INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

SURVEY CAMP REPORT- 2075

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Besides assessments and other paper based examinations, as a part of curriculum

and course study for the students of Third year First part of Civil Engineering, we
performed a survey camp. With the data collected and practical knowledge gained
from 10 days-survey camp, we have prepared a group report on "SURVEY CAMP
2075". As a result of cooperation within us, the members of the group and valuable
suggestions from our classmates, we are able to prepare a complete report.
Firstly we would like to express our gratitude to Er. Hari Lal Kharel, Survey
Team Leader and HOD,Er. Kamal Sapkota, Survey Camp Coordinator and
DHOD, Civil Engineering Department for providing us such an ample opportunity
to consolidate and update our practical and theoretical knowledge in engineering
surveying, in the actual field conditions with practical problems. We are thankful to
Er. Md. Abrar Aalam, Er.Saurabh Shrestha, Er.Achyut Poudel, Er.Subarna
Singh Raut and Er. Arsad Ansari for their valuable suggestions and instructions
about working ideas in the field and Er. Ramesh Pant for his valuable suggestions
and instructions during the compilation of report. We would also like to thank our
Campus Chief, teachers and staffs of Himalaya College of Engineering for their
respectivesupport.
Performing such a Survey Camp and preparing and compiling a report is an
important step in our career. We cannot forget our respected parents and family
members for their invaluable role in climbing each step of life and dreams to see us as
successful engineers. Lastly, we would like to all who helped us directly and indirectly
to complete our camp successfully.

I
 ABSTRACT

The main objective of our survey camp is to take opportunity to consolidate and
update our theoretical and practical knowledge in engineering surveying in the actual
field conditions and practical problems. Through 10-days survey camp, we have
prepared the topographic map of the given area within Nepal Electricity Authority
Training Center, Khairipati,Bhaktapur. We conducted a road alignment survey and
plan, L-section and X-section for various chainage are drawn in standard scale. A
detailed topographic survey of a bridge site was conducted by which topographic
map, L-section and X-section are prepared on standard scale. The camp, surely helps
us to build our confidence to conduct the engineering survey with required accuracy.

The whole report can be summarized as:

1. Project/ReportTitle : SURVEY CAMP –2075
2. SurveyGroup : Group-12
3. Location : Nepal Electricity Authority, Training Center, Khairipati
Bhaktapur (Topographic survey, Road alignment and Bridge
Site Survey)
4. Duration : 28th KARTIK- 8th MANGSIR
5. WorkingTime : 6 AM – 6PM
 WORKING SCHEDULE

Location : Nepal Electricity Authority Premises

Duration : From 28thKartik to 8thMangsir 2075

WorkingTime: 6:30 AM to 5:30PM

Class : 6:00 PM to 6:45 PM

S.N. Date Day

works
1. 28thKartik Orientation, Reconnaissance and station fixing of major
traverse

2. 29thKartik Linear distance and angular measurement of major

traverseusing Total Station

3. 30thKartik Linear distance and angular measurement of minor traverse and

Detailing Work using Total Station

4. 1thMangsir Detailing Work

5. 2thMangsir Continuation of Detailing Work

6. 3thMangsir Two peg test, Fly leveling and RL transfer to the

majorstations
7. 4thMangsir RLtransfer to the minor stations, Traverse calculation and
Making grid

8. 5thMangsir Bridge site survey

9. 6thMangsir Continuation of Bridge site survey

10. 7thMangsir Selection of an alignment for the road, deflection angle

measurement,leveltransfer on IP, BC,MC,EC of the road and
cross section leveling

11. 8th Mangsir Viva, Orientation Check and Closing of camp 2075

III
 LIST OF TABLES

S.N. Table no. Name of Table Page

no.

1. 1 Linear Measurement sheet (Major Traverse) 37

2. 2 Linear and Angular Measurement sheet (Minor Traverse) 38-41

3. 3 Major Traverse computation sheet 42

4. 4 Minor Traverse computation sheet 43

5. 5 Two peg Test 44

6. 6 Ordinary leveling sheet 45-46

7. 7 Fly leveling 45&47

8. 8 RL Transfer to Major and Minor Traverse 48

9. 9 RL Correction for Major and Minor Traverse 49

10. 10 Total station Detailing Sheet 50-55

11. 11 Triangulation for Span of Bridge 56

12. 12 Reciprocal Leveling 57

13. 13 RL Transfer to Triangulation Stations 58-62

14. 14 Tachometric Detailing Sheet 58-62

15. 15 Road Alignment Sheet 63-64

16. 16 Cross Sectioning of Road 65-78

17. 17 Fly Leveling of Road Alignment 79

 LIST OF FIGURES

S.N. Figure No. Name of Figure

1. 1 Major and Minor Traverse

2. 2 Topographic map of detailing site

3. 3 Topographic map of bridge site

4. 4 L-section of Bridge site

5. 5 Cross- section of River

6. 6 Plan of Road

7. 7 L-section of Road
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgement................................................................................................I

Abstract................................................................................................................II

Working Schedule................................................................................................III

List of Tables........................................................................................................IV

List of Figures........................................................................................................V

