Volume 7, Number 1 March 2002

2002 – April 2002

2002

Olympiad Corner 對數表的構造

nd
The 32 Austrian Mathematical
Olympiad 2001. 李永隆
Problem 1. Prove that 在現今計算工具發達的年代，要 x4 n
+  + (− 1)n −
1 x
1 2001 2 k  找出如 ln2 這個對數值只需一指之勞。 − 之間的誤差就可
∑   4 n
25 k = 0  25  但是大家有沒有想過，在以前計算機 以小到任意小，所以我們不妨改用下
尚未出現的時候，那些厚厚成書的對 式表達這個情況：
is an integer. ([x] denotes the largest
integer less than or equal to x.) 數表是如何精確地構造出來的？ 當 x2 x3 x4
ln(1 + x ) = x − + − +  ( x <1)
然，在歷史上曾出現很多不同的構造 2 3 4
Problem 2. Determine all triples of
positive real numbers x, y and z such 方法，各有其所長，但亦各有其所限。 總之 n 的選取總是可以讓我們忽略兩
1 1 1 下面我們將會討論一個比較有系統的
that both x + y + z = 6 and + + = 者的誤差。 把上式中的 x 代以-x 然後
x y z
方法，它只需要用上一些基本的微積 將兩式相減，便可以得到下面的公式：
4
2– hold. 分技巧，就能夠有效地構造對數表到
xyz 1+ x 
任意的精確度。 ln  = ln(1 + x ) − ln(1 − x )
 1− x 
Problem 3. We are given a triangle 首先注意，ln(xy) = ln x + ln y, 所  x3 x5 
ABC and its circumcircle with mid-point = 2 x + + +  (∗)
以我們只需求得所有質數 p 的對數值  3 5 
U and radius r. The tangent c' of the  
便可以由此算得其他正整數的對數
circle with mid-point U and radius 2r is p −1
determined such that C lies between c = 值。 由 ln(1 + t) 的微分運算和幾何級 可惜的是若直接代入 x = 使得
p +1
AB and c' , and a ' and b' are defined 數公式直接可得
1+ x
analogously, yielding the triangle d
ln(1 + t ) =
1
= 1 − t + t2 − t3 = p 時， (∗) -式並不能有效地計
A' B' C ' . Prove that the lines joining the dt 1+ t 1− x
mid-points of corresponding sides of ( −1) n t n 29 − 1
+  + ( −1) n −1 t n −1 + 算 ln p。 例如取 p = 29，則 x = =
∆ABC and ∆A' B ' C ' pass through a 1+ t 29 + 1
common point. 14
運用微積分基本定理（亦即微分和積 , 在 此 時 即 使 計 算 了 100 項 至
(continued on page 4) 15
分是兩種互逆的運算）
，即得下式：
2 x199
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK 2 3 4 ≈ 1.1 × 10 −8 ，ln p 的數值還未必
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei) 1 x x x 199
ln(1 + x ) = ∫0x dt = x − + −
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing) 1+ t 2 3 4 能準確至第 8 個小數位（嚴格來說，
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU +  + ( −1) n −1
xn
+ ∫0x
( −1) n t n
dt 應該用 (∗) -式的積分餘項來做誤差估
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU n 1+ t
計，不過在這裏我們只是想大約知道
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept., HKUST 能夠對於所有正整數 n 皆成立。 現在 56
for general assistance. 其大小）
；又例如取 p = 113，則 x =
On-line: http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/ 我們去 估計 上式中 的積 分 餘項的 大 57
小。 設 x < 1，則有： 2 x199
≈ 3 × 10 −4 ，ln p 的準確度則
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
而
199
x ( −1)
n n
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if available). t tn
Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word, are encouraged. ∫0 dt ≤ ∫0x dt 1
The deadline for receiving material for the next issue is May 15, 1+ t 1+ t 更差。 但是我們可以取 x = ，
2002. 2p −1
2
n +1
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the 01-02 tn x 則有
academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed envelopes. ≤ ∫0x dt =
1− x ( n + 1)(1 − x )
Send all correspondence to: 1+ x  2 p2 − 1 + 1
ln  = ln 2
Dr. Kin-Yin LI 由此可見，這個餘項的絕對值會隨著 n 1− x  2 p −1−1
Department of Mathematics
的增大而趨向 0。 換句話說，只要 n 選
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
p2
= ln
( p + 1)( p − 1)
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong 2 3
得足夠大， ln(1 + x ) 和 x −
x x
Fax: (852) 2358 1643 +
Email: makyli@ust.hk 2 3 = 2 ln p − ln( p + 1)( p − 1)
Mathematical Excalibur
Excalibur, Vol. 7, No. 1, Mar 02- Apr 02 Page 2

