Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

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The Effects of Liquid Water Addition In Gas Turbine

Combustors

R. Kollrack & L.D. Aceto

To cite this article: R. Kollrack & L.D. Aceto (1973) The Effects of Liquid Water Addition In
Gas Turbine Combustors, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 23:2, 116-121, DOI:
10.1080/00022470.1973.10469750

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 The Effects of Liquid Water Addition
In Gas Turbine Combustors

R. Kollrack and L. D. Aceto

Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Connecticut

The addition of liquid water, in quantities equivalent to the mass of fuel consumed, scheme. The primary component NO
exerts thermal and chemical effects upon the combustion process in a gas has been chosen to represent all NO*
turbine engine. The thermal influence is produced by the vaporizaiion and
compounds. This analysis was done
with a Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
heating of the water and its vapor. The final temperature is reduced and the developed program which numerically
concentrations of NO X , O, OH, CO are lower than standard combustion concentra- solves simultaneously the time-depen-
tions. Chemically, the additional H2O participates in reactions producing the dent concentration, thermodynamic,
aforementioned species. However, the lower temperature overrides this in- and gas dynamic equations,
fluence. These effects have been assessed for different fuel states, i.e., for pre-
Basic Model
mixed combustion and for liquid fuel undergoing vaporization and mixing.
All the investigations reported herein
have assumed a constant area com-
bustor model. Premixed combustion
starts with a mixture of liquid water at
ambient conditions, vaporized fuel and
The main use of gas turbines is to power compared to reciprocating internal air at a temperature of 1000°K. It
commercial or military aircraft. The combustion engines.1 However, the should be noted that self ignition of com-
pollution of the upper atmosphere due to high-temperature combustion, in gen- mercial jet fuel does not occur below this
aircraft has been—justifiably or not— eral, produces oxides of nitrogen, all of temperature and in effect the ignition
considered to be of lesser importance which are considered harmful. Hence and recirculation patterns of combustors
than the ground level air pollution. the increasing application of gas turbines are such to maintain the incoming mix-
Averaging over the total nation, only a demands that means of control of NO* ture at an effective temperature of
small portion of the ground level air be found. 1000°K or higher.
pollution has been estimated as caused The addition of liquid water in quan- The fuel and air remain approxi-
by gas turbines. However in the tities equivalent to the fuel consumed mately at this temperature for a period
vicinity of airports this picture changes has been suggested and used to reduce during which the endothermic break-
drastically, due to aircraft taxiing, taking NOX production levels in gas turbine down reactions of the original fuel
off, or landing. engines. This study presents a combus- molecule and the subsequent highly
The advent of the gas turbine engine tion reaction mechanism (Appendix) of exothermic reactions of the fuel inter-
as the power source for ground applica- conventional pattern on which the addi- mediates are nominally balanced. This
tions is imminent. Gas turbines are tion of liquid water has been analyti- ignition delay time is followed by an
replacing diesel engines in trucks, busses, cally assessed. In order to demonstrate abrupt temperature rise, where the
and earth moving equipment. Applica- this influence without other interac- exothermic reactions progressively take
tions in the electric utilities are com- tions, premixed cpmbustion cases have over. Thereafter, a gradual approach
monplace. been investigated. In addition, the to equilibrium temperature and equi-
Due to the continuous combustion at interaction effects of both water and librium composition takes place for the
relatively high temperatures, gas tur- fuel have been studied by introducing a remainder of the primary combustion
bines emit little unburned hydrocarbon simplified vaporization and mixing zone.