Table of content………………………………………………………………...VI-VIII

1. Introduction......................................................................................................1-3

1.1 Background..............................................................................................1
1.2 Objectives of survey camp......................................................................1-2
1.3 Project area..............................................................................................2
1.4 Location and accessibility........................................................................2
1.5 Topography and geology.........................................................................2-3
1.6 Rainfall, climate and vegetation...............................................................3
2. Topographical surveys..................................................................................4-17
2.1. Introduction..............................................................................................4
2.2. Objectives.................................................................................................4
2.3. Brief description of the area......................................................................4
2.4. Norms(technical specifications).............................................................4-5
2.5. Equipment..............................................................................................5-6
2.6. Methodology............................................................................................6
2.6.1 Reconnaissance(Recce)...........................................................6-7
2.6.2 Major traverse.............................................................................8
2.6.3 Minor traverse............................................................................8-9
2.6.4 Leveling..................................................................................9-11
2.6.5 Two peg test..............................................................................11-13
2.6.6 Detailing....................................................................................13-14
 2.6.7 Computation and plotting.....................................................................14-16
2.7. Conclusion...............................................................................................16-17
3. Road alignment..............................................................................................18-27
3.1. Introduction..............................................................................................18
3.2. Brief description of the project area.........................................................18-19
3.3. Hydrology................................................................................................19
3.4. Soil..........................................................................................................19
3.5. Norms.......................................................................................................19-20
3.6. Equipment................................................................................................20-21
3.7. Methodology............................................................................................21
3.7.1. Factors controlling highway alignment.....................................21-22
3.7.2. Fixing of Road alignment..........................................................23
3.7.3.Leveling....................................................................................23
3.7.4.Longitudinal sectioning...............................................................24
3.7.5.Cross sectioning..........................................................................24
3.7.6.Topographical survey of road corridor......................................24
3.7.7.Structures....................................................................................24-25
3.7.8.Plotting.......................................................................................25-26
3.7.9.Adjustment and Computations....................................................26
3.8. Conclusion................................................................................................26-27
4. Bridge site survey.......................................................................28-34
4.1. Introduction..............................................................................................28
4.2. Objectives................................................................................................28-29
4.3. Brief description of the area....................................................................29
4.4. Norms(technical specification)...............................................................29-30
4.5. Equipment................................................................................................30
4.6. Methodology.............................................................................................30
4.6.1 Site selection...............................................................................30-31
4.6.2 Topographic survey..................................................................31-32
4.6.3 Longitudinal section.................................................................32
 4.6.4 Cross section.................................................................................33
4.6.5 Leveling.....................................................................................33-34
4.7. Conclusion................................................................................................34
5. Bibliography....................................................................................................35
References.......................................................................................................36
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY

1.1 Background:
Surveying may be defined as the science and art of determining the relative positions
of the features on the surface of the earth, and end product is presented in the form of
drawing (plans, maps etc.). The relative positions of the natural and man-made
features are determined by measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances
(elevations), horizontal angles, and vertical angles accurately using various surveying
instrument. The result of the survey (observing, recording, computing, and plotting) is
presented by making plans or map. The purpose of surveying is to prepare plans or
map to show relative positions of the objects above, on or below the surface of the
earth. Plan depicts only two dimensions (horizontal distance), whereas map depicts
three dimensions including vertical distances. On map, vertical distances are shown or
represented as contour lines. The plan or map is drawn to some suitable scale.
Surveying is the starting for any project. Surveying is required for the planning and
construction of engineering projects such as roadways, railways, bridges, dams,
tunnels, canals, buildings, factories, water supply and sewerage systems etc. The
principle and practices of surveying is important and basic to civil engineer.

The main objectives of surveying courses allocated for civil engineering students is to
promote them the basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant to civil
engineering works in their professional practice. The completion of all surveying
course including 10 days survey camp work organized by the Department of civil
Engineering, “Survey Instruction committee” of Himalaya College of Engineering
under IOE will give better enhancement to students to use all surveying technique
covered in lecture classes.

1.2 Objective of Survey Camp:

The main objectives of the survey camp are as follows:
1. To prepare the detailing of a certain area inside NEA Training Centre
premises. i.e. topographic map of the premises.

1
 2. To prepare the plan cross-section (X-section) and L-section of road alignment.
3. To prepare the plan and L section of Bridge Survey.

1.3 Project Area:

Training Center, Nepal Electricity Authority, Khairipati,Bhaktapur

1.4 Location and Accessibility:

NEA Training Center is located in Khairipati, Bhaktapur, Central Development
Region of Nepal. Kamal Vinayak - Nagarkot road lies near northern part of NEA
premises. The premises can be reached in 35 minutes bus ride from Koteshwor.
Country: Nepal
Development Region: Central

Zone: Bagmati
District: Bhaktapur
Metropolitan: Bhaktapur
Location: Nepal Electricity Authority, Training Center, Khairipati

1.5 Topography and Geology

Before starting our job, we should study about the existing position of the project area
related to the natural grid line so that we can relate our result into the natural grid.

Nepal lies in between India (east, west,south) and china (north). Its total area is
1,47,181 sq.km. Average length is 885 km. (East to West) and Width is Non-uniform
but the mean width of 193km (North to South). The average height of Bhaktapur is
1400 m above the mean sea level; area of Bhaktapur is about 119sq.km.

The latitude and longitude of NEA Training Center (according to Google Earth) is as
follows:
Latitude: 27041’14.64”N
Longitude: 850 27'22.68" E

1.6 RAINFALL, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION:

The climate of Bhaktapur is warm and temperate. The average temperature in
Bhaktapur is 17.9˚ C. The summers here have a good deal of rainfall whereas the
winters have little. The average annual rainfall of Bhaktapur is 1583mm. As the
climate is subtropical, various species of flora and fauna is found in Bhaktapur. There
are coniferous forest, Monsoon forest, grasslands, etc. including plants like: Spruce,
Silver Oak, Uttis, Chilaune, Katus, Sal, Pipal, Rhododendron, etc. The soil of the
region is favorable for growing crops like paddy, millet, maize, wheat,etc.

Bhaktapur lies in mid-hill region of Nepal hence the climate is pleasant. The variation
of temperature in summer and winter at Bhaktapur are as follows:

Season Max. Temperature 0C Min. Temperature 0C

Summer 29 19

Winter 18 2

Fig:- temperature variation table.

 CHAPTER 2: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

2.1. Introduction
Topographic surveying is a type of surveying for determining the configuration of
earth’s surface. In this surveying, survey data about natural and artificial features of
land, and its elevations is collected which is later used for preparing topographic
maps. Topographic Surveys are used to identify and map the contours of the ground
and existing features on the surface of the earth or slightly above or below the earth's
surface (i.e. trees, buildings, streets, walkways, manholes, utility poles, retaining
walls, etc.). If the purpose of the survey is to serve as a base map for the design of a
residence or building of some type, or design a road or driveway, it may be necessary
to show perimeter boundary lines and the lines of easements on or crossing the
property being surveyed, in order for a designer to accurately show zoning and other
agency required setbacks.
Topographic Surveys require "bench marks" to which ground contours are related,
information regarding surface and underground utilities, determination of required
setbacks, etc.

