1

Instructor: Richard Mellitz

Introduction to Frequency
Domain Analysis (3 Classes)
Many thanks to Steve Hall, Intel for the use of his slides
Reference Reading: Posar Ch 4.5
http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5952-1087.pdf

Slide content from Stephen Hall

Differential Signaling
Outline
2

✓Motivation: Why Use Frequency Domain Analysis

✓2-Port Network Analysis Theory
✓Impedance and Admittance Matrix
✓Scattering Matrix
✓Transmission (ABCD) Matrix
✓Mason’s Rule
✓Cascading S-Matrices and Voltage Transfer Function
✓Differential (4-port) Scattering Matrix

Differential Signaling
 3
Motivation: Why Frequency Domain Analysis?
✓Time Domain signals on T-lines lines are hard to analyze
➢Many properties, which can dominate performance, are frequency
dependent, and difficult to directly observe in the time domain
• Skin effect, Dielectric losses, dispersion, resonance

✓Frequency Domain Analysis allows discrete

characterization of a linear network at each frequency
➢Characterization at a single frequency is much easier

✓Frequency Analysis is beneficial for Three reasons

➢Ease and accuracy of measurement at high frequencies
➢Simplified mathematics
➢Allows separation of electrical phenomena (loss, resonance … etc)

Differential Signaling
Key Concepts 4

Here are the key concepts that you should retain from this
class
✓The input impedance & the input reflection coefficient of a
transmission line is dependent on:
➢Termination and characteristic impedance
➢Delay
➢Frequency
✓S-Parameters are used to extract electrical parameters
➢Transmission line parameters (R,L,C,G, TD and Zo) can be
extracted from S parameters
➢Vias, connectors, socket s-parameters can be used to create
equivalent circuits=
✓The behavior of S-parameters can be used to gain
intuition of signal integrity problems

Differential Signaling
Review – Important Concepts
5

✓ The impedance looking into a terminated transmission

line changes with frequency and line length

✓ The input reflection coefficient looking into a

terminated transmission line also changes with
frequency and line length

✓ If the input reflection of a transmission line is known,

then the line length can be determined by observing
the periodicity of the reflection

✓ The peak of the input reflection can be used to

determine line and load impedance values

Differential Signaling
Two Port Network Theory
6

✓Network theory is based on the property that a linear

system can be completely characterized by
parameters measured ONLY at the input & output
ports without regard to the content of the system

✓Networks can have any number of ports, however,

consideration of a 2-port network is sufficient to
explain the theory
➢A 2-port network has 1 input and 1 output port.
➢The ports can be characterized with many parameters, each
parameter has a specific advantage

✓Each Parameter set is related to 4 variables

➢2 independent variables for excitation
➢2 dependent variables for response

Differential Signaling
 7
Network characterized with Port Impedance
✓Measuring the port impedance is network is the most
simplistic and intuitive method of characterizing a network
I1 I2

2- port
2-port
Port 1 V1 + + V
2
Port 2
- Networ
Network -
k

Case 1: Inject current I1 into port 1 and measure the open circuit voltage at
port 2 and calculate the resultant impedance from port 1 to port 2

Vopen, port2
Z 21 =
I port1
Case 2: Inject current I1 into port 1 and measure the voltage at port 1
and calculate the resultant input impedance

Vopen, port1
Z11 =
I
Differentialport1
Signaling
Impedance Matrix
8

✓ A set of linear equations can be written to describe the network in

terms of its port impedances

V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 V1 Z11 Z12 I1

Or = 
V2 = Z 21I1 + Z 22 I 2 V2 Z 21 Z 22 I 2
Where:
Vi
Z ij = = Open Circuit Voltage measured at Port i

Ij Current Injected at Port j

Zii → the impedance looking into port i

Zij → the impedance between port i and j

If the impedance matrix is known, the response of the

system can be predicted for any input
Differential Signaling
Impedance Matrix: Example #2
9

Calculate the impedance matrix for the following circuit:

R1 R2

Port 1 R3 Port 2

Differential Signaling
Impedance Matrix: Example #2
10

Step 1: Calculate the input impedance

R1 R2
V1 = I1 ( R1 + R3 )
+ V1
I1 V1 R3 Z11 = = R1 + R3
I1
-

Step 2: Calculate the impedance across the network

R3
R1 R2
V2 = V1
R1 + R3
+
R3
I1 R3 V2
= I1 ( R3 + R1 ) = I1 R3
- R1 + R3
V2
Z =
Differential Signaling 21
= R3
I1
Impedance Matrix: Example #2
11

Step 3: Calculate the Impedance matrix

Assume: R1 = R2 = 30 ohms
R3=150 ohms

Z11 = R1 + R3 = 180
Z 21 = 30

180 30
Z Matrix =
30 180

Differential Signaling
Measuring the impedance matrix
12

Question:
✓ What obstacles are expected when measuring the impedance
matrix of the following transmission line structure assuming that
the micro-probes have the following parasitics?
➢ Lprobe=0.1nH
➢ Cprobe=0.3pF

Assume F=5 GHz

0.1nH T-line 0.1nH

Port 1
0.3pF 0.3pF Port 2

Zo=50 ohms, length=5 in

Differential Signaling
 Measuring the impedance matrix
13

Answer:
✓ Open circuit voltages are very hard to measure at high frequencies
because they generally do not exist for small dimensions
➢ Open circuit → capacitance = impedance at high frequencies
➢ Probe and via impedance not insignificant