116 Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

 In the case of liquid fuel combustion,
the vaporization and mixing process
superimposes varying fuel/air ratios,
allowing the process to experience transi-
tion from lean to rich fuel/air ratio and
subsequently may produce a tempera-
ture overshoot. An analytical scheme
simulating this process requires a de-
tailed droplet burning mechanism, such
as that presented by Roberts et al.,2
including the extended chemical mecha-
nism presented here (Appendix). The
result would be a complex computer
program requiring excessively long
computation times. Therefore the
droplet burning model was simulated by
introducing effective net vaporization
rates of the liquid fuel which control the
availability of mixed, gaseous fuel
participating in the combustion:
k
Fuelliquid * Fuel vaporized, mixed
k - 2 X 105 X e-5000/T
Similarly, liquid water was introduced to
the combusting system at the following
release rates:
k
H2Ogas/mixed
k = 2 X 104 -8000/T t o 1.25 X 10 8
g-8000/T
The range of the water vaporization
rates used was determined from ele-
mentary heat transfer and made con-
sistent with experience to be such that
the water was entirely transformed
within the primary zone residence time.
Thermal Effects
The addition of liquid water, in
quantities equivalent to the mass of fuel
consumed, has been previously reported
for specific applications. These results
are a function of the primary zone fuel/
air ratio and as such would vary from
combustor to combustor. The details
of water injection are important in
determining the overall effect.
Water addition has the net influence
of decreasing the final combustor tem-
perature (compare Figures 1 and 2).
Approximately 30 kcal are required to
vaporize and heat 1 mole of water from
standard ambient conditions to the
combustor peak temperature.
The equivalence ratio of 1.2 (Figure 3)
indicates that the temperature drop is
linear with respect to the amount of
February 1973 Volume 23, No. 2
Table I. NO levels and production rates for different fuel/water mass ratios.
(<f> = 1,2, p = 23 atm, Tiniet = 1QOO°K)
1/0
Fuel/water ratio (No water)
a
NO at t = 7 X 10~ B 5
6.93 X 10"
d NO a /dt at t = 7 X 10~6 6.1 X 10"1
Units are mole fractions and seconds.
Table II. NO levels and production rates for different equivalence ratios without and
with water addition. (Fuel/water mass ratio equal 1, p = 23 atm, Tiniet = 1000°K)
NOa at t = 7 X 10"5 sec
P Dry Wet
0,.8 1.40 X lO" 4
3.85 X 10"5
1,.0 3.21 X 10"4 4.29 X 10"5
1,.2 6.93 X 10-5 9.99 X 10~6
1,.5 6.45 X 10-° 2.24 X 10-«
Units are mole fractions and seconds.
water added. Table I contains the
final NO formation rate and the cor-
responding NO concentration (mole
fraction). A range of equivalence
ratios, <f> = 0.8 to 1.2, again displays a
linear temperature response while a
weaker influence (temperature drop) is
noted at <f> — 1.5. The equivalence
ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual
fuel-air mass ratios to the stoichio-
metric fuel-air ratio. The stoichio-
metric ratio is that ratio of fuel to air
which produces only carbon dioxide and
water (and nitrogen) as the ideal prod-
ucts of combustion. For this applica-
tion, where the fuel is represented by
C8Hi6 (see Appendix), the stoichiometric
ratio is defined by
C8Hi6 + 12 O2 + 45 N2 > with the dry temperature, while faster
8 H2O -f 8 CO2 + 45 N2
The means of introducing water to the
combustion system is significant in
terms of when the effect is available to
the reaction process. Water introduced
as large droplets must go through a
breakdown and vaporization process that
is significant with respect to the net
primary zone residence time.
Rapid vaporization or premixing
makes the water immediately and
totally available. If water is introduced
simultaneously with the fuel, Figure 4
shows the influence of the droplet size.
1/0 • 5 1/1 1/1. 5
2 .32 X 10" s
9. 99 X 10~6
5 .58 X 10"6
6 .7 X 10"2 2. 7 X 10"3 1.62 X 10~4
5
d NOa/dt at t = 7 X 10~ sec
Dry Wet
2.8 .0 x 10-1
CO CO CM CM
5.3 .5 X lO-i
6.1 X 10-i .7 X 10-3
7.0 X 10-3 .8 X 10-5
The base curve was obtained using the
results from Roberts et al.2 These
results for an initial water droplet size of
60 M indicate that the drop will exist for
6.0 X 10~5 sec. In general, the initial
drop size is controlled by the means of
water introduction. Fuel/water emul-
sions, steam sprays, high-pressure water
sprays, air blast atomizers have been
used, each with its own characteristics.
Therefore, a direct correlation of these
results is difficult. However, valuable
trends can be established by parametric
studies of the rate of water vaporization.
These rates have a one to one cor-
respondence to the initial water drop
size.
It can be seen that slow vaporization
may produce peak temperatures in line
vaporizations could eliminate the over-
shoot completely. The hazard of slow
vaporization is that the water effect and
the secondary air addition may occur
simultaneously with no noticeable over-
all influence of the water.
Fast vaporization has a negative
aspect, in that there is an initial drop in
temperature which could compromise
the combustion itself. Premixing would
displace this drop toward the combustor
entrance. Generally, the slower the
rate is the later the influence on the
temperature time response curve (Figure
4).
117
 2800