2.2 Objective
The main objective is to provide the topographical map of the given area with
horizontal control and vertical control with required accuracy.

2.3Brief description of the area

Surveying was performed in the area situated at NEA Training Centre. The major
traverse was run through certain area of the premises. Our aim was to prepare a
topographical map of the given small area, which is a part of the training center. So
we were assigned to prepare the topographical map including Boys Hostel, Girls
Hostel and the entire natural and manmade features that may come in the general
survey work.

2.4 Norms (Technical specification)

 Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse around
 the perimeter of the area by making traverse station. In the selection of the
traverse station maintain the ratio of the maximum traverse leg to minimum
traverse leg less than 2:1 for major and 3:1 for minor.
 Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by a tape
calibrated against the standard length provided in the field, note that discrepancy
between forward and backward measurement should than1:2000.
 Measure traverse angle on sets of reading by theodolite. Note that difference
between the mean angles of two sets reading should be the square root of no. of
station times least count of the instrument.
 Determine the R.L. of traverse stations by fly leveling from the given B.M.
Perform two-peg test before the start of fly level. Note that the collimation error
should be less than 1:10,000. Maintain equal foresight and back sight distances to
eliminate collimation error. Take R.L .of CP1 is 1359.876m. The permissible error
for fly leveling is (±25√k) mm.
 Balance the traverse .The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles
of the traverse should be less than ±√n *1 minutes for major traverse and ±√n *1.5
minutes for minor traverse (n= no. of traverse station). For major and minor
traverse closing error should be less than 1:2000 and 1:1000 respectively.
 Plot the traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale of 1:1000 for
major traverse and 1:500 for minor traverses.
 Carry out the detail survey of the given area by tachometric method with reference
to the major and minor traverse stations, which have been already plotted. Use
conventional symbols for plotting.

2.5 Equipment
The equipment used in the survey during the preparation of preparation map are as
follows:
1. Total station
2. Digital theodolite
3. Leveling instruments
4. Ranging rods
5. Staffs
6. Arrows
7. Pegs
8. Measuring tapes
9. Marker pen
10. Hammer
11. Reflector prism
12. Prism holder

2.6 Methodology
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying .They are as
follows:
1. Working from whole to part
2. Independent check
3. Consistency of work
The different methodologies were in surveying to solve the problems in the field.
These methodologies are as follows:

2.6.1 Reconnaissance(Recce)
Before starting the actual detail survey, surveyor should have a thorough knowledge
of the field to be surveyed. Thus, a mission is undertaken to obtain roughly the
number of stations and the position of the transverse station by visual observation
which we obtain by walking the area to be surveyed. The preliminary inspection of
the area done to get an overall idea of the terrain and the principle features of the
ground is called reconnaissance. This helps to make the necessary observations
regarding the total area, type of land, topography, vegetation, climate, geology
indivisibility conditions that help in detailedplanning.
The following points have to be taken into consideration for fixing traverse stations:
• The adjacent stations should be clearlyinter-visible.
• The entire area should include the least number of stationspossible.
• The ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less than 1:2 for
Major Traverse and 1:3 for Minor Traverse should maintain in transverse station.
• The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as possible,
which may cause inaccuracy in tapping.
• The station should provide minimum level surface required for setting up the
instrument.
• The traverse line of sight should not near the ground level to avoid the refraction.

Taking the above given points into consideration, the traverse station were fixed.
Then two way taping was done for each traverse leg. Thus, permanent fixing of the
control points completes Recce.

Traversing
Traversing is the type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines form
the frame work. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of the
measurement of
 Angles between successive lines or bearing of each line
 The length of each line
The direction and length of the survey line are measured with the help of an angle
measuring instrument such as total station, theodolite and tape. If coordinate of a
traverse station (eg. A) and bearing of the traverse leg(L) through it (eg. Θ) is
known, then the bearing of the next traverse station can be calculatedunder:
Easting of B=Easting of A+L*sinθ
Northing of B=Northing of A+L*cosθ
The different types of traverse are:
1. ClosedTraverse 3. Link Traverse
2. OpenTraverse 4. Loop Traverse
Among different types of traversing like: chain traversing, theodolite traversing, total
station traversing, etc.

Balancing the traverse

There are different methods of adjusting a traverse such as Bowditch’s method,
Transits’ method, Graphical method and axis method. Among them during the survey
camp Bowditch’s method was used to adjust the traverse.
The basis of this method is on the assumption that the errors in linear measurement
are proportional to L and the errors in angular measurement are inversely proportional
to L is length of a line. The Bowditch rule is mostly used to balance a traverse where
linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and
in departure is distributed in proportion of length of the sides.

2.6.2 Major Traverse

Major traverse is the network of traverse legs and stations which covers the entire area
of surveying and acts as major reference framework. As the principle of survey is to
work from whole to part so the work on major traverse must be precise. Usually, two
sets of readings are taken while working on major traverse. For convenience the
reading are taken by setting the total station at 00000’00” for one set and 180000’00”
for the second.

In survey camp, two traverses- major and minor were established. The major traverse
had 17 control stations including two given control points. The control stations
including were name as CP1, CP2, M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M7, M8 and so on
,where CP1 and CP2 are two given/known control stations. The leg ratio of maximum
traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained within 1:2. The discrepancy in
length between the forward measurement and the backward measurement of all the
traverse legs was within 1:2000. Two sets of total station reading were taken for
measuring the horizontal traverse angle. The difference between the mean angle of
two reading was within a minute for all the angles.

