Metal Forming Fundamentals PDF

Fundamentals of Metal Forming Example
A metal obeys the Hollomon relationship and has a UTS of 300 MPa.
To reach maximum load requires an elongation of 35%. Find K and n.
Outline
9 Mechanical Properties - Example
9Overview of Metal Forming
9 Cold working - Strain Hardening
9 Annealing - Recrystallization True stress-strain curve plotted on log-log scale
9 Temperature in Metal Forming

9 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/1 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/2
Overview of Metal Forming Bulk Deformation

Rolling
Performed as cold,
warm, and hot working
Forging
Bulk Deformation
Extrusion
rolling
extrusion
Wire and bar
drawing
Metal Forming
Mainly cold working
Large group of mfg Bending
processes in which
plastic deformation is Sheet
Shearing
used to change the shape Metalworking
of metal workpieces Deep and cup Wire/bar drawing
drawing
forging
Sheet Metalworking Formability (workability)
Formability of the material depends on:
(1) process variables
- ……………… Desirable material properties in metal
forming:
- ……………… – Low yield strength and high ductility
- ………………
(2) Metallurgical changes during deformation
bending Deep/cup drawing - formation of voids, composition, inclusions, precipitation, .... etc.
Ductility increases and yield strength

decreases when work temperature is raised
→ Any deformation operation can be

accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature
shearing
Homologous Temp. Ranges for Various Processes Strain or Work Hardening

• Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a material becomes
• T: working temperature Process T/Tm less ductile, harder and stronger with plastic deformation
Cold working < 0.3 • Encountered during cold working
• Tm: melting point of metal (based
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5 • percentage cold work can be expressed as:
on absolute temperature scale) Hot working > 0.6
 Ao − Ad  Ao = original cross-sectional area
• e.g. lead % CW =   × 100 A = deformed cross-sectional area
– Tm = 327 °C  Ao  d
– Formed at room temperature (20 °C),

………………………………….
9 Most metals strain harden at room temperature according to the • Ductility ……...….
flow curve (n > 0) with cold work
9 But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain • yield and tensile
hardening does not occur strength ……………
- Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
- The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = ….
Strain or Work Hardening Example: Cold Work Analysis
• Yield strength (σy) increases. Copper
• What is the tensile strength &
• Tensile strength (UTS) increases.
ductility after cold working? Cold
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases. work
→
• dislocation density increases with CW
• motion of dislocations is hindered as Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
their density increases
Stress
• stress required to cause further

deformation is increased σy (MPa) UTS (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
• strain hardening is used commercially to 800
700
improve the yield and tensile properties
40
– cold-rolled low-carbon steel sheet 500 600
% – aluminum sheet Cu
col
d wo 300 Cu 400 20
rk • strain hardening exponent n indicates
Strain the response to cold work (i.e. larger n
Cu
100 200 00
The influence of cold work on the means greater strain hardening for a 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
stress–strain behavior for a low- given amount of plastic strain)
carbon steel.
Cold Working Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
Disadvantages of Cold Forming:
• Many cold forming processes are important mass production • Equipment of higher forces and power required
operations • Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
• Minimum or no machining usually required • Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
– These operations are near net shape or net shape processes that can be done
– In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further
Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working: deformation
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances – In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness Purposes of annealing:
• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional - …………..
properties in product - ……………………
• No heating of work required (less total energy)
- …………………………..
Involves three steps
Annealing-Recrystallization in Metals Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth
Recovery
• Formation of new strain-free
grains is called recrystallization • occurs during heating at elevated temperatures below the
Residual
Stresses recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization takes time -
the recrystallization temperature • dislocations reconfigure due to diffusion and relieve the
is specified as the temperature at lattice strain energy
Ductility
which new grains are formed in • electrical and thermal properties are recovered to their pre-
Strength about …………
cold worked state
• Recrystallization can be
exploited in manufacturing Recrystallization
• Heating a metal to its • recrystallization results in the nucleation and growth of
recrystallization temperature prior new strain-free, equiaxed grains
Grain to deformation allows a greater • contain low dislocation density equivalent to the pre-cold
growth amount of straining, and lower
forces and power are required to worked condition → annealed state
Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery,
perform the process • restoration of mechanical properties → softening
recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical
properties and on the shape and size of grains.
Recrystallization in Metals Recrystallization in Metals
• Rate of recrystallization increases

with amount of cold work
• require a critical amount of cold-
work to cause recrystallization (2-
Initial stage of rec. after Partial replacement of cw
20%)
Cold-worked (33%CW) heating 3 s at 580oC grains by rec. ones 4 s. • recrystallization is easier in pure
metals than alloys and occurs at
lower temperature
– 0.3Tm versus ~0.7Tm
• hot-working involves deformation
The variation of recrystallization temperature
with percent cold work for iron. For and concurrent recrystallization at
deformations less than the critical (about high temperature
5%CW), recrystallization will not occur.
Complete recrystallization Grain growth after 15 Grain growth after 10

(8 s at 580oC). min at 580oC min at 700oC
Grain Growth Grain Growth Kinetics
• Variation of grain size (d) with

• Growth of new grains will time is:
continue at high temperature
• does not require recovery and d n − d on = Kt
recrystallization where do = initial grain size at t = 0,
• occurs in both metals and and K and n are time-independent
ceramics at elevated temperature constants, n is ≥ 2
• involves the migration of grain
boundaries • log d versus log t plots give
• large grains grow at expense of linearity at low temperatures
small ones The logarithm of grain diameter versus • grain size increases with
• reduction of grain boundary area the logarithm of time for grain growth
in brass at several temperatures. temperature
(driving force) Schematic representation of grain
growth via atomic diffusion. • toughness and strength are
superior in fine grained materials
Warm Working Hot Working

• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature
• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but – In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
below recrystallization temperature – Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
• Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5 enhancing advantage of hot working above this level
Advantages of Warm Working: Why Hot Working?

• Lower forces and power than in cold working Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far
• More intricate work geometries possible more than possible with cold working or warm working
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Why?
– Strength coefficient is substantially less than at room temp.
– Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
– Metal flow is retarded
• Lower forces and power required (equipment)
– Forces and power are increased
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed – Wears tooling faster
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic • Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently • Benefits:
processed by cold forming – Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Disadvantages of Hot Working: – Better surface finish
• Lower dimensional accuracy – Removes heat from the tooling
• Higher total energy required • Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

– Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)
- due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece
– Hot working or cold working
• Work surface oxidation (scale), ………… surface finish – Work material
• ……… tool life – Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
– Ease of application
– Cost
Next time:
Rolling
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/23

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Fundamentals of Metal Forming Example

9 Temperature in Metal Forming

Overview of Metal Forming Bulk Deformation

Ductility increases and yield strength

→ Any deformation operation can be

Homologous Temp. Ranges for Various Processes Strain or Work Hardening

– Formed at room temperature (20 °C),

• stress required to cause further

Cold Working Cold Working

Recrystallization in Metals Recrystallization in Metals

• Rate of recrystallization increases

Complete recrystallization Grain growth after 15 Grain growth after 10

• Variation of grain size (d) with

Warm Working Hot Working

Advantages of Warm Working: Why Hot Working?

• Higher total energy required • Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

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