0=1.0
2600

2400 ((
1
—-0 = ).8
•1.2

-0=1.5

• 2200

2000

1800
\\
1600

1400

1200

1000 i /
The most important effect found is the 2800
800 lowering of the final temperature due to
<o <o
the vaporization and heating of the
added water and its vapor. In the cases
Time, sec considered, 1 kcal needed for vaporiza-
tion and heating results in a final

.—-
temperature reduction of about ^-1°K,
10 based on 1 mole of fuel used.
Of the total thermal effect 98% is
0 = 1.0 attributable to the vaporizing and
10 ^0.8 heating of the water (steam). The
-0=1.2 dissociation energy of H2O (i.e., H2O '-*•
H + OH) is 124 kcal/mole, but the
maximum amount of dissociated water
I 10 J

10"
/
t
$ 0 = 1.5
never exceeds %%, involving less than
0.6 kcal/mole.
Many of the pertinent equilibrium
constants are temperature sensitive.
Generally, a lower final temperature
drives all dissociation type reactions
10 toward the undissociated products. In
other words, the final concentrations of
<V V <o q> "v
radicals like O, H, OH are decreased
Time, sec while intermediates such as H2C0, HO2
Figure 1. la. Combustion temperature, and
are increased. However, this detailed
l b . mole fraction of nitric oxide versus elapsed analysis of the combustion process shows
time for various equivalence ratios, no water a transient excess of the radicals H, O,
added, Tiniet = 1000°K, p = 23 atm.
N, OH above their equilibrium concen-
trations. Since this radical overshoot
appears immediately before the maximal
temperature has been reached, the
temperature drop due to water addition
has a slight effect on the magnitude of
this overshoot.
Chemical Effects
The chemical interaction of water
with the combustion process would take
place in the region of rapid temperature
rise and the final approach to its stable
limit. Early in this zone, combustion
activity is characterized by a temporary
10
excess of O, OH, and H above their
equilibrium concentrations. Since
practically all H2O reactions involve
these radicals, they almost exclusively Time, sec
occur in the direction of water forma- Figure 2. 2a. Combustion temperature, and
tion. The additional water exerts no 2b. mole fraction of nitric oxide versus elapsed
time for various equivalence ratios, fuel/water
appreciable effect on this trend. mass ratio = 1, Tiniet = 1000°K, p = 23 atm.

118 Journal of-the Air Pollution Control Association

 2800

2800 When equilibrium conditions are

approached, the added H20 amounts to
2600 an increase of H2O of about 75% for
stoichiometric combustion. The water
2400
dissociation reaction (H2O + M = Time, sec
H + OH + M) in connection with some
rather fast radial exchange reactions has
2200 been found to be the main source for 10
resupplying the O, OH, H radicals. At
a: 2000 isothermal conditions the water addition
would cause a slight increase in the 10 O.Oxbas>e rate~