而當質數 p > 2 時，(p + 1) 和 (p – 1) Pell’s Equation (II) implies u is an integer. Since a1b2 −
的質因數都必定小於 p，所以如果我 Kin Y. Li b1a 2 ≡ sb1b2 − b1sb2 = 0 (mod N ), v is
們已算得小於 p 的質數的對數值，就 also an integer.
For a fixed nonzero integer N, as the case
可以用上式來計算 ln p 的值： N = − 1 shows, the generalized For the converse, multiplying the
 1+ x  equation x − dy = N may not have a
 + ln( p + 1) + ln ( p − 1)
2 2
2 ln p = ln equation with its conjugate shows
 1− x  solution. If it has a least positive solution (a 2 , b2 ) solves x 2 − dy 2 = N . From
1+ x  ( x1 , y1 ) , x 2 − dy 2 = N has
then a 2 = ua1 + dvb1 and b2 = ub1 + va1 ,
而未知的 ln  是能夠有效計算 a 2 = ua 2 −
1− x  infinitely many positive solutons given by we get dvb2 and
( xn , y n ) , where b1 = ub2 − va 2 . Hence, common
的，因為現在所選的 x 的絕對值很 n −1
xn + y n d = ( x1 + y1 d )( a + b d ) divisors of a 2 , b2 are also common
1 divisors a1 , b1 . So a 2 , b2 are
小。例如當 p = 29 時， x = and (a, b) is the least positive solution of
2 ⋅ 29 − 1
2
relatively prime. Finally, a 2 − sb2 ≡
x 2 − dy 2 = 1 . However, in general these
(usb1 + dvb1 ) − s(ub1 + vsb1 ) = ( d − s 2 )vb1
1 2 x5 do not give all positive solutions of
= ，所以只需計算到 ≈3 × ≡ 0 (mod N ) concludes the proof.
1681 5 x 2 − dy 2 = N as the following example
will show.
10 −17 ，便能夠準確至十多個小數位 Thus, all primitive solutions of x 2 −
了。 Example 9. Consider the equation x 2 − dy 2 = N can be obtained by finding a
23 y 2 = −7 . It has ( x1 , y1 ) = (4, 1) as the solution (if any) in each class, then
經過上面的討論，假設現在我們
least positive solution. The next two multiply them by solutions of x 2 −
想構造一個 8 位對數表，則可以依次
solutions are (19, 4) and (211, 44). Now dy 2 = 1. For the nonprimitive
序地求 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, … 的對數值，
the least positive solution of x 2 − 23y 2 = solutions, we can factor the common
而後面質數的對數值都可以用前面的
1 is (a, b) = (24, 5). Since (4 + 23 )(24 + divisors of a and b to reduce N.
質數的對數值來求得。由此可見，在
5 23 ) = 211 + 44 23 , the solution (19, Example 10. (1995 IMO proposal by
開始時的 ln 2 是需要算得準確一些：
4) is skipped by the formula above. USA leader T. Andreescu) Find the
 1 + 13 
ln 2 = ln  smallest positive integer n such that
1− 1  In case x 2 − dy 2 = N has positive
 3 19n + 1 and 95n + 1 are both integer
() () ()
solutions, how do we get them all? A
1 1 3 1 5 1 21  squares.
≈ 2 + 3 + 3 +  + 3  solution (x, y) of x 2 − dy 2 = N is called
3 3 5 21 
  primitive if x and y (and N) are relatively Solution. Let 95n + 1 = x 2 and 19n + 1
= 0.6931471805589  prime. For 0 ≤ s < N , we say the = y 2 , then x 2 − 5y 2 = -4. Now φ (4)
solution belong to class C s if x ≡ sy = 2 and (1, 1), (11, 5) are C1 , C3
這個和確實數值
(mod N ). As x, y are relatively prime to primitive solutions, respectively. As (9,
ln 2 = 0.693147180559945 …
N, so is s. Hence, there are at most φ ( N ) 4) is the least positive solution of
相比其精確度已到達第 11 位小數。 x 2 − 5y 2 = 1 and 9 + 4 5 = (2 + 5 ) 2 ,
classes of primitive solutions, where φ (k)
1 is Euler’s φ -function denoting the so the primitive positive solutions are
接著便是要計算 ln 3。取 x =
2 ⋅ 32 − 1 number of positive integers m ≤ k that are pairs (x, y), where x + y 5 = (1 + 5 )
relatively prime to k. Also, for such s, (2 + 5 ) 2 n − 2 or (11 + 5 5 )( 2 +
1
= ，則有 ( s 2 − d ) y 2 ≡ x 2 − dy 2 ≡ 0 (mod N ) 5 ) 2n − 2 .
17
and y, N relatively prime imply
 1 + 171
ln
  ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 1 5 1 7 
 ≈ 2 1 + 17 + 17 + 17  s 2 ≡ d (mod N ).
Since the common divisors of x, y
 17 divide 4, the nonprimitive positive
 1− 1
 17