Without Probe Capacitance

0.1nH T-line 0.1nH
0.1nH
Port 1 T-line Zo = 50
Port 2 Port 1 Port 2
0.3pF 0.3pF Port
Z21 = 50 ohms
Zo=50 ohms, length=5 in
With Probe Capacitance @ 5 GHz
Zo = 50
Port 1 Port 2
Z probe_ L  2fL = 3
106 ohms 106 ohms
1
Z probe_ C  = 106
2fC
Differential Signaling Z21 = 63 ohms
 14
Advantages/Disadvantages of Impedance Matrix
Advantages:
✓The impedance matrix is very intuitive
➢Relates all ports to an impedance
➢Easy to calculate

Disadvantages:
✓Requires open circuit voltage measurements
➢Difficult to measure
➢Open circuit reflections cause measurement noise
➢Open circuit capacitance not trivial at high frequencies

Note: The Admittance Matrix is very similar, however, it is characterized

with short circuit currents instead of open circuit voltages
Differential Signaling
 15
Scattering Matrix (S-parameters)
✓Measuring the “power” at each port across a well
characterized impedance circumvents the problems
measuring high frequency “opens” & “shorts”
✓The scattering matrix, or (S-parameters), characterizes the
network by observing transmitted & reflected power waves
a1 a2

Port 1 2-port R Port 2

R
Network

b1 b2

ai represents the square root of the power wave injected into port i
+
V2 Vi
P=  P = ai =
R R −
Vj
bj represents the power wave coming out of port j bj =
Differential Signaling R
Scattering Matrix
16

✓ A set of linear equations can be written to describe the network in

terms of injected and transmitted power waves

b1 = S11a1 + S12a2 b1 S11 S12 a1

b2 = S 21a1 + S 22a2 = 
b2 S 21 S 22 a2
Where:
bi Power measured at port i
Sij = =
aj
Power injected at port j
Sii = the ratio of the reflected power to the injected power at port i

Sij = the ratio of the power measured at port j to the power injected at
port i

Differential Signaling
Making sense of S-Parameters – Return Loss 17

✓When there is no reflection from the load, or the line length

is zero, S11 = Reflection coefficient
R=50

Zo R=Zo

Z=-l Z=0
−
V1
−
b1 R V1 Vreflected Z o − 50
S11 = = + = + = = o =
a1 a 2=0
V1 V1 Vincident Z o + 50
R
S11 is measure of the power returned to the source,
and is called the “Return Loss”
Differential Signaling
Making sense of S-Parameters – Return Loss
18

✓When there is a reflection from the load, S11 will be

composed of multiple reflections due to the standing waves

1 + (−l )
Z in = Z (−l ) = Z o Zo RL
1 − (−l )
Z=-l Z=0

✓If the network is driven with a 50 ohm source, then S11 is

calculated using the input impedance instead of Zo

50 ohms

S11 of a transmission line

S = =
Z in − 50 Z
Z in + 50
in
will exhibit periodic effects
due to the standing waves
11 Differential Signaling
Example #3 – Interpreting the return loss
19

✓Based on the S11 plot shown below, calculate both the

impedance and dielectric constant

R=50 Zo R=50
L=5 inches

0.45
0.4
S11, Magnitude

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3..0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Differential Signaling
Frequency, GHz
Example – Interpreting the return loss
20

0.45
1.76GHz 2.94GHz
0.4 Peak=0.384

S11, Magnitude
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Frequency, GHz

✓ Step 1: Calculate the time delay ✓ Step 2: Calculate Er using the velocity
of the t-line using the peaks
1 c 3 108 m / s
1 =v= =
f peaks = 2.94GHz − 1.76GHz = TD Er Er
2TD
TD = 423.7 ps  TD / inch 1
=
84.7 ps / inch  39.37inch / m)
TD / inch = 423.7 ps / 5" = 84.7 ps / inch
Differential Signaling Er = 1.0
Example – Interpreting the return loss
21

✓ Step 3: Calculate the input

Z in − 50
impedance to the S11 = = 0.384
transmission line based on Z in + 50
the peak S11 at 1.76GHz
Z in = 112.33

Note: The phase of the

50 − Z o j 4fl LC
reflection should be either ( x) = o e 2l = e
+1 or -1 at 1.76 GHz because 50 + Z o
it is aligned with the
e j 4  fl LC = e j 4 1.76GHz( −5)84.7 ps = e − j 9.366  −1
incident
50 − Z o
1+ (−1)
✓ Step 4: Calculate the 1 + ( x = 5) 50 + Z o
Z in = Z o = 112.33 = Z o
characteristic impedance 1 − ( x = 5) 50 − Z o
based on the input 1− (−1)
50 + Z o
impedance for x=-5 inches
Z o = 74.9

Er=1.0 and Zo=75 ohms

Differential Signaling
 Making sense of S-Parameters – Insertion Loss
22

✓When power is injected into Port 1 with source impedance Z0

and measured at Port 2 with measurement load impedance
Z0, the power ratio reduces to
−
a voltage ratio
V2
−
b2 Z o V2 Vtransmitted
S 21 = = + = + =
a1 a 2=0 V1 V1 Vincident
a1 Zo a =0 2