r
'
concentrations of O atoms. However,
1 1800 the additional H2O dissociation resulting 0 02 xb
in a small temperature decrease ap- a 10 Y
ase rate
1600 proximately compensates for this effect.
Otherwise, the added H2O does not 50><b ise rate
appear to participate in the hydrocarbon 10
1400
chemistry to any appreciable extent.
The net chemical effect is minimal.
1200 Unfortunately, the reported rate 10
constants for recombination/dissocia-
1000 tion reactions involving third bodies are
not well enough established to allow Time, sec
800 differentiation between various third
body efficiencies. Therefore, the third Figure 4. 4a. Combustion temperature, and
4b. mole fraction of nitric oxide versus elapsed
body efficiency of water has been as- time for various water vaporization rates, 0 =
Time, sec
sumed to equal the average third body 1.2, Tiniet = 1000°K, p = 23 atm, fuel/water mass
ratio = 1.
efficiency of the combustion products.
A lower than average efficiency would
show no effect, a higher efficiency would
result in a slightly faster approach
toward the equilibrium conditions.
However, any conventional efficiency
for water does not alter the relative
importance of the chemical effect.

Discussion

The addition of water, in quantities of

10
Figure 3. 3a. Combustion temperature, and
3b. mole fraction of nitric oxide versus elapsed
time for various fuel/water mass ratios, <t> =
1.2, Tiniet = 1000°K, p = 23 atm.
the order of the mass of fuel consumed,
produces thermal effects acting to lower
thefinaltemperature which overrides the
counteracting chemical effects. There-
fore, the concentrations of O, H, OH,
and CO are lower than in equivalent dry
combustion, while the concentrations of
CO2, H2CO are increased. The tem-
perature response is linear with respect

