Lithography

Yosi Shacham-Diamand

Fall 2018

1 TAU 2017/2018
References

n Fundamental Principles of Optical Lithography –

Chris Mack, 2007
n Online Course -
https://www.youtube.com/user/lithoguru
n Microlithography, Science and Technology –
Sheats & Smith, 1998
n Principles of Lithography, Second Edition (SPIE
Press Monograph Vol. PM146) Feb 1, 2005 by
Harry J. Levinson

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 The Photolithography Process:
Printing process consists the following steps:
Spin(Coat)  Expose  Develop
Coat with light
Remove the
sensitive material Image transfer unpatterned reait
(Photoresist) (Latent image)

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 Exposure Systems

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 Printing methods: Step & Scan

 Step (between fields) and Scan (within field)

 Scan: Both reticle and wafer move during exposure
 Requires stage and reticle excellent sync
 Reduced lens active area 25X8mm –higher quality
(uniformity)
 Focus while scanning
 Resolution: 40nm (1/2 pitch)

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 Lithography main building blocks –

Basic requirements:
• Mask with the desired pattern (Reticle)
• Illumination system and light source
• Flat surface, covered with Photosensitive material (Photo-
resist)
• Carefully controlled environment: vibrations, pressure,
humidity, temperature, and light.

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 Photolithography and image transfer

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 Block diagram of a generic Projection Imaging System

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 Projection System –Illumination

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 Representation of Light

Let’s consider light source to be a point source

The wave fronts will be emitted in sphere. The dark rings
represent maximum electric field strength.
It can be compared to the sin wave.

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 Wave Interference

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 Projection System –Mask (Reticle)

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 The Mask (Reticle)

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 Huygens Principle

Each point on the wave front may be regarded as a new source of

waves. If the wave front will go through a slit it will progress as a
spherical wave.

Two coherent light sources will interfere with each other to give
interference pattern.

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 Diffraction at a Periodic Grating

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Fourier Optics and the Fourier Transform
• The objective lens pupil collects spatial frequency information
about the mask object.
• The distribution of the spatial frequency in the lens pupil is the
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern arising from the illumination of the
mask object.
• The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern can be described
mathematically via a Fourier Transform operation.

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Fourier Optics and the Fourier Transform

• A Fourier Transform is a translation from the space domain to

the frequency domain.
• Course feature detail is low spatial frequency.
• Fine feature detail is high spatial frequency

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 Fourier Optics and the Fourier Transform
M(u,v)is the coherent Fourier Transform of m(x,y)or
M(u,v) = F {m(x,y)}
The field distribution in the diffraction plane is the spatial
frequency spectrum of the mask function.

Spatial Frequency units are cycles/distance

100 cycles/cm = 50 mm line/50 mm space
1000 cy/cm = 5 mm line/5 mm space
10000 cy/cm = 500 nm line/500 nm space
P cycles/cm = L mm line/W mm space where 1
P=
L+S

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The diffracted propagating wave is the Fourier
transform of the mask
Two typical mask patterns, an isolated space and an array of equal
lines and spaces,

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Projection System –Image Formation

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 Index of Refraction for Selected Materials

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Geometrical Optics

Law of Reflection:

qi=qr

Snell’s Law:

n1 sin(q1)=n2 sin(q2)

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 The lens
Spherical lens

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 Lens Aberration
• An optical aberration is a departure of the performance of an
optical system from the predictions of paraxial optics.
• In an imaging system, it occurs when light from one point of an
object does not converge into (or does not diverge from) a single
point after transmission through the system.
• Aberrations occur because the simple paraxial theory is not a
completely accurate model of the effect of an optical system on
light (due to the wave nature of light), rather than due to flaws in
the optical elements.
• Aberration leads to blurring of the image produced by an image-
forming optical system. Makers of optical instruments need to
correct optical systems to compensate for aberration.

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 Lens Aberration
• Lens imperfections (aberrations) are inevitable
• If the total aberration induced error << λ/10 the
effect on patterning/resolution is acceptable and it is
diffraction limited optics.
Aberration types:
• Chromatic
• Spherical
• Coma
• Astigmatism

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 Projection Optics
• Mask to lens: Fourier Transform (FT) of the image - carries
information about the image spatial frequencies.
• The objective lens (finite size) can only capture a part of this
pattern (Orders).
• The lens performs the inverse Fourier transform (IFT) of the
transmitted diffracted pattern.