 3 5 7 
  Theorem. Let (a1 , b1 ) be a C s primitive solutions are the cases x and y are even.
= 0.117783035654504  This reduces to considering u 2 − 5v 2 =
solutions of x 2 − dy 2 = N . A pair (a 2 ,

注意
2 ( )
1 9
17
≈ 1.9 × 10 −12 ，在 8 位的 b2 ) is also a C s primitive solution of -1, where we take u = x/2 and v = y/2.
9 x − dy = N if and only if a2 + b2 d =
2 2 The least positive solution for u 2 -
精確度之下大可以不用考慮。 所以 5v 2 = -1 is (2, 1). So x + y 5 = 2(u +
( a 2 − b2 d ) /( a1 − b1 d ) . Multiplying
v 5 ) = 2(2 + 5 ) 2 n −1 .
these two equations, we get u 2 − dv 2 =
ln 3 ≈
1
(0.11778303565  + ln 4 + ln 2) N/N = 1. In attempt to combine these solutions, we
2
= 1.098612288635  look at the powers of 1 + 5 coming from
To see u, v are integers, note a1a 2 − db1b2 the least positive solutions (1, 1).
(續於第四頁) ≡ ( s 2 − d )b1b2 ≡ 0 (mod N ), which (continued on page 4)
Mathematical Excalibur
Excalibur, Vol. 7, No. 1, Mar 02- Apr 02
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration.
Solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email)
address and school affiliation. Please
send submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon.
The deadline for submitting solutions
is May 15, 2002.
Problem 146. Is it possible to partition
a square into a number of congruent
right triangles each containing an
30$ angle? (Source: 1994 Russian
Math Olympiad, 3rd Round)
Problem 147. Factor x 8 + 4 x 2 + 4
into two nonconstant polynomials with
integer coefficients.
Problem 148. Find all distinct
prime numbers p, q, r, s such that their
sum is also prime and both p 2 + qs ,
p 2 + qr are perfect square numbers.
(Source: 1994 Russian Math Olympiad,
4th Round)
Problem 149. In a 2000 × 2000 table,
every square is filled with a 1 or –1. It
is known that the sum of these numbers
is nonnegative. Prove that there are
1000 columns and 1000 rows such that
the sum of the numbers in these
intersection squares is at least 1000.
(Source: 1994 Russian Math Olympiad,
5th Round)
Problem 150. Prove that in a convex
n-sided polygon, no more than n
diagonals can pairwise intersect. For
what n, can there be n pairwise
intersecting diagonals? (Here intersection
points may be vertices.) (Source: 1962
Hungarian Math Olympiad)
*****************
Solutions
*****************
Problem 141. Ninety-eight points are
given on a circle. Maria and José take
turns drawing a segment between two
of the points which have not yet been
joined by a segment. The game ends
when each point has been used as the
endpoint of a segment at least once. The
winner is the player who draws the last
segment. If José goes first, who has a
winning strategy? (Source: 1998
Iberoamerican Math Olympiad)
Solution. CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St.
Paul’s College, Form 7), CHUNG Tat Chi
(Queen Elizabeth School, Form 5), 何思銳
(大角嘴天主教小學, Primary 5), LAM
Sze Yui (Carmel Divine Grace Foundation
Secondary School, Form 4), Antonio LEI
(Colchester Royal Grammar School, UK,
Year 12), LEUNG Chi Man (Cheung Sha
Wan Catholic Secondary School, Form 5),
LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth
School, Form 7), POON Yiu Keung
(HKUST, Math Major, Year 1), SIU Tsz
Hang (STFA Leung Kau Kui College,
Form 6), Ricky TANG (La Salle College,
Form 4), WONG Tsz Wai (Hong Kong
Chinese Women’s Club College, Form 6)
and WONG Wing Hong (La Salle College,
Form 4).
José has the following winning strategy.
He will let Maria be the first person to
use the ninety-sixth unused point. Since
there are C 295 = 4465 segments joining
pairs of the first ninety-five points, if
Maria does not use the ninety-sixth point,
José does not have to use it either. Once
Maria starts using the ninety-sixth point,
José can win by joining the
ninety-seventh and ninety-eighth points.
Problem 142. ABCD is a quadrilateral
with AB || CD. P and Q are on sides AD
and BC respectively such that ∠APB =
∠CPD and ∠AQB = ∠CQD.
Prove
that P and Q are equal distance from the
intersection point of the diagonals of the
quadrilateral. (Source: 1994 Russian Math
Olympiad, Final Round)
Solution. CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St.
Paul’s College, Form 7) and WONG Tsz
Wai (Hong Kong Chinese Women’s Club
College, Form 6).
Let O be the intersection point of the
diagonals. Since ∆AOB, ∆COD are similar,
AO:CO = AB:CD = BO:DO. By sine law,
AB sin ∠APB sin ∠CPD CD
= = = .
BP sin ∠BAP sin ∠CDP CP
So AB:CD = BP:CP. Let S be on BC so that
SP ⊥ AD and R be on AD so that
RQ ⊥ BC. Then SP bisects ∠BPC ,
BS:CS = BP:CP = AB:CD = AO:CO. This
implies OS AB. Then AB:OS = CA:CO.
Page 3
Similarly, AB:RO = DB:DO. However,
CA AO BO DB
=1+ = 1+ = .
CO CO DO DO
So OS = RO. Since O is the midpoint
of RS and ∆SPR, ∆RQS are right
triangles, PO = OS = QO.
Other commended solvers: CHUNG Tat
Chi (Queen Elizabeth School, Form 5),
LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth
School, Form 7) and SIU Tsz Hang
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6).
Problem 143. Solve the equation cos
cos cos cos x = sin sin sin sin x. (Source:
1994 Russian Math Olympiad, 4th Round)
Solution. CHAO Khek Lun Harold
(St. Paul’s College, Form 7).
Let f(x) = sin sin x and g(x) = cos cos x.
Now
π 
g ( x) − f ( x) = sin  − cos x  − sin sin x
2 
 π cos x sin x 
= 2 cos − + 
4 2 2 
 π cos x sin x 
× sin  − − 
4 2 2 
and
cos x ± sin x 2 sin( x ± π 4 ) π
= < .
2 2 4
So g ( x) − f ( x) > 0 (hence g(x) > f(x))
for all x. Since sin x, f(x), g(x) ∈ [−1, 1]
⊂ [− π 2 , π 2 ] and sin x is strictly
increasing in [− π 2 , π 2 ] , so f(x) is
strictly increasing in [− π 2 , π 2 ] and
f ( f ( x) ) < f (g ( x) ) < g (g ( x) )
for all x. Therefore, the equation has
no solution.
Other commended solvers: Antonio LEI
(Colchester Royal Grammar School, UK,
Year 12), LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen
Elizabeth School, Form 7), OR Kin
(HKUST, Year 1) and SIU Tsz Hang
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6).
Problem 144. (Proposed by José Luis
Díaz-Barrero, Universitat Politècnica
de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain) Find
all (non-degenerate) triangles ABC
with consecutive integer sides a, b, c
and such that C = 2 A.
Solution. CHAO Khek Lun Harold
(St. Paul’s College, Form 7), CHUNG
Tat Chi (Queen Elizabeth School,
Form 5), KWOK Tik Chun (STFA
Leung Kau Kui College, Form 4),
LAM Wai Pui Billy (STFA Leung
Mathematical Excalibur
Excalibur, Vol. 7, No. 1, Mar 02- Apr 02 Page 4