February 1973 Volume 23, No. 2 119

 to the amount of water added over the
equivalence ratios up to ^ = 1.2. This
linearity breaks down at (j> = 1.5 where
the formation of large concentrations of
the intermediates C2H2, C2H4, CEU, H2,
and CH3 takes place.
NO is mainly produced by the two
Zeldovich reactions N2 + 0 = NO + N
and O2 -}- N = NO + 0 which are
coupled to a chain mechanism. For the
temperatures studied, the rate constant
of the second Zeldovich reaction exceeds
the one of the first by a factor ranging
from 10 to 100. However, since the
available N concentration is many
orders of magnitude smaller than the
available 0 concentration, the first
Zeldovich reaction largely governs the
total NO production rate. Water addi-
tion slows the rate of the first Zeldovich
reaction due to both the reduced rate
constant caused by the lower tempera-
ture, and also the subsequent decreased
0-atom concentration. Under the con-
ditions studied a temperature decrease of
100° K approximately halves the rate
constant of the first Zeldovich reaction.
The NO concentration versus time
curves in Figures 1, 2, and 3 clearly
show a transient NO formation rate in
the beginning of the combustion process
followed by a zone with a constant NO
production rate. The constant rate is
reached when the system approaches
equilibrium temperature and equilib-
rium O and N atom concentrations.
The rate changes in the transient zone
include the influence of the temperature
and radical concentration overshoots.
The total NO level represents the sum-
mation of the NO produced in the
transient zone and the NO produced in
the constant zone. All combustion
cases with the base water rate resulted
in a transient zone duration of 7 X 10 ~5
sec or slightly less.
Considering different equivalence
ratios, the results in Table II show that
at the end of the transient zone the NO
levels with water addition are only
about 3 to 7 times smaller than the
equivalent NO levels for the dry cases.
At very long residence times on the
other hand, the NO level of the 4> = 0.8
wet combustion case is 10 times smaller
than the NO level of the dry case and the
NO level of the $ = 1.5 wet case is 25
times smaller than the NO level of the
dry case (Table II).
The comparatively small NO con-
centration decrease in the transient zone
can probably be explained by the fact
that the levels of the O and N concentra-
tion during the aforementioned over-
shoots are found to be slightly changed
by water addition.
Data available for FT4 engines
running on natural gas at 13 and 8.5 atm
settings (peak or base power)3 indicates
120
an NO reduction by a factor of 5.5 for
peak power setting and by a factor of 4
for base power setting (equivalence
ratio <j> = 0.9, fuel/water ratio being
unity). Extrapolation of these results
to 23 atm power setting leads to good
agreement with the premixed combus-
tion results for the constant zone of
Table II. For premixed combustion,
generally the constant zone is much
larger than the transient zone.
A comparison of natural gas combus-
tion with liquid fuel combustion4 showed
about 30% more NO* reduction for the
natural gas case. Since the main
combustion and therefore the transient
zone is much larger for the liquid fuel
combustion, the NO* reduction is less,
as predicted in the paragraph above.
A similar trend is found for different
fuel/water ratios. The NO level at 7 X
10 ~5 sec is relatively unchanged com-
pared to the NO production rate
decrease in the constant zone caused by
the different amounts of water as pre-
sented in Table I. Within the error
limits the experimental results of Ref. 3
show the same trend in NO* reduction
for various amounts of water as pre-
sented in Table I for the constant
combustion zone.
Since the experimental data available
are rather meager with no attempt to
show the effects of different water drop
sizes (i.e., vaporization rates) or of
different fuel/air ratios it was the main
purpose of this analytical work to
establish the trends of these effects.
From the previous discussion of the
transient zone, it follows that essentially
all liquid water must be vaporized and