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 Optical Limits of resolution

Bragg’s law : 𝑷𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝒎𝝀

m = order number (+/-1,2,3…)
λ = light wavelength
P = The narrowest line-period at the
reticle (Line + space)

Critical Dimension: CD= ~P/2 (pitch)

𝜃= angle of the diffraction order

Numerical Aperture (NA) – the maximum acceptance angle

of the lens  𝑵𝑨=𝒏𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
n= index of refraction
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 Reconstruction of the image – sum of the Fourier components

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 Optical Limits of resolution
CD effect:
As the CDs get smaller – the angle
between the orders of diffraction
increases:
l
é
( ù
min ëCD P / 2 û »)2 × NA

λ effect: The smaller the wavelength:

more orders of interference, hence
better image quality

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Resolution R

n For Fraunhofer diffraction:

Rayleigh resolution:

Practical resolution: where 0.6< k1 <0.8

Improve resolution by reducing λ or increasing NA:

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 How to improve the resolution?

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 Optical Limits of resolution – Depth of focus

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 Depth of Focus (DOF)

Lens

-
Depth of focus
Center of focus

Photoresist

Film
+
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Light sources

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 UV Spectrum
l (nm)
Ultraviolet spectrum Visible spectrum

EUV VUV DUV Mid-UV Violet Blue Green YellowOrange Red

4 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

13 126 157 193 248 365 405 436

i h g

Excimer laser Mercury lamp

Photolithography light sources

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 Relative Intensity (%)

10
0

80
Hg lamp
60
210 220 240 260 280
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 Excimer laser for lithography

Max.
Wavelengt Frequency Pulse CD Resolution
Material Output
h (nm) (pulses/sec) Length (ns) (mm)
(mJ/pulse)
KrF 248 300 – 1500 500 25 0.25
ArF 193 175 – 300 400 15 0.18
F2 157 6 10 20 0.15

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Masks

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Masks

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 Strong PSM

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 Weak PSM

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 Pixelated Phase Shift Mask

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 Image transfer

n Photoresists
n Modeling

n Focus exposure matrix

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 The Eight Steps of Photolithography
UV Light

l
HMDS
Resist Mask

1) Vapor prime 2) Spin coat 3) Soft bake 4) Alignment

and Exposure

5) Post-exposure 6) Develop 7) Hard bake 8) Develop inspect

bake
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 Components of Conventional Photoresist

Solvent:
gives resist its flow
characteristics

Sensitizers:
photosensitive component of
the resist material

Additives:
chemicals that control specific
aspects of resist material
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 PAC as Dissolution Inhibitor in Positive I-Line Resist

Unexposed resist, containing Resist exposed to

UV light dissolves in the
PACs, remain crosslinked and
insoluble to developer chemical. developer chemical.

Photoresist Oxide

Substrate
Exposed Unexposed

PAC

Soluble
resist
Pre-exposure Post-exposure Post-develop
+ photoresist + photoresist + photoresist
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Resist Absorption

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Resist Absorption

• Absorption coefficient, a= AM+B

• M is the Photo Active Compound (PAC) concentration
• M=1 before exposure  a=A+B
• M=0 after long exposure  a=B
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 Chemically Amplified (CA) DUV Resist

Unexposed resist remains Resist exposed to light

crosslinked and PAGs are UV dissolves in the
inactive. developer chemical.

Photoresist Oxide

Substrate

Exposed Unexposed
PAG H+

PAG H+ PAG PAG

PAG

PAG H+
PAG PAG PAG

Acid-catalyzed
reaction (during Unchanged
Pre-exposure PEB) Post-exposure Post-develop
+ CA photoresist + CA photoresist + CA photoresist
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 Exposure Steps for Chemically-Amplified DUV Resist

1. Resin is phenolic copolymer with protecting group that

makes it insoluble in developer.

2. Photoacid generator (PAG) generates acid during exposure.

3. Acid generated in exposed resist areas serves as catalyst to
remove resin-protecting group during post exposure thermal
bake.
4. Exposed areas of resist without protecting group are soluble
in aqueous developer.