Kau Kui College, Form 4), Antonio and the sum of its digits are congruent 的令人佩服當年的數學家們對於數
LEI (Colchester Royal Grammar
School, UK, Year 12), LEUNG Wai (mod 9), we get k n + 1 ≡ k m + 1 (mod 9). 字關係和公式運算的那種創意與觸
Ying (Queen Elizabeth School, Form Then k n − k m = k m (k n −m − 1) is 覺！
7), POON Ming Fung (STFA Leung
Kau Kui College, Form 4), WONG divisible by 9. Since the two factors are
【參考文獻】
：
Chun Ho (STFA Leung Kau Kui relatively prime, 10 > k and 9 > k n − m – 1,
College, Form 7), WONG Tsz Wai 項武義教授分析學講座筆記第三章
(Hong Kong Chinese Women’s Club we can only have k = 3, 6 or 9.
College, Form 6) and YEUNG Wing Now 33 + 1 = 28 and 34 + 1 = 82 show k http://ihome.ust.hk/~malung/391.html
Fung (STFA Leung Kau Kui College).
= 3 is an answer. The case k = 6 cannot
Let a=BC, b=CA, c=AB. By sine and work as numbers of the form 6i + 1 end in
cosine laws, 7 so that both k m + 1 and k n + 1 would
Pell’s Equation (II)
c sin C b2 + c 2 − a 2 begin and end with 7, which makes
= = 2 cos A = . (continued from page 2)
a sin A bc k n / k m ≥ k impossible. Finally, the case k
This gives bc 2 = ab 2 + ac 2 − a 3 . = 9 also cannot work as numbers of the form The powers are 1 + 5 , 6 + 2 5 , 16
Factoring, we get (a − b)(c 2 − a 2 − ab) 9 + 1 end in 0 or 2 so that both numbers
i
+ 8 5 = 8(2 + 5 ), 56 + 24 5 , 176
= 0. Since the sides are consecutive would begin and end with 2, which again + 80 5 = 16(11 + 5 5 ) , … . Thus, the
integers and C > A implies c > a, we makes k n / k m ≥ k impossible. primitive positive solutions are (x, y)
have (a, b, c) = (n, n – 1, n + 1), (n – 1, 6n − 5
x + y 5 = 2 1+2 5 
Other commended solvers: SIU Tsz Hang
n + 1, n) or (n – 1, n, n + 1) for some (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6). with or
 