2.6.3 Minor Traverse

Minor traverse is usually run through a small area around major traverse to make
detailing easy. It is introduced when it is not sufficient to detail the area by enclosing
it with a major traverse. For minor traverse less precise work is acceptable so a single
set reading is sufficient. The minor traverse includes 3 control stations. The control
stations were named as m1, m2 and m3. The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to
minimum traverse leg was maintained
within 1:3. The discrepancy in length between the forward measurement and the
backward measurement of all the traverse legs was within 1:1000.

2.6.4 Leveling
Leveling is the art of determining relative altitudes of points on or beneath the surface
of the earth. It deals with the measurement in vertical plane. Leveling is the
measurement of geodetic height using an optical leveling instrument and a level staff
or rod having a numbered scale. Common leveling instruments include the spirit level
dumpy level, digital level, and the laser level.

Types of leveling
Leveling can be classified into two main types:

a. Simple leveling
Simple leveling is used to determine the difference in elevation between two points
that are nearer and visible from single position of level. In this type of leveling only
the middle wire reading against the staff is observed and recorded.

b. Differential leveling
Differential leveling is used to determine the difference in elevation between two
points that are either too far apart or obstructed by an intervening ground. In this
method the level is set up at a number of points and the difference in elevation of
successive points is determined. In each setup of instrument a set of BS and FS
readings is taken. While changing the instrument setup the staff form the change point
is not removed until a back sight reading is taken from the next instrument station.
This leveling process is also known as Fly, Compound or Continuous leveling.

Booking and Reduction of levels

There are two widely used methods for booking and reduction of levels:
a. Rise and Fall Method
b. Height of Instrument (H.I.)Method
a. Rise and fall method
In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points for each setting
of instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings. The difference between
their staff readings indicates a rise if the BS reading is more than FS reading and a fall
if it is less than the FS. If the RL of the back staff point is known then the R.L. of the
following point can be obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall from R.L. of
preceding point.
Arithmetic check

The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of foresights should be
equal to the difference between the sum of rises and sum of falls and should be equal
to the difference between the R.L. of the last point and the R.L. of the first point. i.e.

Σ B.S.– Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L.- First R.L- - - - - - - - (1)

This method provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also, as they are
included for calculating the rises and falls.

Adjustment of the level

A level needs temporary and permanent adjustment.

Temporary adjustment of the level
Temporary adjustments are made for every setting of a level. These include:
• Setting up the level
This operation includes fixing the instrument on the tripod and also leveling the
instrument approximately by leg adjustment.
• Leveling Up
After setting up the level, accurate leveling is done by using foot screws and plate
level.
• Removal of the parallax
Parallax is the shift in the image with the shift of eye while taking observation. It
occurs when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. It
is removed by accurate focusing of eye piece, till the cross hair is clearly seen and
objective until image is clear.
Permanent adjustment of the level
To check whether permanent adjustment for a level is needed or not, two peg test is
performed.
Note: Permissible collimation error should be below 1:10000.

Transferring the RL to Major and Minor control points

Fly leveling was carried out by taking back sight at the TBM. The Fly leveling was
closed to TBM. The closing error was with in the given accuracy. The method used
during the recording of Fly leveling was rise and fall method. The closing error was
adjusted according to Bowditch’s rule of error distribution.

Correction to the first leg=error*L1/∑L

Correction to the second leg=error*(L1+L2 )/∑L
Correction to the (n-1)th leg=error*(L1+L2+……+Ln-
1)/∑L Correction to the nth leg=error*(L1+L2+……
+Ln)/∑L

Similarly, the Fly leveling was carried out to transfer RL to Minor station by sighting
back to Major known control point. The error was distributed by using Bowditch’s
rule in the RL of all stations.

Accurate determination of the elevation of different points along the certain alignment
is very necessary part. Hence it is a subject of prime importance of Engineers and the
project as a whole.

2.6.5 Two peg test

Two peg test is one of the methods of adjustment of the line of collimation which is
done to compensate the collimation errors of the leveling instrument. The line of
collimation of the telescope should be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
Therefore, the adjustment of the line of the collimation is very necessary and is of the
prime importance, since the whole function level is to provide horizontal instrument
should have permissible error, i.e. 1:10000. Line of sight. The two peg test is carried
out to determine the accuracy of the instrument. The collimation error (e) can be
calculated by:

e= x/d =1/(x/d)
where, x= difference in readings from two observations.
d= horizontal distance two points.
Generally e can be expressed in 1 in (x/d).

Objectives
The main function of the level is to provide the leveled line of sight. To make the line
of collimation parallel to the axis to bubble tube, two peg test is carried out. By this
test we can find the accuracy of the level and can advice for the re-adjustment of the
instrument if it is out of accuracy.

Methodology
 To points A and B were chosen on a fairly leveled ground at a distance of
20m. Instrument was set at C which was exactly at the midway of A and B.
 Staff was kept at a point A and B and three wire readings were taken on the
staff when the bubble was exactly centered.
 Difference in the elevation was calculated between two points A and B. the
difference in two staffs readings give the current difference in the elevation
even if the line of sight is inclined as balancing of back and foresight is well
carried out.
 The level machine was shifted to point D about 5m from A and three wire
reading were observed on both the staffs kept on A and B.
 Again the difference in the elevation is carried out. If the level difference
obtained previously was equal to level difference obtained presently, line of
collimation is parallel to the axis of bubble tube.
 L/2 L/2 L
Fig, Two peg test when IS at middle and when at near to one point

Fly Leveling:
In this method, auto level was used and the level was transferred directly by taking BS
and FS at every turning point. In this leveling, firstly front side is taken on the staff
and then leveling machine is removed and without making movement on the staff, the
backside reading of the staff is taken. This gives the difference of the level of two
position of the leveling machine.

2.6.6 Detailing
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing is done
by either plane table surveying or tacheometric surveying or by using total station.
The instrument is setup on any one of the traverse stations and horizontal and vertical
controls of various features are noted. The details are finally plotted to obtain a
topographic map.