V1 Zo 2-port Zo V2
Network

b1 b2
S21 is measure of the power transmitted from
port 1 to port 2, and is called the “Insertion Loss”
Differential Signaling
Loss free networks
23

✓ For a loss free network, the total power exiting the N ports must
equal the total incident power

Pincident = Pexit
✓ If there is no loss in the network, the total power leaving the
network must be accounted for in the power reflected from the
incident port and the power transmitted through network

Preflected _ port1 Ptransmitted _ port1− port2

+ =1
Pincident Pincident
✓ Since s-parameters are the square root of power ratios, the
following is true for loss-free networks

(S11 ) + (S21 )
2 2
=1
✓ If the above relationship does not equal 1, then there is loss in the
network, and the difference is proportional to the power dissipated
by the network Differential Signaling
Insertion loss example
24

Question:
✓ What percentage of the total power is dissipated by the
transmission line?
✓ Estimate the magnitude of Zo (bound it)
S-parameters; 5 inch microstrip

1.2

0.8
Magnitude

S(1,1)
0.6 S(1,2)

0.4

0.2

0
0.E+00 2.E+09 4.E+09 6.E+09 8.E+09 1.E+10 1.E+10
Frequency, Hz

Differential Signaling
Insertion loss example
25

✓ What percentage of the total power is dissipated by the transmission

line ?
✓ What is the approximate Zo?
✓ How much amplitude degradation will this t-line contribute to a 8 GT/s
signal?
✓ If the transmission line is placed in a 28 ohm system (such as Rambus),
will the amplitude degradation estimated above remain constant?
✓ Estimate alpha for 8 GT/s signal
S-parameters; 5 inch microstrip;

1.2

0.8 S(1,1)
Magnitude

S(1,2)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.E+00 2.E+09
Differential
4.E+09
Signaling
6.E+09 8.E+09 1.E+10
Frequency, Hz
Insertion loss example
26

Answer:
✓ Since there are minimal reflections on this line, alpha can be
estimated directly from the insertion loss
➢ S21~0.75 at 4 GHz (8 GT/s)

When the reflections are minimal, alpha can be estimated

S21  e −l = 0.75 = e − (5) →  = 0.057

✓ If S11 < ~ 0.2 (-14 dB), then the above approximation is valid

✓ If the reflections are NOT small, alpha must be extracted

with ABCD parameters (which are reviewed later)
✓ The loss parameter is “1/A” for ABCD parameters
✓ ABCE will be discussed later.

Differential Signaling
Important concepts demonstrated
27

✓ The impedance can be determined by the

magnitude of S11

✓ The electrical delay can be determined by the

phase, or periodicity of S11

✓ The magnitude of the signal degradation can be

determined by observing S21

✓ The total power dissipated by the network can be

determined by adding the square of the insertion
and return losses

Differential Signaling
A note about the term “Loss”
28

✓True losses come from physical energy losses

➢Ohmic (I.e., skin effect)
➢Field dampening effects (Loss Tangent)
➢Radiation (EMI)

✓Insertion and Return losses include effects such as

impedance discontinuities and resonance effects, which are
not true losses

✓Loss free networks can still exhibit significant insertion and

return losses due to impedance discontinuities

Differential Signaling
Advantages/Disadvantages of S-parameters
29

Advantages:
✓Ease of measurement
➢Much easier to measure power at high frequencies than open/short
current and voltage
✓S-parameters can be used to extract the transmission line
parameters
➢n parameters and n Unknowns
Disadvantages:
✓Most digital circuit operate using voltage thresholds. This
suggest that analysis should ultimately be related to the time
domain.
✓Many silicon loads are non-linear which make the job of
converting s-parameters back into time domain non-trivial.
✓Conversion between time and frequency domain introduces
errors
Differential Signaling
Cascading S parameter
30

3 cascaded s parameter blocks

a11 a21 b12 b22 a13 a13
s111 s121 s113 s123
s211 s221 s213 s223
s112 s122
 s11 s12 
 
s212 s222  s21 s22 
b11 b21 a12 a22 b13 b13

✓ While it is possible to cascade s-parameters, it gets

messy.
✓ Graphically we just flip every other matrix.
✓ Mathematically there is a better way… ABCD parameters
✓ We will analyzed this later with signal flow graphs

Differential Signaling
ABCD Parameters
31

✓The transmission matrix describes the network in terms

of both voltage and current waves

I1 I2
V1 = AV2 + BI 2
I1 = CV2 + DI 2
V1 2-port V2
Network
V1 A B V2
=
✓The coefficients can be defined I1 C D I 2
using superposition

V1 V1 I1 I1
A= B= C= D=
V2 I 2 =0
I 2 V =0 V2 I 2 =0
I2 V2 = 0
2

Differential Signaling
Transmission (ABCD) Matrix
32

✓Since the ABCD matrix represents the ports in terms of

currents and voltages, it is well suited for cascading
elements
I1 I2 I3

A B A B
V1 V2 V3
C D1 C D2

✓The matrices can be cascaded by multiplication

V1 A B V2
= 
I1 C D 1 I 2 V1 A B A B V3
V2 A B V3
=  
=  I1 C D 1 C D 2 I 3
I 2 C D 2 I3
This is the best way to cascade elements in the frequency domain.
Differential Signaling
It is accurate, intuitive and simplistic.
 Relating the ABCD Matrix to Common
33