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Resist modeling

n The optical image interacts with a

thin layer of a photosensitive
material – photoresist
n The photoresist includes
u a. Matrix (e.g. resin),
u b. Solvent, and
u c. PAC - Photo Active Compound
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Resist modeling
n Definitions
u m = PAC concentration.
m(t )
u M= normalized m M (t ) =
m(0)
u D - exposure energy
u I (Watts) – Intensity D = I t
u t = exposure time

n M is a function of D. M = M ( D)
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 The exposure kinetics

M
= CIM
t
n M – PAC concentration
n I – Light intensity (Watts)
n t – Exposure time
n C - The PAC exposure response coefficient

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 Light absorption in the resist

n The resist absorbs light

n Most of the absorption is by the PAC *
n There is some absorption by the resin matrix
n The absorption is proportional to the PAC concentration

I
= ( AM  B) I
x
* That is why typically A > B.

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 NovolakVs. DUV resist

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 I(y) - image
y
The latent image characteristics
I(x,t) – light inside
x the resist
M
= The latent image gradient (LIG)
y
M (t ) = e CIt Example: photo resist with
constant absorption (Independent
of time)
dM dI ln(M) dI
= M  (-Ct) = M[ ] = M [ln(M)]  ILS
dy dy I dy

• ILS –Image Log Slope (= d[ln(I)]/dy)

• The LIG is maximum for M ~ 0.37 (=1/e)
• With absorption LIG is maximum for 0.2<M<0.5
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 Development rate
Empirical model

Example: The development rate of the IBM APEX-E

chemically amplified resist as a function of the normalized
deprotection level: x=1-m
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 Development rate
Dill’s “E”-model

E1+E2 ×m+E3×m
r(m) = e
2

The three parameters

E1, E2, and E3 are obtained using least-square
fitting to experimental data.

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 Development rate
Deok Kim’s “E-model”
-1
é1- me -R3×(1-m)
me
-R3×(1-m) ù
r(m) = ê + ú
ë R1 R2 û
• R1 is the dissolution rate of a fully exposed resist (m = 0),
• R2 of an unexposed resist (m = 1), and
• R3 is a sensitivity parameter with the interpretation of a
rate enhancement due to photoinduced acid.

The first two parameters R1 and R2 can be measured,

whereas the third R3 has to be fitted.

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 Development rate
Depth dependence

r(z, m) = r(m)× f (z, m)

The induction multiplier f (z, m) depends on the depth z
into the resist as well as on the PAC m.
z
-
r(z, m) =1- (1- f (0, m))× e R4

f (0, m) = (1- m) × R5 + m× R6

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 Development rate
C. Mack’s model

r(m) = rmax ×
(a +1)× (1- m)n
+ rmin a=
( n +1)
× (1- mth )
n

a + (1- m) n
( n -1)
• rmin is the development rate of the unexposed resist,
• rmax <<rmin is the rate of the fully exposed resist.
• n is a selectivity parameter that describes the kinetic
order of the dissolution reaction occurring at the resist
surface.
• mth is a threshold PAC concentration corresponding to
the concentration at which the development curve
displays an inflection point. It can thus be interpreted as
the concentration of a transition between fast and slow
development regimes.
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 Development rate
An enhanced kinetic model for acid catalyzed resist

The PAC acts to inhibit dissolution of the resin while

the acid acts to enhance the dissolution.

1+ kenh × (1- m)n

r(m) = rresit × + rmin
a + kinh × m l

• kenh is the rate constant for the enhancement mechanism of order n,

• kinh is the rate constant for the inhibition mechanism of order l.
• rresin stands for the development of the resin alone.
• The enhanced Mack model is a superset of the original `a'-model that
neglects the inhibition phenomenon.

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 Development rate
Empirical model

Post-exposure bake parameters at 90oC for the IBM APEX-

E chemically amplified resist.
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 References for resist development

• F.H. Dill, W.P. Hornberger, P.S. Hauge, and J.M. Shaw.

Characterization of Positive Photoresist.
IEEE Trans.Electron Devices, ED-22(7):445-452, July 1975.
• D.J. Kim, W.G. Oldham, and A.R. Neureuther.
Development of Positive Photoresist.
IEEE Trans.Electron Devices, ED-31(12):1730-1736, December 1984.
• C.A. Mack. New Kinetic Model for Resist Dissolution. J.Electrochem.Soc.,
139(4):L35-L37, April 1992
• C.A. Mack.
PROLITH: A Comprehensive Optical Lithography Model.
In Proc.SPIE Optical Microlithography IV, vol. 538, pp. 207-220, 1985.
• C.A. Mack.
Inside PROLITH: A Comprehensive Guide to Optical Lithography Simulation.
FINLE Technologies, Austin, TX, 1997.
• W.G. Oldham, S.N. Nandgaonkar, A.R. Neureuther, and M.M. O'Toole.
A General Simulator for VLSI Lithography and Etching Processes: Part I--
Application to Projection Lithography.
IEEE Trans.Electron Devices, ED-26(4):717-722, April 1979.
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 Resist contrast