Contouring
A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface.
It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground
surface.
It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two dimensional plan or map. The
process of tracing contour lines on the surface of earth is called contouring. A contour
map gives the idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative
positions in a plan
Some characteristics of contours to be kept in view while preparing or reading a
contour map are:
 Contour lines of different elevation never intersect except in the case
of overhanging cliff.
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.
 Two or more contours at different elevations never unite to form a
single contour except in case of vertical cliff.
 A contour line must close itself but need not be within the limit of the map
itself.
 A contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of steepest slope at
that point.
 A set of contours with higher values inside depict a hill and with lower values
inside depict a pond or a depression with an outlet.
 Contours drawn closer represent a steep slope and drawn far apart represent a
gentle slope and if equally spaced represent a uniform slope.

When contours cross a ridge or a V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across
them. Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of the higher value contour lies
towards the next lower value contours and represent valley if concavity of lower value
contours lie above higher value contours.

2.6.7 Adjustment and Computation:

For horizontal controls of major and minor traverse

Major traverse
The formula for geometrical check of observed included angles for major traverse is:
Sum of all angles = (n-2) *180˚
where, n= no of traverse stations

The correction to the angles is applied by distributing the error to all observations
equally. As the bearing of leg CP1 to CP2 is known the bearing of rest legs is
calculated using interior angles and running through traverse in anticlockwise
direction as:
For a traverse leg, if sum of the bearing of preceding leg and interior angle between
them is less than 180˚ then, add 180˚ to the sum else subtract 180˚ from the sum to
obtain the bearing of the leg.
Using bearings(θ) and length(l) of traverse legs, easting( lcosθ) and northing( lsinθ)
for each leg is calculated. As the coordinates of common control point (CP1) is taken ,
coordinate of each station is calculated by running through traverse in anticlockwise
direction and adding easting(departure) and northing(Latitude) values. For a closed
traverse the algebraic sum of Easting and sum of Northing should be zero. But, the
sum obtained from our calculation, was not equal to zero so correction is applied to
remove the closing error by using Bowditch rule. According to which,
Correction on Lat/Dept) = closing error on Lat/Dept × length of the of the traverse leg

Total length of traverse

The correction is +ve if the closing error is –ve and vice versa.
After applying correction, the traverse is properly balanced, i.e. algebraic sum of
Easting and Northing is zero. Finally, the independent coordinates of the major
traverse stations is calculated using the adjusted values.

Minor traverse
In case of minor traverse, no correction is applied for the included angles. The bearing
of the major traverse leg connected to a minor traverse leg is known. The bearing of
all minor traverse legs is calculated by help of observed included angles and the
bearing of preceding leg in the same way like major traverse. However unlike major
traverse, bearing of each leg is adjusted.
The formula for adjustment is:
Correction for nth leg =Ne
where, N= total number of minor traverse leg e= Calculated bearing - true bearing
of major traverse leg connected to minor traverse
The Latitude and Departure for all traverse leg is calculated from its adjusted bearings
and length. After that, independent coordinates is calculated. The errors in
independent coordinates are:
Error in Lat/Dept (e’) = calculated value – true value of lat/dept of the traverse
station common to both major and minor traverse
For a minor traverse station, the correction to the independent coordinates is +ve if
error is negative and vice versa and is calculated as:
Correction for lat/ dept of nth station = Ne’
where, N= total number of minor stations
e’= total error in Lat/dept

For vertical control:

In case of differential leveling, at first for calculating the RL, rise and fall method is
used. The arithmetic check is performed to remove calculation errors. Other errors
present are also adjusted. For both loops i.e. from PBM to TBM1 and from TBM1 to
near station closing error is calculated as:
Closing error of a loop = Calculated RL- True RL of the starting BM
The closing error must lie within ±25√𝑘 mm, where k is total distance travelled in
KM. In our, calculation, the closing error calculated for the two loops is found to be
within the permissible value. The closing error is adjusted by applying correctionas:
Correction to ith leg = - (e × (L1+L2+…..+Li) /
P) where, e= closing error
L is distance between consecutive stations
P is total length of alignment/loop

Finally, adjusted values of RL are obtained.

In case of fly leveling at major traverse stations also, the RL is calculated by rise and
fall method; however no correction is applied on the calculated values.

2.7 Conclusion:
The wide range of information provided by topographical maps has made them
extremely useful in today’s world of map users. Topographical maps are used for
engineering, energy exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental
management, public works design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor
activities like hiking, camping and fishing. Its importance is increasing day by day.
So, being an expertise in Geomatics field must be familiar with techniques of
topographical survey and topographical map making. The survey camp became a lot
more beneficial for us students in understanding the basic concept and practices for a
topographical survey. We improved our traversing, leveling, detailing and contouring
techniques during the camp period. We also learned to plot traverse on grid sheet.
Especially, we learned to use Total Station for making topographical maps, which is a
great achievement. Summarizing, the topographical survey conducted during the
camp promoted and excelled the student’s knowledge of topographical map making
procedures which may come up in their professional life.‘
Finally, the topographic map of NEA Training Center area was prepared.
 CHAPTER 3: ROAD ALIGNMENT

3.1 Introduction
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are
typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they
need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any
formal construction or maintenance. The road needs to pass through positive
obligatory points. Positive obligatory points include cities, schools, markets and
negative obligatory points include temples, national parks and wild life conservation
areas. Road must not pass through such negative obligatory points.
Before the construction of the road, preliminary survey is done. Road alignment is the
preliminary stage of road construction. Selection of Intersection Points (IP) is the
foundation of construction of the road. After that cross section, longitudinal section
and formation level are required.

3.2 Brief Description of Area

Road alignment and bridge site survey goes side by side to run a road between two
terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along the route. This
specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the mountainous topography
of Nepal.
Road alignment and bridge site survey includes both the works to run a road between
two terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along the route. This
specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the mountainous topography
of Nepal. This survey was also taken in Khairipati,Bhaktapur(NEA) field starting
near Boys hostel which is covered with densely shrubs and with small steeps. The
route selected by our group 2 contained 9 IPs. There are several rise and fall along the
route needing lots of cutting and filling.