positive integer n > 1. Putting these
6 n −1
into c 2 − a 2 − ab = 0, the first case 2 1+2 5  . The nonprimitive
leads to − n 2 + 3n + 1 = 0, which has  
no integer solution. The second case Olympiad Corner
positive solutions are (x, y) with x
leads to 2n − n 2 = 0, which yields a (continued from page 1)
6n − 3
degenerate triangle with sides 1, 2, 3. + y 5 = 2 1+2 5  . So the general
The last case leads to 5n − n 2 = 0,
Problem 4. Determine all real valued  
functions f(x) in one real variable for which
which gives (a, b, c) = (4, 5, 6). positive solutions are (x, y) with
f ( f ( x) 2 + f ( y )) = xf ( x)+ y
Other commended solvers: CHENG Ka k
x + y 5 = 2 1+2 5  for odd k.
Wai (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form holds for all real numbers x and y.
4), Clark CHONG Fan Fei (Queen’s  
College, Form 5), SIU Tsz Hang (STFA Problem 5. Determine all integers m
Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6), WONG Then
for which all solutions of the equation
Chun Ho (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, 1   1+ 5  k  1− 5  k 
Form 7) and WONG Wing Hong (La 3x 3 − 3 x 2 + m = 0 y=    −   = Fk ,
Salle College, Form 4). are rational. 5  2   2  

Problem 145. Determine all natural Problem 6. We are given a semicircle where Fk is the k-th term of the
numbers k > 1 such that, for some with diameter AB. Points C and D are famous Fibonacci sequence. Finally,
distinct natural numbers m and n, the marked on the semicircle, such that AC = y 2 ≡ 1 (mod 19) and k should be odd.
numbers k m + 1 and k n + 1 can be CD holds. The tangent of the semicircle The smallest such y = F17 = 1597,
obtained from each other by reversing
the order of the digits in their decimal
in C and the line joining B and D interect
in a point E, and the line joining A and E
which leads to n = (F2
17 )
− 1 19 =
134232.
representations. (Source: 1992 CIS intersects the semicircle in a point F.
Math Olympiad) Show that CF < FD must hold. Comments: For the readers not
Solution. CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St. familiar with the Fibonacci sequence, it
Paul’s College, Form 7), LEUNG Wai is defined by F1 = 1, F2 = 1 and Fn +1
Ying (Queen Elizabeth School, Form 7),
Ricky TANG (La Salle College, Form 4) = Fn + Fn −1 for n > 1. By math
and WONG Tsz Wai (Hong Kong 對數表的構造
Chinese Women’s Club College, Form 6). induction, we can check that they
( 續第二頁)
續第二頁)
satisfy Binet’s formula Fn =
Without loss of generality, suppose
such numbers exist and n > m. By the
這個和確實數值 (r
1
n
− r2n ) 5 , where r1 = (1 + 5 ) /2
ln 3 = 1.09861228866811 and r2 = (1 − 5 ) / 2 are the roots of
required property, both numbers are
not power of 10. So k n and k m have 相比其精確度也到達第 10 位小數。 讀 the characteristic equation x 2 = x + 1.
the same number of digits. Then 10 > 者不妨自行試算 ln 5, ln 7 等等的數值， (Check cases n = 1, 2 and in the
然後再和計算機所得的作一比較。 induction step, just use rin +1 =
kn n−m
=k ≥ k . Since every number 回看上述極為巧妙的計算方法，真 rin + rin −1.)
km