Circuits
Z A =1 B = Z
Port 1 Port 2 Assignment 6:
C = 0 D =1
Convert these
A =1 B=0 to s-parameters
Port 1 Y Port 2
C =Y D =1
Z1 Z2
A = 1 + Z1 / Z 3 B = Z1 + Z 2 + Z1Z 2 / Z 3
Port 1 Z3 Port 2
C = 1 / Z3 D = 1 + Z 2 / Z3

Y3 A = 1 + Y2 / Y3 B = 1 / Y3
Port 1 Y1 Y2 Port 2
C = Y1 + Y2 + Y1Y2 / Y3 D = 1 + Y1 / Y3

A = cosh( l ) B = Z o sinh( l )
Port 1 Zo , Port 2
C = (1 / Z o ) sinh( l ) D = cosh( l )
l Differential Signaling
Converting to and from the S-Matrix
34

✓ The S-parameters can be measured with a VNA, and converted

back and forth into ABCD the Matrix
➢Allows conversion into a more intuitive matrix
➢Allows conversion to ABCD for cascading
➢ABCD matrix can be directly related to several useful circuit topologies

(1 + S11 )(1 − S 22 ) + S12 S 21 A + B / Z o − CZ o − D

A= S11 =
2S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
(1 + S11 )(1 + S 22 ) − S12 S 21 2( AD − BC )
B = Zo S12 =
2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
1 (1 − S11 )(1 − S 22 ) − S12 S 21 S 21 =
2
C=
Zo 2S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
(1 − S11 )(1 + S 22 ) + S12 S 21 − A + B / Z o − CZ o + D
D= S11 =
2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #1
35

✓ Create a model of a via from the

measured s-parameters

Port 1

Port 2

S11 S12 − 0.110 − j 0.153 0.798 − j 0.572

=
S 21 S 22 0.798 − j 0.572 − 0.110 − j 0.153
Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #1
36

✓The model can be extracted as either a Pi or a T network

L1 L2

Port 1
CVIA

Port 2

✓The inductance values will include the L of the trace and the via
barrel (it is assumed that the test setup minimizes the trace
length, and subsequently the trace capacitance is minimal
✓The capacitance represents the via pads

Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #1
37

✓Assume the following s-matrix measured at 5 GHz

S11 S12 − 0.110 − j 0.153 0.798 − j 0.572

=
S 21 S 22 0.798 − j 0.572 − 0.110 − j 0.153

Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #1
38

✓Assume the following s-matrix measured at 5 GHz

S11 S12 − 0.110 − j 0.153 0.798 − j 0.572

=
S 21 S 22 0.798 − j 0.572 − 0.110 − j 0.153

✓Convert to ABCD parameters

A B 0.827 j 20.08
=
C D j 0.0157 0.827

Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #1
39

✓Assume the following s-matrix measured at 5 GHz

S11 S12 − 0.110 − j 0.153 0.798 − j 0.572

=
S 21 S 22 0.798 − j 0.572 − 0.110 − j 0.153
✓Convert to ABCD parameters
A B 0.827 j 20.08
=
C D j 0.0157 0.827
✓Relating the ABCD parameters to the T circuit topology,
the capacitance and inductance is extracted from C & A
1 1
C = j 0.0157 = =  CVIA = 0.5 pF
Z1 Z2 Z3 1
Port 1 Z3 Port 2 j  2fCVIA
Z1 j  2fL
A = 1+ = 0.827 = 1 +  L1 = L2 = 0.35nH
Z3
Differential Signaling
1 /( j  2fCVIA )
ABCD Matrix – Example #2
40

✓Calculate the resulting s-parameter matrix if the two

circuits shown below are cascaded

Port 1 Port 2
S X 11 S X 12
2-port SX =
50 Network X
Network
50 S X 21 S X 22
Port 1 Port 2 SY 11 SY 12
2-port SY =
50 Network Y
Network
50
SY 21 SY 22

2-port 2-port 50
50 Network X Network Y
Network Network

Port 1 Port 2
S XY = ?
Differential Signaling
ABCD Matrix – Example #2
41

✓Step 1: Convert each measured S-Matrix to ABCD

Parameters using the conversions presented earlier

AX BX AY BY
S X  TX = SY  TY =
CX DX CY DY
✓Step 2: Multiply the converted T-matrices
AX BX AY BY AXY BXY
TXY = TX  TY =  =
CX DX CY DY C XY DXY
✓Step 3: Convert the resulting Matrix back into S-
parameters using thee conversions presented earlier
S X 11 S X 12
TXY  S XY =
S X 21 S X 22
Differential Signaling
Advantages/Disadvantages of ABCD Matrix
42

Advantages:
✓The ABCD matrix is very intuitive
➢Describes all ports with voltages and currents
✓Allows easy cascading of networks
✓Easy conversion to and from S-parameters
✓Easy to relate to common circuit topologies

Disadvantages:
✓Difficult to directly measure
➢Must convert from measured scattering matrix

