilibrium vapour pressure of com-
ponent i and Ptot the total vapour pressure
N which will be described below.
P,o, = Z p,.
i=l
In order to keep the analysis as simple and straight-
forward as possible, activity coefficients are not taken
into account, primarily because they are not well
known, but also because of uncertainties in the oil
claaracterization procedures.
The rate of evaporation Qc, depends both on aero-
dynamic parameters such as wind velocity and atmos-
pheric stability, and on liquid paramters such as the
total vapour pressure Pro, and the surface area S of the
oil slick. For details of the calculation of Q~ we refer
to Reijnhart et al. (1980), where a discussion is given
of the physical model employed.
A very simple model is used to describe the time
dependence of the surface area S. The oil slick is
taken to be circular and of uniform thickness d, while
the velocity of the edge of the slick is assumed to be
determined by gravity effects and to be given by the
expression
v,d,. = Z x~ 2 yd,
in which O is the acceleration of gravity. For "ideal"
oils, the factor X is of the order of one, but in reality it
should depend on the oil viscosity, surface tension
and emulsion formation. If the inertial spreading of
Fay (1969, 1976) is chosen, Z should be taken equal to
0.5. We assume here that the slick stops spreading
(e.g. due to emulsion formation and a much increased
viscosity) when a critical thickness d . , is reached.
1321
(6)
More sophisticated treatments of spreading for "'ideal
oils" on calm seas have been presented before (Fay,
1969, 1971; Hoult, 1972; Fannelop & Waldman.
1972), but we have purposely selected this simple
approach, because important effects such as wave
action and emulsion formation are not taken into
account even in the more advanced treatments.
Furthermore, spreading is in practice never homo-
geneous. Generally, two areas of oil slick can be dis-
tinguished: a thick viscous, mostly emulsified area of
about 3 mm thickness (d¢,~,)surrounded by a very thin
sheen of oil. The surface area of the latter is larger
than that of the thick region, but its volume is much
smaller. In Section VI some case studies will be
presented in which the sensitivity of the model predic-
tions to Z is demonstrated.
(7) lated as a function of time by a numerical solution of
the equations (5) and (6) and by employing the oil
(8)
IV. BATCH EVAPORATION EXPERIMENTS
The theoretical model which describes the aerody-
namic part of the evaporation has previously been
(9) verified and proven satisfactory for pure liquids
(Reijnhart & Rose. 1980). In order to verify the
thermodynamic model, presented in Section III, we
have now carried out batch evaporation experiments,
00) A schematic sketch of the equipment is shown in
Fig. 2. The liquid in vessel A is evaporated by blowing
air through the four symmetrical pipes Pl-P4. Heat
losses due to evaporative cooling are compensated for
by the thermostat B. Very intense mixing (turbulence)
was accomplished by continually reversing the direc-
tion of rotation of the stirrer. The rate of evaporation
of the liquid is measured by weighing the whole vessel
A periodically on an electronic balance.
In order to simulate evaporation of oil at sea, water
may be added to A. However, when measuring the
i ' II
i u, -
( 11 ) t
IA ~-i- -'~-<" I
< J --j
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.
t322
Vow EVAPO~,TED
[3 ~'-
20
3c-i
40:-
60i 1 I
0 2 4 6
Fig. 3. Measured batch evaporation as a function of time for pentane (O), iso-pentane (O), toluene (F-I)
and n-decane (A). The calculated values are represented by the solid curve.
rate of oil evaporation in this situation, one has to
take precautions in order to avoid water evaporation
or condensation. This was done by using air which
had been carefully saturated at the desired tempera-
ture, and using a second control vessel which con-
tained water only. The humidity of the air was then
controlled in such a way that no evaporation took
place from the second vessel.
We would like to emphasize at this point that the
experiments reported here serve only for checking the
thermodynamic mixture model and the oil character-
ization scheme. Evaporation in an atmospheric wind
field is obviously different from the batch situation
considered here. However, one may still legitimately
assume that the rate of evaporation in both cases is
proportional to the thermodynamic equilibrium con-
centration Co of the vapour at the liquid surface:
Q~, = :(Co,
in which ~[m s - t ] depends on the wind velocity, the
geometric configuration, stirring, etc. Therefore, the
thermodynamic theory can be tested by comparing
the evaporation of pure liquids and mixtures.
V. C O M P A R I S O N OF THEORY
EXPERIMENT
In Fig. 3 we show some evaporation results for
different pure liquids without water. All theoretical
curves were calculated by using the same value of ~(
[equation (12)], viz. 0.0009 ms -t. Evidently, a very
satisfactory description of the experimental data is
found by this procedure. The experiments were all
done with the same stirring mode and the same air
flow rate (0.44 x 10-3m3s-t). When the stirring
speed was reduced, different data were found, which
indicates that the evaporation process is influenced,
among other' things, by the state of the liquid surface.
Also, temperature gradients in the liquid surface layer,
which arise due to evaporative cooling, are influenced
by the stirring process. We should mention here that
evaporative cooling of the very volatile liquids con-
R REIJNHaRTand R. ROSE
%N EVAPORATED
21-
~ 31
4
i [ I 6 I I I I
O I0 0 20 40 60 80 I00
TIME, mtn TIMF., mLn
sidered in Fig. 3 is not negligible. Although in Section
III we considered only isothermal processes, which is
adequate for oil evaporation, we did take into
account evaporative cooling and heat transfer from
the thermostat in the theoretical results of Fig. 3.
In order to test the simple mixture model employed
in this work, we first measured the evaporation rate of
a simple mixture of pentane, toluene and decane. A
comparison with the theoretical predictions is shown
in Fig. 4 and the agreement is quite satisfactory.
Subsequently, by applying the oil characterization
scheme of Section II we calculated the evaporation of
different crude oils and made a comparison with
batch experiments. Again, the proportionality con-
stant of 0.0009 m s- 1 was used, and the stirring speed
was also kept the same. In Fig. 5, data on Brent,
Ekofisk, Kuwait and Burgan crude evaporation at dif-
ferent temperatures are shown. Evidently, the theor-
(12) etical model describes the experimental data of the
various oils quite well, in spite of the crudeness of the
mixing model and the oil characterization scheme.
In Fig. 6 evaporation results are shown of 0,050
and 0.2 kg oil on water, with initial oil thicknesses of
3 and 12mm, respectively. The same conditions of
AND
stirring, temperature and air flow rate as in the case of
pure oil were applied. Extreme care was taken to
avoid water condensation or evaporation from vessel
A. The curves definitely show some retarding
influence of mixing of the oil into the water on the
evaporation. However, considering the limited accu-
*/.w EVAPORATED
0
20 -----. 0
3O
40 I r
0 40 80 120 160
TI ME I ml.n
Fig. 4. Measured batch evaporation as a function of time
for a mixture of pentane (15~ w/w), toluene (35~ w/w) and
n-decane (50?/0 w/w). Measured: (O); calculated: solid+
CUrVCS.
 Evaporation of crude oil at sea t323