Normalized resist thickness

1
0.8
Slope = g
0.6 d ln(R)
γ=
0.4 d ln(E) max
E0 – Resist removal
0.2 threshold dose
0.0
1 10
100 dose (Energy)[ mJ/cm2]
1000
E, Exposure

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Example: printing a contact hole 248 nm, NA=0.5, s=0.8

PAC
concentration

Resist image

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Best focus 1 micron “defocus
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Standing wave effects in photoresist

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 Anti Reflective Coating (ARC) to overcome
standing wave problem
1. Absorb light dampening reflected light on the surfaces and inside
the material (destructive interference).
2. Reduces or eliminates reflective notching and standing waves
3. Flattens surface
topography.
4. Can increase depth
of focus improves
CDs

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 Post-Exposure Bake

Diffusion during a post-exposure bake is often used to reduce

standing waves. Photoresist profile simulations as a function of
the PEB diffusion length: (a) 20nm, (b) 40nm, and (c) 60nm.

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 PEB minimizes the standing wave effects

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Downscaling problems - resist

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Characterization and process window

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Characterization of Working Window

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 Working window

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 Resist Profile –Challenges

Thin Film Interference(1), Reflective Notching\thickness

variations(2) and grainy substrate(3) results in loss of pattern
definition.

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 Overlay budget

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Double patterning

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 Schematic of two approaches to
double patterning lithography.

The litho-freeze process was developed subsequently to

the litho-etch, litho-etch (LELE) approach.

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 Double Patterning (DE/DE)

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 Double Exposure: 25nm gate features – printed by MIT
Lincoln Lab with a 0.60NA KrF stepper
(Canon FPA-3000EX4). Source: MIT Lincoln Lab.

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6-T SRAM Cell

Gate Double Patterning

Desired layout
Actual layout after 1st gate patterning
(6-T SRAM cell)

PD PU PG

PG PU PD

Actual layout after active patterning Actual layout after 2nd gate patterning
(no gate length variation)

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Litho k1 trend by technology node

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Immersion lithography

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 Burn Lin 2006
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Immersion lithography

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 Immersion lithography principle
The effect of liquid on the numerical aperture (NA)

• Higher spatial orders can be coupled into the resist due to the
high index water medium (i.e., you can use up to 1.44 NA).
• DOF can be improved, relative to the same “dry” NA, since
90 the incident angle uponTAU
the2017/2018
resist is less.
 The reasons for immersion lithography

• No new light source (λ change)

• No new optical materials
• No new optical coatings (except BE)
• No new atmospheric control requirements (beam path
ambient)
• Basic resist chemistry unchanged (though changes to
minimize leaching effects are needed)
• No new mask technology
• Existing optical designs work at NA<1
• Only BE, wafer, and stage in contact with the
immersion fluid.

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 Type of immersion litho defects

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Burn Lin 2006
 Type of immersion litho defects

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Burn Lin 2006
Next Generation Lithography (NGL)

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Lithography Challenges
10
[Courtesy Intel]
Optimistically, -nce
2012 now for EUV
1 if it happens at all!
um

0.1

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 [Courtesy Intel, 2006]

n 193nm litho will continue to dominate for next 5+ years.

u Immersion, extreme RET, DPL (Double Patterning)
n NGL - Next Generation Lithography, still next generation
u Economical/material/technical challenges
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u NGL - Never Good(-yet) Lithography?
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Lithography: EUV VS. DUV
DUV EUV
Laser source (Coherent or Incoherent “light source,”
partially coherent) powered by an electrical
discharge (DPP) or laser
radiation (LPP), 13.5 nm.
DUV scanners use either all- EUV optics are composed
glass optics or mostly glass with entirely of mirrors requiring
a few mirrors highly specialized, multilayer
coatings.
DUV projection lenses have an EUV projection optics have an
NA from 0.92 to 1.30 NA of 0.25 or so.
DUV scanners operate in the air EUV scanners are completely
using sealed optics purged with encased in a high-vacuum system,
nitrogen gas. meaning that wafers and reticles
must pass in and out of airlocks.
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EUV source: Gas discharge source

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 EUV source: Gas discharge source

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EUV source: Laser Produced plasma source

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A generic EUV system.