Differential Signaling
 Signal flow graphs – Start with 2 port first
43

The wave functions (a,b) used to define s-parameters for a

two-port network are shown below. The incident waves is a1,
a2 on port 1 and port 2 respectively. The reflected waves b1
and b2 are on port 1 and port 2. We will use a’s and b’s in the
s-parameter follow slides

Differential Signaling
 Signal Flow Graphs of S Parameters
44

“In a signal flow graph, each port is represented by two

nodes. Node an represents the wave coming into the device
from another device at port n, and node bn represents the
wave leaving the device at port n. The complex scattering
coefficients are then represented as multipliers (gains) on
branches connecting the nodes within the network and in
adjacent networks.”*
Example
a1 s21 b2
a1 S =L =0
s22
s11 = b1 a2 =0
S s11 L
Measurement equipment
s12
strives to be match i.e.
b1 a2 reflection coefficient is 0

See: http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5952-1087.pdf
Differential Signaling
 Mason’s Rule ~ Non-Touching Loop Rule
45

 T (1 +  (−1)
k
mk
L(mk ) (k )
)
T= k mk
(1 +  (−1) mk
L(mk ))
mk
✓ T is the transfer function (often called gain)
✓ Tk is the transfer function of the kth forward path
✓ L(mk) is the product of non touching loop gains on path k
taken mk at time.
✓ L(mk)|(k) is the product of non touching loop gains on path k
taken mk at a time but not touching path k.
✓ mk=1 means all individual loops
Differential Signaling
 Voltage Transfer function
46

✓ What is really of most relevance to time domain analysis is

the voltage transfer function.
✓ It includes the effect of non-perfect loads.
✓ We will show how the voltage transfer functions for a 2 port
network is given by the following equation.

s21
2
(
 L + 1  1 − s )( )
1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

✓ Notice it is not S21

Differential Signaling
Forward Wave Path
47

Z0
Vs ( ZS + Z0) a1 s21 b2

s22
S s11 L
s12
b1 a2
Z0
s21
b2 ( ZS + Z0)
Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

Differential Signaling
Reflected Wave Path
48

Z0
Vs ( ZS + Z0) a1 s21 b2

s22
S s11 L
s12
b1 a2
Z0
s21  L
a2 ( ZS + Z0)
Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

Differential Signaling
 Combine b2 and a2 Z0 49
s21
b2 ( ZS + Z0)
Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

b2 a2
(
s21 1 +  L  ) Z0
( ZS + Z0)
+
Vs Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

Differential Signaling
Convert Wave to Voltage
50

- Multiply by sqrt(Z0)

Vo
(
s21 1 +  L  ) Z0
( ZS + Z0)
Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

ZS − Z0 ZS − Z0 Z0
s 1 − s 1− 1 − s 2
ZS + Z0 ZS + Z0 ( ZS + Z0)

( 1 −  s)
Vo
(
s21 1 +  L  ) 2
Vs 1 − s11  s − s22  L − s21 s12  L  s + s11 s22  L  s

Differential Signaling
Voltage transfer function using ABCD
51

Let’s see if we can get this results another way

 ( 1 + s11) ( 1 − s22 ) + s12 s21 [ ( 1 + s11) ( 1 + s22) − s12  s21]  Z0 

 2 s21 2 s21 
ABCD_CHANNEL  
( 1 − s11 ) ( 1 − s22 ) − s12  s21 ( 1 − s11 ) ( 1 + s22 ) + s12  s21
 
 2 s21  Z0 2 s21 

 1 0
 1 Zs ABCD_LOAD  1 
ABCD_SOURCE    1
 0 1 
 ZL 

1 + L 1 + s
ZL −Z0 Zs −Z0
−1 + L −1 +  s

Differential Signaling
Cascade [ABCD] to determine system [ABCD]
52

  ABCD_LOAD
VOLTAGE_TRANSFER_FUNCTION ABCD_SOURCEABCD_CHANNEL

  ( 1 + s11) ( 1 − s22) + s12 s21 [ ( 1 + s11) ( 1 + s22) − s12 s21]  Z0  

1 0
 1 + s 
 1 −Z0  2 s21 2 s21 
1
1
 −1 +  s   
   ( 1 − s11) ( 1 − s22) − s12  s21 ( 1 − s11 ) ( 1 + s22 ) + s12  s21
 −Z0 1 + L
0 1  2 s21  Z0 2 s21   −1 + L 

Simplify
 1 − s11  s − s22 L + s11 s22  s  L − s12 s21  s  L −1 − s22 + s11   s + s11  s22   s − s12  s21   s 
 −   
(−1 +  s )s21(1 + L) (−1 +  s )s21
2 Z0
 
 1 − s22  L − s11 + s11  s22  L − s12  s21  L −1 −1 − s22 + s11 + s11  s22 − s12  s21

  
 s21  Z0 ( 1 + L) 2 s21 

Differential Signaling
Extract the voltage transfer function
53

"A" parameter which input over output transfer. We are

looking for "1/A" which is output over input
−1
 1 − s11   s − s22  L + s11  s22   s  L − s12  s21   s  L 
−2
 (−1 +  s ) s21 (1 + L) 

Simplify and re-arange

s21  ( 1 + L) 
(1 −  s )
2
(1 − s11  s − s22 L − s12 s21 s  L + s11 s22  s  L)