% . EVAPORATED
0

(5)
13
|
(4)

20 ^. (3)

2~ 12)
o
(~)
3C

3~ I I I [ l I
0 i 2 3 4 5 6
TIME, rain
Fig. 5. Batch evaporation of crude oils. Measured: Brent (1), Ekofisk (2) and Kuwait (3), T = 20"C.
Burgan, T -- 30~C (4) and Burgan, T = 20°C (5). Calculated: solid curves.

% w EVAPORATED

,)o
I~
o

~0 0

2-=
o o
3C

35

40 f I I I I 1 I I I I I d
0 2 4 6 B I0 12 14 16 18 20 27. 24
TIME, h
Fig. 6. Batch evaporation of crude oil on water. 0.2 kg Brent on 1.5 kg water (@); 0.051 kg Brent on
1.5 kg water (A). Calculated: solid curves; T = 20.0°C.

racy of these experiments, estimated at + 15%, this calculating Q=v, a s m o o t h b o u n d a r y layer flow over
influence is quite small. For practical purposes, we the oil surface is assumed. This will give a conserva-
therefore believe that evaporation of oil on rough seas tive value as far as the evaporation is concerned, since
can be calculated without taking into account mixing in stormy weather the liquid surface will be in violent
of the oil into the water. However, the oil itself should */.w EVAPORATED
then be considered perfectly mixed. F o r calm seas, 10
this is almost certainly not the case, a n d a retardation
of the evaporation, due to concentration and perhaps 15
also to temperature gradients in the oil layer, must be
ZO
taken into account. The above findings are in agree-
ment with Cormack's et al. (1978) results.
3O
Vl. EVAPORATION OF SPREADING OIL (IA)
35
AT SEA
4O
The rate of spreading of an oil slick [V=d. in equa-
tion (11)] and the critical slick thickness d . . b o t h 4... I I I I I l
influence the rate of evaporation. In Fig. 7 we show 4 8 12 16 20 24
TIME, h
both the influence of Z at a fixed value of
Fig. 7. Calculated evaporation of 166,800 kg Brent crude
d:,i~ = 0.003 m a n d the influence of d:,, at a fixed
oil at sea. (1A) d=,, = 0.03 m, Z -- 1.0; (IB) doa, = 0.0010 m,
value of X = 1. The wind velocity in this example is Z = 1.0; (IC) dcr~ -- 0.0003 m, Z = .1.0; (O) d°,~, = 0.003 m,
chosen equal to 10 m s - t at 10 m height a n d the stab- ;~ -- 0.5; (O) d , , -- 0.003 m, 7. = 2.0; T -- 20.0°C; ~1o --
ility of the atmosphere is assumed to be neutral. In 1 0 m s -t.
I324 R. REIJX;HART and R, ROSE