3.3 Hydrology and Geology

The road had to go along a route that was much undulated. There were no boulders or
rocks of any kind along the proposed site.
There are several places where culvert or cause way can exist. The soil is almost
uniform throughout the whole length of the road. Although the road alignment has
certain up and downs. Finally the starting and ending point of the road has not
significant level differences.

3.4 Soil
If along the potential slip surface in the soil the stress produced by gravity exceeds the
shear strength of the soil along the potential failure surface, the slope will become
unstable. Obviously, the shear strength of soil is largely depends upon the type of soil.
Cohesive soil has more shear strength than others do. The hard and dense soil is best
for slopes. We found soft clayey soil that was very damp. Other kinds of soils were
not found along our proposed route.

3.5 Norms
Reece alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering
permissible gradient, obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative
horizontal and vertical curves. The road setting horizontal curve, cross sectional
detail in 5m interval and longitudinal profile were prepared.
The topographic map (scale 1:1000) of road corridor was prepared. Geometric curves,
road formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in the
map.
While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were strictly
followed:
 Carry out reconnaissance survey and alignment selection of a road corridor
about 1000m or more.
 If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves
need not be fitted.
 Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its
direction, determining and pegging three points on the curve - the beginning
of the curve, the middle point of the curve and the end of the curve along the
centerline of the road.
 The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and
 safe. The radius of the curve should not be less than 12m. The radius must be
within the multiple of 5 or 10.
 The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12%
 - 20-
 Subsequent reverse curves in road alignment should beavoided.
 The deflection angle should not be greater than 90`.
 Two successive curves must not be overlapped.
 Carry out leveling survey for longitudinal section along the centre line at 15m
interval, at abrupt change point and at all the curve point BC, MC and EC.
Close the leveling survey and check the RL at job site immediately.
Permissible error of closure for leveling must not be greater than ±25√k mm.
 Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning, middle
and end of the curve, along the centerline of the road - observations being
taken for at least 10 m on either side of the center line.
 Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:500
 L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and
1:100 vertically.
 The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both
vertical and horizontal).
 The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be
determined from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the volume
of cutting had to be roughly equal to the volume of filling.

3.6 Equipments
The following are the instruments used during the road alignment survey in the field:
 Theodolite
 Tripod Stand
 Plumb Bob
 Leveling Instrument
 Leveling Staffs
 Ranging Rods
  Measuring Tape
 Pegs and Arrows
 Marker Pen

3.7 Methodology
Initially, Reconnaissance survey of proposed area was carried out. During the
process the routes which were impractical or unfeasible were eliminated and more
promising routes were identified. The points that were taken as guidelines during
reconnaissance are as follows:

1. Locate the portion of new road along or over existing roads, railroads, or trails,
when ever possible.
2. Locate the road on stable ground which is easily drained, avoiding swamps and
marshes.
3. Locate the road along ridges and streamlines, keeping drainage structures to a
minimum.
4. Select a route as near to sources of local materials.
5. Select suitable location that avoids rockwork and excessive clearing as far as
possible.
6. Avoid sharp curves and locations which involve bridging.

3.7.1 Factor controlling Highway alignment

1. Obligatory points
a. Obligatory points through which road alignment should pass
b. Obligatory point through which road alignment should not pass
2. Volume and type of traffic
3. Topographical feature
4. Geometric stander
5. Canal, river, or railway crossing
6. Flood in the area
7. Geological condition
8. Places of availability of construction material and labour
9. Existing right of way
10. Political and other considering
11. Economics

Site Selection

Reconnaissance Survey

Selection
Fixation andalignment
of road marking of Intersection Points (IP)

Measurement of deflection angles

Profile leveling

Measurement of distance between IPs

Cross Section Leveling

Selection of suitable radius for horizontal curves

Booking of field notes

Fixing and marking of BC, MC and EC

Plotting

Documentation and report Writing

Fig. Methodology of Road Survey

3.7.2 Fixing of Road Alignment
Initially IPs were fixed and marked, which gave the general framework of somewhat
safe, economic, short and easy road alignment. Then, the bearing of lines joining
TBM and starting point at centre line of road alignment (IP0) and point IP0 and next
intersection point was found.

The distance between consecutive IPs and the deflection angle at each IP was
measured using a tape and a theodolite respectively. For measuring longer
distances, process of ranging was used.

Then for the places with deflection angle more than 3˚, simple curves with suitable
radius were introduced. The radius of the curve was assumed according to deflection
angle. Then the values of TL, external distance, CH of PC, CH of MC and CH of PT
were calculated. The points: PC, MC and PT of curves were located by measuring the
tangent length, and External distance from IP and were marked distinctly.

3.7.3 Leveling
Profile leveling was conducted along the road alignment, during which the RL from
TBM was transferred to the points lying on centre line of road alignment including the
points on PC, MC and PT of each curve. For areas with gentle slopes, the points were
observed at about 20m interval and for areas with varying topography the points were
observed closer.

The RL of each observed point was calculated using Rise and fall method.

The cross section data was taken at every 5m distance, at right angles to the
profile level. The length of cross section was made 15m to either side of the
center line whenever possible. If not, the change in slope was directly measured
using staffs and tape.
3.7.4 Longitudinal section
Longitudinal section of the road is plotted by observing the staff reading taken at
the interval of every 20m along the central line and also the staff reading at BC,
MC and EC of the respective curves. The RL of each point was computed and
the profile was plotted on the graph at the horizontal scale of 1:1000 and 1:100
for the vertical scale.

3.7.5 Cross section

Cross sectioning data was taken at right angles to the longitudinal profile on
either side to 5m where ever is possible and the change in the slope was directly
measured using the staff intercept made by the horizontal staff i.e. stepping
method. Cross sectioning data were plotted on the graph at the horizontal scale
of 1:100 and vertical scale of 1:100 as the horizontal and vertical scale of cross
sectioning sheet must be same.
3.7.6 Topographic survey of road corridor
Topographic survey of the road corridor was done by taking the deflection angle
at each point where two straight road meet. The chainage of intersection point,
tangent point and middle points were also located and marked by tapping. The
staff reading of each of these point were also taken and the RL was also
transferred to find out the elevation and to plot them in the L sectioning.
3.7.7 Structures
The structure provided for road construction are retaining structures, cross drain
and side drain are provided where the slope is critical. The camber of road is
provided on the middle of the lane so as to avoid any collection of water on it.
Longitudinal drain is provided on the side of the road and retaining walls are
provided on the required places.