✓Same as with flow graph analysis

Differential Signaling
Cascading S-Parameter
54

✓ As promised we will now look at how to cascade s-

parameters and solve with Mason’s rule
✓ The problem we will use is what was presented earlier
✓ The assertion is that the loss of cascade channel can be
determine just by adding up the losses in dB.
✓ We will show how we can gain insight about this
assertion from the equation and graphic form of a
solution.
a11 a21 b12 b22 a13 a13
s111 s121 s113 s123
s211 s221 s213 s223
s112 s122
 s11 s12 
s212 s222  
b11 b21 a12 a22 b13  s21 s22  b13

Differential Signaling
Creating the signal flow graph
55

a11 a21 b12 b22 a13 a13

s111 s121 s113 s123
s211 s221 s213 s223
s112 s122
 s11 s12 
s212 s222  
b11 b21 a12 a22 b13  s21 s22  b13

s211 1 s212 1 s213

A11 B21 A12 B22 A13 B23

s221 s112 s222 s113 s223

s121 1 s122 1 s123

B11 A21 B12 A22 B13 A23

✓ We map output a to input b and visa versa.

✓ Next we define all the loops
✓ Loop “A” and “B” do not touch each other
Differential Signaling
Use Mason’s rule
56

s211 1 s212 1 s213

A11 B21 A12 B22 A13 B23

s221 s112 s222 s113 s223

s121 1 s122 1 s123

B11 A21 B12 A22 B13 A23

Mason’s Rule
s21  s21  s21
b6 1 2 3
a1 (
1 − s22  s11 + s22  s11 + s11  s22  s12  s21
2 1 3 2 3 1 2 2) + s221s112 s222s113

✓ There is only one forward path a11 to b23.

✓ There are 2 non touching looks

Differential Signaling
Evaluate the nature of the transfer function
57

Assumption is that these are ~ 0

s21  s21  s21
b6 1 2 3
a1 (
1 − s22  s11 + s22  s11 + s11  s22  s12  s21
2 1 3 2 3 1 2 ) + s222s111s223s114
2

• If response is relatively flat and reflection

is relatively low
– Response through a channel is s211*s212*213…

Differential Signaling
Jitter and dB Budgeting
58

− j 
✓ Change s21 into a phasor S Smag e
− j  211 − j  211 − j  213
S211  e  S21  e  S213  e
2
− j  ( 211+ 21
=2+ 213)
S21  S21 s21  e
1 2 3
✓ Insertion loss in db

20 log ( S211  S212 s21

3 ) =
20 log s21 ( ) + 20log (s212) + 20log (s213)
1

i.e. For a budget just add up the db’s and jitter

db
sys  db i i−1 delay  i i−1
n n
Differential Signaling
Differential S-Parameters
59

✓Differential S-Parameters are derived from a 4-port

measurement

a2 b1 a1
a1 S11 S12 S13 S14
4-port b2 S21 a2
b1 b2 S22 S23 S24
a3 a4
b3
= a3
S31 S32 S33 S34
b3 b4 b4 a4
S41 S42 S43 S44

✓Traditional 4-port measurements are taken by driving

each port, and recording the response at all other ports
while terminated in 50 ohms
✓Although, it is perfectly adequate to describe a differential
pair with 4-port single ended s-parameters, it is more
useful to convert to a multi-mode port
Differential Signaling
 60
Differential S-Parameters
✓ It is useful to specify the differential S-parameters in terms of differential
and common mode responses
➢Differential stimulus, differential response
➢Common mode stimulus, Common mode response
➢Differential stimulus, common mode response (aka ACCM Noise)
➢Common mode stimulus, differential response
✓ This can be done either by driving the network with differential and
common mode stimulus, or by converting the traditional 4-port s-matrix

adm1 adm2
Multi-Mode Port 1

Multi-Mode Port 2
Multi-Mode bdm1 DS11 DS12 DCS11 DCS12 adm1
Port bdm2 DS21 DS adm2
bdm1 bdm2 22 DCS21 DCS22

acm1 acm2 =
bcm1 CDS11 CDS12 CS11 CS12 acm1
bcm2 CDS21 CDS CS21 CS acm2
22 22

bcm1 bcm2

Matrix assumes differential and common mode stimulus

Differential Signaling
 Explanation of the Multi-Mode Port 61

Common mode conversion Matrix:

Differential Matrix:
Differential Stimulus, differential response
i.e., DS21 = differential signal [(D+)-(D-)]
inserted at port 1 and diff signal measured at port 2
Differential Stimulus, Common mode
response. i.e., DCS21 = differential
signal [(D+)-(D-)] inserted at port 1
and common mode signal [(D+)+(D-)]
measured at port 2

bdm1 DS11 DS12 DCS11 DCS12 adm1

bdm2 DS21 DS adm2
22 DCS21 DCS22

bcm1
= acm1
CDS11 CDS12 CS11 CS12
bcm2 CDS21 CDS CS21 CS acm2
22 22

differential mode conversion Matrix:

Common mode Matrix:
Common mode Stimulus, differential
Common mode stimulus, common mode
mode response. i.e., DCS21 = common
Response. i.e., CS21 = Com. mode signal
mode signal [(D+)+(D-)] inserted at port
[(D+)+(D-)] inserted at port 1 and Com. mode
1 and differential mode signal [(D+)-(D-)]
Differential Signaling
signal measured at port 2
measured at port 2
Differential S-Parameters 62