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X-Ray lithography

n Short wavelength
n High energy photons
n Potentially high resolution

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X-Ray lithography

• Advantages
• Short wavelength
• Large areas – high throughput
• Problems
• Masks – high defect density

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X-Ray exposure system

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Electron beam lithography

n Direct write
n Electron projection lithograph

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 Electron projection lithography

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 EPL Mask making (Toppan)

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Electron projection lithography

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 Other lithography methods
or
how to go over the Raleigh limit?

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NEAR-FIELD SCANNING OPTICAL LITHOGRAPHY

Luo, H., Wang, L., Qin, J., & Ding, L. (2016, October). Development of next-generation nanolithography methods to break the optical
diffraction limit. In SPIE/COS Photonics Asia (pp. 100190H-100190H). International Society for Optics and Photonics.

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Near field Optical Scanning Lithography (NSOL)

Different NSOL configurations using: left, tapered optical bre

probe; right, hollow-cantilever probe.
Routley, B. S., Holdsworth, J. L., & Fleming, A. J. (2015, March). Optimization of near-field scanning optical lithography. In
SPIE Advanced Lithography (pp. 94230F-94230F). International Society for Optics and Photonics.
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NEAR-FIELD SCANNING OPTICAL LITHOGRAPHY

(a) Print via a bowtie apertures milled from the front side.
(b) Print vi a bowtie aperture milled form the back side.
Luo, H., Wang, L., Qin, J., & Ding, L. (2016, October). Development of next-generation nanolithography methods to break the optical
diffraction limit. In SPIE/COS Photonics Asia (pp. 100190H-100190H). International Society for Optics and Photonics.

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Near field Optical Scanning Lithography (NSOL)

(a) Schematic of the parallel near-field scanning optical lithography (NSOL) system. (b)
Schematic of NSOL mask with a flat island of protrusion. (c) SEM image of an island
milled with an array of bowtie apertures. (d) Zoom-in SEM image of the bowtie aperture
array. Inset is the SEM image of an individual bowtie aperture. (a,b) were drawn by X.W.
Wen, X. et al. High throughput optical lithography by scanning a massive array of bowtie
114 aperture antennas at near-field.
TAUSci. Rep. 5, 16192; doi: 10.1038/srep16192 (2015).
2017/2018
NSOL mask making

Luo, H., Wang, L., Qin, J., & Ding, L. (2016, October). Development of next-generation nanolithography methods to break the optical
diffraction limit. In SPIE/COS Photonics Asia (pp. 100190H-100190H). International Society for Optics and Photonics.

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Nano printing

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Nano Imprint Lithography

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NIL
Nano Imprint
Lithography

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 Process flow of imprint patterning with flexible substrate

(a) dispense imprint resist by a series rollers (b) position

imprint template (c) contact imprint resist and resist fills
the carves on template (d) UV illuminate through
substrate to cure resist (e) demold template and substrate
(f) final imprinted substrate after removing the template.
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Overall configuration of the P2RNIL system

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 Soft lithography

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Nano printing using SPM

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 DSA -Directed Self Assembly

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 DSA -Directed Self Assembly

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 Summary

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 EUV Lithography
• EUV masks and projection optics are
reflective
• Differs from conventional refractive
optics use in production lithography
systems
• No optical materials are transparent for
EUV
• Highly sophisticated mirrors
• Mo/Si bi-layer coatings for high
reflectance
• Low surface roughness on the order of
a few atoms
• Stringent flatness and curvature
requirements
• Mask must have no resolvable defects
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 Next generation lithography
exposed using 193-nm EUV single-exposed
immersion, triple exposure image is shown

Mask template and two SEM images of 24-nm structures of a

10-nm-node standard logic cell, exposed in different ways.
(Greg McIntyre, IMEC).
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 The initial demonstration of thermal NIL by Stephen Chou and co-
workers in 1997 showing the NIL process chain. SEM micrographs:

(A) SiO2 stamp with pillars (B) imprinted pattern (C) 10-nm metal dots
of 10-nm diameter, 60-nm into a thermoplastic film after lift-off process
height, and 40-nm period (PMMA resist);

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 Summary:
1. Current optical lithography –
1. Down to ~ 10 nm (near 7 nm)
2. High throughput
2. Electron beam lithography -
1. High resolution
2. Slow throughput
3. Emerging new nano lithography methods – Dip
pen, NSOL, nano imprinting
4. Soft lithography for nano-bio printing

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Lithography System Price Evolution

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