Construction of hill road involves many special structures and may include wide
range of structures which are used to retain soil mass to increase soil stability of
road embankment slopes as well as natural hill slopes, to accommodate road bed
in steep slope, to penetrate deep through mountain, pass and so on. The
following types of structures are used normally on the hilly road
  Retaining structure
 Drainage structure
 Slope protection structure

 Retaining structure
A retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of supporting
or retaining a vertical or nearly vertical earth bank, which in turn may support
vehicle loads along with self-weight of it. It provides adequate stability to the
road way and to the slope. Retaining walls are constructed on the valley side on
the road way and also on the cut hills to prevent slide towards the road way. The
different types of retaining walls are:
 Gravity walls
 Cantilever walls
 Counter fort walls

 Drainage structure

Roadway drainage structure means a device such as a bridge, culvert or ditch,

composed of a virtually non-erodible material such as concrete, steel, plastic or
other such material that conveys water under a roadway by intercepting the flow
on one side of a traveled way consisting of one or more defined lanes, with or
without shoulder areas, and carrying water to a release point on the other side.

3.7.8 Plotting
After performing necessary calculations and adjustments, plotting was carried
out. The profile of road alignment was prepared by plotting RL of points along
Y-axis and chainage along X-axis. The horizontal and vertical scale for profile
was kept 1:1000 and 1:100 respectively. Furthermore, layout of formation level
was also shown, the gradient of which was maintained less than 12%. The depth
of cut and fill was also calculated and shown.
The cross section data were also plotted on the graph at the horizontal and vertical
scale of 1:100 Formation level was shown and the amount of cut and fill was also
calculated and shown. Moreover, various structures of roads like drainage, super
elevation, camber, retaining wall, etc were designed and shown wherever required.
3.7.9 Adjustment and Computations
The various elements of simple curve are calculated as:

 Tangent length (T L) = R x Tan (/2)

 Length of curve (L.C) = 3.1416 xRx /180
 External distance = R x (1/(Cos (/2)-1)
 Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP – TL
 Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC +LC/2
 Chainage of EC = Chainage of MC +LC/2

The RL of various points during profile and cross sectional leveling are computed
by using Rise and Fall method. In the method, the difference of level between two
consecutive points for each setting of instrument is obtained by comparing their staff
readings. The difference between their staff readings gives a rise if the BS reading is
more than FS reading and a fall if it is less than the FS. If the RL of the back staff
point is known then the R.L. of the following point is be obtained by adding its rise or
subtracting its fall from R.L. of preceding point. The arithmetic check applied is:

Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

3.8 Conclusion
Although virtual connectivity has become increasingly important today with
emergence of new communication avenues, a good and reliable transport network
remains vital. Better roadways are foundations for economic growth of a nation. The
survey of road alignment and geometrics design gave us the idea for design and layout
of economical, comfortable and durable road network. We learned to fix a road
alignment by avoiding the obligatory points. We also got idea to design the layout of
various structures of road on the basis of the topography of terrain. Furthermore, we
improved our skill of carrying out profile and cross sectional survey of road alignment
and were able to prepare the L-section and X-section of road alignment also.
Concluding, the camp enhanced our knowledge, working capacity, planning and time
management skills necessary for conducting road survey and geometrics design.
 CHAPTER 4: BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

4.1 Introduction:

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way
underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing
passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a
particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to
build it. For mountainous countries like Nepal, bridge is not just the way of
accessibility, but could make it easier to take sick to hospital, could open up isolated
communities and settlement to outer world, make it easier for produce to go to
market, bring down the price of communities imported from outside, enhance trade,
agriculture, industry, employment etc. and ultimately strengthen the communities
economically. So, construction of bridge is very important in the context of Nepal.

A bridge site survey is necessary to locate a site for bridge construction, obtain the
information for design and layout of bridge and furnish lines and grades for its
construction. The overall design and construction of bridge is based on outcomes of
the bridge site survey so, it should be sincerely performed.

4.2 Objective:

The primary objective of the bridge site survey is to locate horizontals and vertical
controls for the center line/axis of a bridge. The sub objectives are:

 To select suitable site for bridge construction by considering technical and

socioeconomic aspect of the site.
 To take detailing of the area, both up and downstream portions, needed for
planning and design of bridge.
 To collect preliminary data about the normal water level, High Flood Level,
 pathway of the river and other features needed for planning and design of
bridge.
 To prepare cross-section of river at several portions.
 To prepare topographical map of the bridge site.

4.3 Brief Description of the Area:

Country: Nepal

Development Region: Central

Zone: Bagmati

District: Bhaktapur

Metropolitan: Bhaktapur

Terrain: Hilly

Climate: Sub-Tropical

Temperature: Avg. Max 27˚ C and Avg. Min 2˚ C

4.4 Norms (Technical Specifications):

 Control points fixing and determination of the bridge axis and horizontal
controls should be done by the method of triangulation.
 Well-conditioned triangles, i.e. triangles having angles within 30˚ to 120˚
should be formed.
 Two sets of readings should be taken while measuring the angles of the
triangles with Total station. The difference of mean angles of the two sets of
reading should be within a minute.
 The value of precision while calculating bridge span should be within 1:5000.
  The difference between two elevations difference obtained from reciprocal
leveling should be within ±9mm.