✓ Converting the S-parameters into the multi-mode requires just a little algebra
Example Calculation, Differential Return Loss
The stimulus is equal, but opposite, therefore:
a3 = −a1 ; a4 = a2
b b −b 1 2
DS11 = dm1 = 1 3 4-port
2-port
adm1 adm2 = 0; acm = 0
a1 − a3 a2 − a4 = 0
3 Network 4
b1 = S11a1 + S12a2 + S13a3 + S14a4
b3 = S31a1 + S32a2 + S33a3 + S34a4
b1 − b3 = a1 ( S11 − S31 ) + a2 ( S12 − S32 ) + a3 ( S13 − S33 ) + a4 ( S14 − S34 )
Assume a symmetrical network and substitute a3 = −a1 ; a4 = a2 S12 = S34 ; S32 = S14

 DS11 =
1
(S11 − S31 − S13 + S33 )
2
Other conversions that are useful for a differential bus are shown
Differential Insertion Loss: Differential to Common Mode Conversion (ACCM):

DS 21 =
1
(S 21 − S 41 − S 23 + S 43 ) CDS 21 =
1
(S21 − S43 − S23 + S41 )
2 2
Similar techniquesDifferential
can be used for all multi-mode Parameters
Signaling
Next class we will develop more differential concepts
63

Differential Signaling
backup review
64

Differential Signaling
 65
Advantages/Disadvantages of Multi-Mode
Matrix over Traditional 4-port
Advantages:
✓Describes 4-port network in terms of 4 two port matrices
➢Differential
➢Common mode
➢Differential to common mode
➢Common mode to differential
✓Easier to relate to system specifications
➢ACCM noise, differential impedance

Disadvantages:
✓Must convert from measured 4-port scattering matrix

Differential Signaling
High Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
66

✓ In order to understand the frequency domain analysis, it is

necessary to explore how high frequency sinusoid signals behave
on transmission lines
✓ The equations that govern signals propagating on a transmission
line can be derived from Amperes and Faradays laws assumimng
a uniform plane wave
➢The fields are constrained so that there is no variation in the X and Y
axis and the propagation is in the Z direction

✓ This assumption holds true for

X transmission lines as long as the
wavelength of the signal is much
greater than the trace width
Direction of  m in 
propagation   3 108 39.4 
=   s m1
 W
Z  r  f
 
 
For typical PCBs at 10 GHz with 5 mil traces (W=0.005”)
Y
 = 0.59"  0.005"
Differential Signaling
High Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
67

✓ For sinusoidal time varying uniform plane waves,

Amperes and Faradays laws reduce to:
Amperes Law:
By
A magnetic Field will be
= − jE x
induced by an electric current z
or a time varying electric field

Faradays Law:
An electric field will be
E x
generated by a time varying = − jB y
magnetic flux z
✓ Note that the electric (Ex) field and the magnetic
(By) are orthogonal

Differential Signaling
High Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
68

✓ If Amperes and Faradays laws are differentiated with

respect to z and the equations are written in terms of the
E field, the transmission line wave equation is derived

 2 Ex B y B y  2 Ex 1
= − j → =− 2 = − jE x
z 2
z z z j
 2 Ex
− j  E x = 0
2 2

z 2

This differential equation is easily solvable for Ex:

− j (  ) z j (  ) z
Ex ( z ) = C1e + C2e
Differential Signaling
High Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
69

✓The equation describes the sinusoidal E field for a plane

wave in free space Note the positive exponent
is because the wave is
+ − j (  ) z − j (  ) z
Ex ( z ) = E e
M +E e M
traveling in the opposite
direction

Portion of wave traveling Portion of wave traveling

In the +z direction In the -z direction

 = permittivity in Farads/meter (8.85 pF/m for free space)

(determines the speed of light in a material)

 = and
permeability in Henries/meter (1.256 uH/m for free space
non-magnetic materials)

Since inductance is proportional to  & capacitance is proportional

to  , then  is analogous to LC in a transmission line, which
is the propagation delay
Differential Signaling
High Frequency Voltage and Current Waves
70

✓ The same equation applies to voltage and current waves on a

transmission line

Incident sinusoid
Reflected sinusoid RL

z=-l z=0
If a sinusoid is injected onto a transmission line, the resulting voltage
is a function of time and distance from the load (z). It is the sum of the
incident and reflected values
j t
−z jt z jt
Note:e is added to
V ( z, t ) = Vine e + Vref e e specifically represent
the time varying
Sinusoid, which was implied
in the previous derivation
Voltage wave reflecting
Voltage wave traveling
off the Load and traveling
towards the load
towards the source
Differential Signaling
High Frequency Voltage and Current Waves
71

✓The parameters in this equation completely describe the

voltage on a typical transmission line

−z jt z jt

V ( z, t ) = Vine e + Vref e e
 =  + j = Complex propagation constant – includes all the
transmission line parameters (R, L C and G)

(For the loss free case) (lossy case)

 = j LC  = ( R + jL)(G + jC )
 = Attenuation Constant (attenuation of the signal due to transmission line losses)

1 C L

 = R +G  (For good conductors)
2 L C 

 = Phase Constant (related to the propagation delay across the transmission line)

 =  LC (For good conductors and good dielectrics)