{I) BURG,.%NT.,R~JDEL:~O°C (4) BRENTCRUDE ~ °C

C2) BuRGAN CRUDE4 0 % (5) EKOFISK CRUDE20%, T%0:~O~/s
C3) KL,W ~ " CRUOE20~C (6) EKOFISK CRUDELR3~'C,~0:20m/s

=I.,, EVAPOR-~TEC
Oi

rO
(~)
2C {2)

3O {3}

4C

60 r I I I I I I
0 I 2 3 4 fi 6 7
TI ME, DAYS

Fig. 8. Calculated evaporation of 166,800 kg crude oil at sea. Z = 1.0; d . . = 0.003 m.

motion and droplet formation may occur, which
speeds up the evaporation. Clearly, the influence of
dcrit is very important, whereas Z has but little
influence. A small der~, leads to a large surface area of
the slick and, therefore, to a relatively rapid evapor-
ation. However, oil at sea does not spread out as
smoothly as suggested by the model described in
Section III. Often emulsion formation occurs and the
spreading slows down and ultimately stops due to
increased viscosity. According to various literature
da,a (Cormack et al., 1978; Audunson et al., 1979) a
value of dot, = 0.003 m is a reasonable assumption.
In Fig. 8 two other effects are examined for differ-
ent crudes: the influence of oil temperature and wind
velocity. Evidently, an increase in either temperature
or wind velocity accelerates the evaporation process.
However, it will also be clear from Fig. 8 that the
more significant differences in evaporation are due to
differences in composition.
In Fig. 9, finally, a comparison is made with sea
trials. Evidently, Cormack's et al. (1978) results are
better described by our model than Audunson's et al.
(1979), although both fits are satisfactory, considering
the uncertainties involved in both the experimental
data and the theoretical model.
VII. DISCUSSION
When we consider the oil evaporation curves of
Fig. 8, two features are quite evident: (I) the initial
evaporation of lighter oil components is quite rapid
and takes place within 1 day; and (2) the "residue"
evaporation is very slow and continues for many
days. The shape of the evaporation curves depends on
many variables, of which the most important are oil
composition sea-water temperature, wind velocity and
spreading characteristics. The thermodynamics of the
evaporation is believed to be described quite well by
the model presented here, as was proven in the batch
experiments. The aerodynamics is also described ad-
equately by the model presented earlier, but the rate
of evaporation during a storm might be underesti-
mated, due to increased surface roughness. The
spreading velocity is shown to have a rather small
influence on the slope of the evaporation curves.
However, the critical thickness of the slick, beyond

*/*w EVAPORATED
O:

IC

2C

30
1975
40
eye
50
0
I
4 8
I ]
12 0 4
i"
8 12
TIME, DAYS
o b
Fig. 9. Evaporation of Ekofisk crude oil at sea. (a) comparison with Cormack's experiments [] July 1975
~=o=6.2ms -1, T = 11.6°C, 0.5t. O June 1976 ~1o= 1.3ms-L T = ll.0°C, 10.Ot. A Jan. 1977
Fro = 7.7 m s-1, T = 7.0°C, 10.0 t., calculated results with X = 1.0, d , , = 0.003 m. (b) Comparison with
Audunson's experiments • Observation from Bravo blow out. T = 6°C, ~to = 8 m s - t . Solid curve:
calculated evaporation of 10,000 kg oil. Z = 1.0, d , , = 0.003 m. O Observation from Tromsoflaket 1978,
T = 10°C, /~to = 8 m s -1. Dotted curve: calculated evaporation of t0,000kg oil, with Z = 1.0,
~lo =8ms -t ,
 Evaporation of crude oil at sea
which spreading stops, turns out to be very impor-
tant. If the critical thickness could be reduced, for
example, by adding a de-emulsifier to the oil, much
more rapid evaporation would occur. Wave action
and mixing of the oil into the water have a relatively
small influence on the rate of evaporation. Batch ex-
periments indicate a slightly reduced evaporation.
However, this reduction is certainly compensated for
by the greater roughness of the surface in the case of
stronger wave action. Dissolution of hydrocarbons
into the water and subsequent evaporation plays a
role, as yet unknown, in this process.
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spills on the Norwegian continental shelf. Oil Spill Con-
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Cormack D., Nichols J. A. & Lynch B. (1978) Investigation
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'~,'.~. 1 6 8 - - ~
1325
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