4.5 Instrument Required:

-Total Station Set -Hammer

-Leveling Machine -Pegs

-Measuring Tapes - Marker Pens

-Tripod stand - Ranging Rod

 The L-section of the river should be plotted on following scale :

Horizontal Scale :1:100

Vertical Scale :1:100

 The Cross-section of the river should be plotted following scale:

Horizontal Scale :1:100

Vertical Scale :1:100

4.6 Methodology:

The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation,
leveling, tacheometry, cross sections, L-sections etc. The brief description of this
methodologies are given below.

4.6.1 Site selection:

There are various factors for the selection of bridge site, such as geological condition,
socio economic and ecological aspect etc. therefore, the site was chosen such that it
should be laid on the very stable rock at the bed of river as far as possible and not
affect the ecological balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The bridge axis
should be so located that it should be fairly perpendicular to the flow direction and at
the same time, the river width should be narrow from the economical point of view
and the free board should be at least 5m. The starting point of bridge axis should not
in any way lie or touch the curve of the road.

The site selected for the bridge axis was near the curve of the river with no
community near-by. For the purpose of the shortest span, the station where set
perpendicular to the river flow direction. The riverbanks were not eroded and were
suitable for bridge construction. The chance of direction of river on the selected axis
line was nominal.

4.6.2 Topographic survey:

For the topographic survey of the bridge site triangulation was done. First the bridge
axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side for detailing.
Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. base line were measured
with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were
measured with theodolite. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by solving
the triangles using the sine rule. Thus the horizontal control was setout.

Trangulation

In surveying, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by

measuring only angles to it from known points at either end of a fixed baseline, rather
than measuring distances to the point directly as in trilateration. The point can then be
fixed as the third point of a triangle with one known side and two known angles.

Triangulation can also refer to the accurate surveying of systems of very large
triangles, called triangulation networks. Surveying error is minimized if a mesh of
triangles at the largest appropriate scale is established first. Points inside the triangles
can all then be accurately located with reference to it. Such triangulation methods
were used for accurate large-scale land surveying until the rise of global navigation
satellite systems in the 1980s. In triangulation a series of connected and overlapping
triangles forming various geometrical figures is used. The vertices of the triangles in a
triangulation network are called triangulation stations. During Triangulation,
essentially, a side, called base line, and all the angles of the network are observed.
The observations are checked, adjusted and then, used to calculate the remaining sides
of the triangle. Sine rule is used for the purposeas:
 D

A base line

b c B

Fig. Triangulation

In fig above,
a/SinA=b/SinB=c/SinC
Hence, c=a*SinC/SinA

The bearing of the base line is also measured. Finally using the adjusted values of
azimuth, angles and distances, the coordinates of the survey stations are determined
by latitude departure method.
Triangulation process is used for transferring control points across large water body,
for establishing control points for photogrammetry, for finding the direction of
movement of clouds and for various engineering works. Bridge Survey is one of those
fields where triangulation is widely used. It helps for fixing center line and abutments
of bridges, and finding span of bridge over large rivers.

4.6.3 Longitudinal Section

The longitudinal section (L- section) is generally carried out along the centre line of
proposed alignments like: highways, railways, pipe lines, canals, etc. In case of river,
L- section gives idea about the bed slope, nature of the riverbed and relative height of
different points lying along the center line of the river. Such information is useful
while deciding the design of bridge.
 4.6.4 Cross Section
v
Cross section is run at right angles to the center line of an alignment for determining
the lateral outline of the ground surface. In case of river, cross section is done to get
idea about bed slope, nature of river bed and relative heights of different points lying
along opposite sides of the center line of river so that design of bridge is easier and
effective.

4.6.5 Leveling

Reciprocal leveling

The operation of leveling in which the difference in elevations between two points is
accurately determined by taking two sets of reciprocal observations is called
reciprocal leveling. It is carried out when it is not possible to set up the level between
two points (stations) due to an intervening ground or other obstacle. Reciprocal
leveling is usually used for leveling across large water bodies, to transfer RL from a
side, to the other side of the obstruction. This method eliminates the error due to
focusing, collimation, earth's curvature and refraction due to atmosphere.

Fig. Reciprocal Leveling

For reciprocal leveling, two staffs are kept at two sides of the water body. The
instrument is set up two times, first at one bank and then at the other near to each
staff. The staff reading at both staff is noted. The difference in elevation between
points A and B in fig is given as:

h= (b1 – e)-a1 - - - - - - - - -(I)

h= (b2 - a2 )+e - - - - - - - --(II)

Simplifying, h = (b1 - a1) + (b2 - a2)

Where, h = true elevation difference = error due to refraction.

Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is a spirit leveling operation done to determine the elevations of a

number of points some distance apart. In this process the instrument is kept in
between two intermediate stations, where staffs are kept and set of back sight and fore
sight readings is taken. The difference in elevations of the two stations is equal to the
difference of the staff readings. The process is repeated till the RL is transferred from
Bench mark to the required point. Differential leveling is sometimes also known as fly
leveling if the observation is taken by setting up instrument tentatively in between two
intermediate stations.

4.7 Conclusion

The construction of bridges is crucial for the economic growth and

development of Nepal. Over the last few decades, various government and non-
governmental sectors are working on the construction of bridges all over Nepal. The
bridge site survey camp helped us to enhance our capacity required to work in bridge
construction sector. It made us familiar with the things to be considered and
performed while carrying out bridge site survey. We learned to fix the proper place
for running bridge axis by considering technical, socio economic and geological
aspects of the bridge site. We practiced triangulation and leveling processes in actual
field environment. We also knew the proper detailing methods for obtaining data
required to prepare L-section and Cross section of river.
 BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Surveying vol.1
2. Surveying vol.2
3. A text book of surveying
4. Former reports
5. Googleearth.com
 REFERENCES

1. Surveying vol. 1 by B.C. Punimia, Ashok K Jain, Arun K Jain, Laxmi

Publication Pvt.Ltd.
2. Surveying vol. 2 by B.C. Punimia, Ashok K Jain, Arun K Jain, Laxmi
Publication Pvt.Ltd.
3. A Text Book of Surveying and Leveling, R. Agor, KhannaPublishers.
4. Former reports prepared by seniors.
5. Referencelink
www.googleearth.com