mixed within this zone. Therefore, the
water vaporization/mixing rate in-
fluences the duration of the transient
zone and its NO production. Since the
NO production in the transient zone is
less affected by water addition than the
NO production in the constant zone, the
influence of the water vaporization/
mixing rates studied is comparatively
small. However, caution must be ex-
ercised not to produce early vaporization
and drop the combustor entrance
temperature.
Liquid fuel rich combustion cases can
show a transient overshoot of the
temperature above the equilibrium
value. Incomplete mixing or vaporiza-
tion can cause the gaseous fuel/air ratio
to temporarily approach stoichiometric
conditions. The rather sharp peak in
the temperature versus time curve is
flattened in the case of liquid water addi-
tion. The explanation seems to be a
stronger temperature dependency of the
total combustion process compared to
the temperature dependence of the
vaporization/heating/mixing process of
the original liquid fuel. In other words,
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
the cooling allows the latter process to
"catch up" with the combustion.
Conclusions
According to Sawyer et al.1 typical
aircraft gas turbines produce about one
third the amount NOS per mass unit fuel
consumed compared to spark ignition
engines. Furthermore, about 10 times
less jet fuel is consumed than gasoline on
a nationwide basis. Since a large
portion of the jet fuel is combusted at
high altitude the ground level NO* air
pollution due to gas turbines amounts to
less than 1%. Thus, a reduction of
NOa due to gas turbines appears un-
important. In the vicinity of airports
or powerstations, however, gas turbines
can be responsible for high NO* levels.
Therefore, in these cases an order of
magnitude NO* reduction is significant.
Furthermore, more advanced gas tur-
bines tend to produce more NO* due to
their higher combustion temperatures.1
Since NO*, in practice cannot be
reduced to N2, its formation has to be
prevented. The approach described
here was the addition of liquid water to
lower the peak combustion temperature,
which controls the NO formation. In
general, any other means of lowering the
peak temperature would help to reduce
the NO formation.
Appendix
The mechanism of hydrocarbon com-
bustion used largely follows conven-
tional patterns. The original fuel is
broken down in three global type reac-
tions to a realistic mixture of HO2, CO,
CH3, C2H4, H2CO. CH3 represents a
number of alkyl radicals. C2H4 stands
for all pertinent olefins, and formalde-
hyde represents all other aldehydes and
ketones, etc. C8Hi6 represents the
original fuel, it is not meant to be a true
olefin. C4HsO is a hypothetical inter-
mediate introduced for computational
convenience. C2H2 represents all poly-
acetylenes, which are important inter-
mediates in the soot formation.
Reactions 1 and 2 represent a com-
bination of peroxide type reactions and
thermal cracking reactions. Reaction 3
is a combination of a radical reaction
with a thermal cracking reaction, which
allows fuel breakdown under fuel rich
conditions. The rate constants have
been empirically adjusted to fit experi-
mental results as demonstrated by
Edelman and Fortune.5 Reaction 7 is a
global reaction covering reactions of O2
with alkyl radicals and reactions of HO2
with C2H4 and C2H2. The rate constant
£7 has been deduced from the rate
constants of the above mentioned reac-
tions.6"9 However, the results ap-
peared to be insensitive to an order of
magnitude change of h. All other rates
 have been taken from the literature, as
stated in the Reaction Scheme.
Though this mechanism is very crude,
it provides realistic results such as
temperature versus time response and
concentrations of radicals OH, 0, H, and
of CO, C02, NO, etc.
References
1. R. F. Sawyer, D. P. Teixeira, and E. S.
Starkman, "Air Pollution Charac-
teristics of Gas Turbine Engines,"
Report No. TS-69-1, 14th Annual
International Gas Turbine Confer-
ence and Products Show, Cleveland
Ohio, 1969.
2. R. Roberts, L. D. Aceto, R. Kollrack,