Differential Signaling
High Frequency Voltage and Current Waves
72

✓The voltage wave equation can be put into more intuitive

terms by applying the following identity:
j
e = cos( ) + j sin(  )
V ( z , t ) = Vine − ( + j ) z e jt + Vref e ( + j ) z e jt
−z  z z 
Subsequently: = e Vin cos  (t − ) + j sin  (t − )
   
 z z 
+ ezVref cos  (t + ) + j sin  (t + )
   

✓The amplitude is degraded by −z

e
✓The waveform is dependent on the driving function
(cos t + j sin t ) & the delay of the line  =  LC
Differential Signaling
Interaction: transmission line and a load
73

✓The reflection coefficient is now a function of the Zo

discontinuities AND line length
➢Influenced by constructive & destructive combinations of the
forward & reverse waveforms

Zo
(l ) Zl

(Assume a line length of l (z=-l))

Z=-l Z=0

( )
V (l ) = Vine−l + Vref el = Vin e−l + o el = Vine−l 1 + (l )
Vref el 2l Z l − Z o 2l
(l )  −l
= o e = e
Vine Zl + Zo
This is the reflection coefficient looking into a t-line of length l
Differential Signaling
Interaction: transmission line and a load 74

✓If the reflection coefficient is a function of line length, then

the input impedance must also be a function of length

Zin RL

Z=-l Z=0

V (l ) = Vine −l + Vref el = Vin (e −l + o el ) = Vine −l 1 + (l )

I (l ) =
1
Zo
(Vine − Vref e ) =
−l l 1
Zo
(Vine −l 1 − (l ))

V (l ) Vine −l 1 + (l ) 1 + (l ) Note: (l ) is

Z in = Z (l ) = = = Zo
(Vine −l 1 − (l )) 1 − (l )
dependent on
I (l ) 1 and
Zo l

This is the input impedance looking into a t-line of length l

Differential Signaling
Line & load interactions
75

✓ In chapter 2, you learned how to calculate waveforms

in a multi-reflective system using lattice diagrams
➢ Period of transmission line “ringing” proportional to the line delay
➢ Remember, the line delay is proportional to the phase constant
✓ In frequency domain analysis, the same principles
apply, however, it is more useful to calculate the
frequency when the reflection coefficient is either
maximum or minimum
➢ This will become more evident as the class progresses

To demonstrate, lets assume a loss free transmission line

 =  + j = (R + jL )(G + jC )

 =0 R =G =0
j = j 2 2 LC = j LC
Differential Signaling
 Line & load interactions
76

Remember, the input reflection takes the form (l ) = o e 2l

The frequency where the values of the real & imaginary

reflections are zero can be calculated based on the line length
Term 1 Term 2

o e 2 ( −l ) = o e j 2  ( −l ) = o e − j 2l LC
 ( ) (
= o cos 4fl LC − j sin 4fl LC )
n
4fl LC = 4fl LC = n
2
Term 1=0 n
f =
n
Term 2 = 
f =
Term 2=0
o Term 1 = 
4l LC
8l LC o

n = 1,3,5... n = 1,2,3...
Note that when the imaginary portion is zero, it means the phase
of the incident & reflected waveforms at the input are aligned. Also
notice that value of “8” and “4” in the terms.
Differential Signaling
Example #1: Periodic Reflections
77

Calculate:
1. Line length (l ) Er_eff=1.0
RL
2. RL Zo=75

(assume a very low loss line) Z=-l Z=0

2.5E-01
Imaginary
2.0E-01
Real
1.5E-01
Reflection Coeff.

1.0E-01

5.0E-02

0.0E+00

-5.0E-02

-1.0E-01

-1.5E-01

-2.0E-01

-2.5E-01
0.0E+00 5.0E+08 1.0E+09 1.5E+09 2.0E+09 2.5E+09 3.0E+09
Frequency
Differential Signaling
Example #1: Solution
78

Step 1: Determine the periodicity zero crossings or peaks & use the
relationships on page 15 to calculate the electrical length
3 1 1
f n =3 − f n =1 = − = = 1.76GHz − 588MHz = 1.176GHz
4l LC 4l LC 2l LC
1 1
TD = l LC = = = 425 ps
2( f n =3 − f n =1 ) 2.35GHz

Imaginary

Differential Signaling
Example #1: Solution (cont.)
79

✓ Note the relationship between the peaks and the electrical

length
1
TD = l LC =
2( f n =3 − f n =1 )
✓ This leads to a very useful equation for transmission lines

1
Fpeaks =
2TD
✓ Since TD and the effective Er is known, the line
length can be calculated as in chapter 2
TD 425 ps
length = = = 0.127m = 5in
Er _ eff 1 s
3 10Signaling
c Differential 8
m
Example #1: Solution (cont.)
80

✓ The load impedance can be calculated by observing the

peak values of the reflection
➢ When the imaginary term is zero, the real term will peak, and the
maximum reflection will occur
➢ If the imaginary term is zero, the reflected wave is aligned with
the incident wave and the phase term = 1
RL − Z o 2l RL − 75
(l ) = e = (1) = −0.2
RL + Z o RL + 75
RL = 50
Important Concepts demonstrated
✓ The impedance can be determined by the magnitude of
the reflection
✓ The line length can be determined by the phase, or
periodicity of the reflection
Differential Signaling