J. M. Bonnell, and D. P. Teixeira, "An
Analytical Model for Nitric Oxide
Formation in a Gas Turbine Combus-
tion Chamber," AIAA Paper No. 71-
715, 1971.
Chemical Kinetic Reaction Scheme*
Reaction
1) C8Hi6 + 0 2 = 2C4H8O
2) C4H8O + O2 = HO 2 + CO 4
CH 3 + C2H4
3) C8Hi6 + OH - H 2 C0 + CH3 4- h = 3 X 1010 T e~
3C2H4
4) CH 3 -f 0 - H 2 C0 + H
5) CH 3 + O2 - H 2 C0 + OH
6) H 2 C0 4- OH = H2O + CO + H ft6 = 10 14 e - 4 0 0 0 / T
7) C2H4 + O2 = 2H2CO
8) C2H4 + OH = CH 3 4- H 2 C0
9) H 2 C0 4- OH = HCO 4- H2O
10) HCO 4- M = CO + H + M
11) CH 3 + H 2 = CH 4 4- H
12) HCO + OH = H2O 4- CO
13) C2H4 = C2H2 4- H 2
14) C2H2 4- OH = CH 8 4- CO
15) 2H 4- M = H 2 + M
16) 2 0 + M = O2 + M
17) OH 4 H 4 M = H2O 4- M
18) H + O2 = OH 4- 0
19) 0 -f H 2 = OH + H
20) H 4- H2O = H 2 + OH
21) 0 + H2O = 2OH
22) CO + OH = CO2 4- H
23) HO2 + M = H -f- O2 4- M
24) HO2 + H = 2OH
25) N 2 4- O = NO 4- N
26) N + O2 = NO 4- 0
27) N 4- OH = NO 4- H
28) N 4- 0 4- M = NO 4- M
29) 2N + M = N 2 4- M
30) 0 + N2O = 2NO
31) 0 + N2O = O2 4- N 2
32) N2O 4- M = N 2 + 0 4- M
33) H + N2O = N 2 + OH
:
Units in cm3, mole" 1 , sec" 1 respectively cm6, mole" 2 , sec"
February 1973 Volume 23, No. 2
3. R. D. Klapatch and T. R. Koblish,
"Nitrogen Oxide Control with Water
Injection in Gas Turbines," ASME
Paper No. 71 WA/GT-9, 1971.
4. M. B. Hilt and R. H. Johnson, "Nitric
Oxide Abatement in Heavy Duty
Gas Turbine Combustors by Means of
Aerodynamics and Water Injection,"
ASME Paper 72-GT-53, 1972.
5. R. B. Edelman and O. F. Fortune, "A
Quasi-Global Chemical Kinetic Model
for the Finite Rate Combustion of
Hydrocarbon Fuels with Application
to Turbulent Burning and Mixing in
Hypersonic Engines and Nozzles,"
AIAA 7th Aerospace Sciences Meet-
ing, New York, N. Y., January 1969.
6. D. F. Cooke and A. Williams, "Shock-
tube Studies of the Ignition and Com-
bustion of Ethane and Slightly Rich
Methane Mixtures with Oxygen,"
13th International Symposium on
Combustion, The Combustion In-
stitute, 1970. p. 757
Rate Constant Source
^i = 7.5 X 106 T1-5 e ~ 7900/T
fa = 1 0 u T1-5 e- 10000/T
fa = 2 X 10 13 Ref. 10
fc6 = 10 12
Ref. 6
Ref. 10
fa = 3 X 10 2 T 2 - 5
fcs = 5 X 10 13 e- 3 0 0 0 / T Ref. 7
fa = Z X 10 14 e - 2 1 2 / T
Ref. 5, 6
Jc10 = 2 X 10 13 T 0 - 5 e~ 14400/T Ref. 11
fcn = 6 X 1 0 " e- 5500/T Ref. 8
ha = 5 X 10 13 Ref. 11
fas = 7 X 10 8 e - 23250/T
Ref. 12
fcu = 10 13 X e- 3 5 0 0 / T Ref. 6
fes = 2 X 10 18 T - 1 Ref. 5, 12
fa, = 1 0 " T " 1 Ref. 6, 13
fai = 7 X 10 19 T " 1
Ref. 13, 14
fe8 = 2 . 2 X 10 1 4 e- 8 4 0 0 / T Ref. 14
*i9 = 1.7 X 10 1 3 e- 4 7 3 0 / T Ref. 14
feo = 8 . 4 X 10 13 e- 10000/T Ref. 14
fa = 5 . 7 X ioi3 e - 9 O O O / T Ref. 14
fe2 = 5 . 6 X 1 0 " e - " 0 0 ' 1 Ref. 14
fas = 2 . 4 X 10 15 e ~ 22950/T Ref. 14
13
fe 4 = 6 X 10 Ref. 9, 13
fc25 = 1.35 X 10 14 e - 57500 ' T Ref. 14
fee = 6 . 4 X 1 0 9 T e-3125/T Ref. 14
fai = 7 X 1 0 u Ref. 15
fes = 1.2 X l O ^ T " 1 Ref. 6
fe9 = 9 X 1017 T " 1 Ref. 14
kso = 2 . 5 X 10 13 e - 13450/T Ref. 14
fai = 5 X 10 13 e - U 0 0 0 / T Ref. 16
fai = 5 X 10 14 e - 2 9 0 0 0 / T Ref. 15, 17
yt33 = 4 X xo 1 3 g-6000/T
Ref. 15
7. S. C. Sorensen, P. S. Myers, and O. H.
Uyehara, "Ethane Kinetics in Spark-
Ignition Engine-Exhaust Gases," 13th
International Symposium on Com-
bustion, The Combustion Institute,
1970. p. 451
8. R. R. Baker, R. R. Balwin, and R. W.
Walker, "The Use of the H2 4 O2
Reaction in Determining the Velocity
Constants of Elementary Reactions
in Hydrocarbon Oxidation," 13th
International Symposium on Com-
bustion, The Combustion Institute
1970. p. 291
9. J. L. Franklin, "Mechanisms and
Kinetics of Hydrocarbon Combus-
tion," Annual Report on the Progress
of Chemistry, 1967, p. 261
10. W. G. Browne, R. P. Porter, J. D.
Verline, and A. H. Clark, "A Study
of Acetylene-Oxygen Flames," 12th
International Symposium on Combus-
tion, The Combustion Institute, 1968.
p. 1035
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Dr. Kollrack is an Associated Re-
search Scientist and Mr. Aceto is an
Assistant Project Engineer in the
Scientific Analysis at Pratt and
Whitney Aircraft, Division of United
Aircraft, 400 Main Street, East Hart-
ford, Conn. 06108.
121