Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162

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Construction and Building Materials

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Stress distribution among sheathing-to-frame nails of timber

shear walls related to different base connections: Experimental
tests and numerical modelling
Natalino Gattesco, Ingrid Boem ⇑
Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Piazzale Europa 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy

h i g h l i g h t s

Numerical investigation on the in-plane performances of nailed timber shear walls.

Dissipative capacities concentrated in the connections among the components.

Validation of the models by comparison with experimental tests.

Investigations on the distribution of the shear among the sheathing nails.

Focus on the different arrangements of the base connections.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The performances of nailed timber shear walls subjected to in-plane horizontal actions are numerically
Received 23 December 2015 investigated in the paper. In particular, it focuses on the different behavior that the vertical diaphragm
Received in revised form 7 June 2016 may perform if the wall base steel devices are connected to the timber frame with or without the inter-
Accepted 14 June 2016
position of the sheathing. Nonlinear static analyses were performed and the dissipative capacity is con-
centrated in the connections among the components (nails, hold-down, angle brackets, stud-joist node),
whose behavior is calibrated by means of experimental tests and numerical simulations on connections.
Keywords:
The reliability of the numerical model was proved by comparing the numerical results with the findings
Seismic engineering
Timber structures
of five full-scale experimental tests performed on shear walls subjected to in-plane horizontal cyclic
Shear walls loads. It emerged that the different arrangements of the base connections influence significantly the dis-
Experimental tests tribution of the shear among the sheathing nails and, when the base steel devices are applied with the
Numerical models sheathing interposed and/or the panels are nailed to a base timber plate, the force distribution among
the fasteners significantly differs from those suggested by the analytical methods proposed in the
literature.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction as nails or screws) to a light timber frame. The shear walls

Modern Platform Frame timber buildings are able to exhibit
good performances when subjected to horizontal actions, due to
wind or earthquakes, as the lateral forces are transferred from
the horizontal diaphragms to the vertical bracing system and then
to the foundation. In such a structural type, each storey is framed
independently and connected to floors and roofs. Horizontal and
vertical diaphragms are typically assembled from wood-based
sheets fixed by means of widespread mechanical fasteners (such
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gattesco@units.it (N. Gattesco), boem@dicar.units.it (I. Boem).
(Fig. 1) are connected to the floors and foundation through steel
bolts, angle brackets, hold-downs or tie-downs.
The diaphragm action of shear walls provides the vertical and
lateral load-carrying capacity of a Platform Frame building; thus,
for a correct structural design, a good accuracy in the prediction
of the force and displacement capacities of these resisting elements
is necessary.
Extensive experimental campaigns concerning in-plane tests on
full-scale shear wall specimens were performed to investigate on
the main mechanism that influences the overall behavior of the
diaphragms. The most varied geometrical and mechanical charac-
teristics (of the frame, the sheathing, the fasteners. . .) and the
influence of the openings and of the vertical load were

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.079
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
150 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
Fig. 1. Example of a segmented timber shear wall.
investigated, referring, in particular, to the shear walls typologies
typically employed in the residential timber housing in Italy and
Alpine areas [2,22,27,14].
As the results of the full-scale experimental tests are limited, a
variety of numerical models were developed to investigate on a
wider range of possible wall configurations. The models range from
linear to nonlinear analysis and from strain energy approaches to
finite element analysis (e.g. [25,17,19]). As the structural behavior
of the shear walls is mainly influenced by the connections, several
experimental campaigns focused on the characterization of the
behavior of the sheathing-to-framing joints, on the base joints
and on the stud-joist joints, allowed to calibrate the behavior of
the different components of the model [20,1,23,24,12,14].
It may be observed that the overall lateral performances of a
shear wall are significantly influenced by the behavior of the
sheathing-to-framing connections, thus an accurate modelling at
this level is needed. The different approaches adopted in the liter-
ature concern mostly the introduction of nonlinear spring ele-
ments connecting the sheathing to the frame, both assumed to
be linear elastic. But, because of the non-uniformity of the fasten-
ers loading direction, this methods may lead to some limitations in
the applicability and reliability of the results [16].
A different method, assumed in the paper, consists in modelling
such a connection by means of nonlinear beams, perpendicular to
the sheathing, able to automatically account for their different
loading direction and accounting for their actual resistance.
The aim of the paper is to evidence, by means of numerical sim-
ulations (nonlinear static analyses), the actual distribution of stres-
ses among sheathing nails considering the influence of the
mechanical base connections of shear walls subjected to in-plane
horizontal load.
In particular, the scope is to face a type of shear wall that is very
common in Italy and Alpine areas, as it presents some important
constructive advantages. In fact, the prefabricated shear wall, made
with a light timber frame and particle board sheathings nailed on
both sides of the frame, is placed on a fixed base timber element;
the base steel devices are then applied to the timber frame through
the interposition of the panels, which are also nailed in the field
to the base plate. This type, however, presents some critical aspects,
as a significant change in the loading direction path of the nails of
the sheathing-to-frame connection occurs, with respect to the case
of a direct connection of the base steel devices to the timber frame.
The actual shear load distribution significantly differs from that
assumed in the analytical relationships available in the literature
(eg [17,18]) due to the higher nails concentration at the base of
the sheathing, in correspondence of the hold-down and of the base
plate. Therefore, it is important to develop a model that can cor-
rectly predict the actual performances of such a shear walls.
The nonlinear behavior of the different connections was derived
from specific experimental tests and numerical simulations and
the reliability of the model was checked by comparing the numer-
ical capacity curves with the experimental results of five in-plane
cyclic tests performed on shear wall samples of different
characteristics.
2. Experimental tests on timber shear walls and connections
Five shear wall specimens were subjected to in-plane horizontal cyclic load. Dif-
ferent geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the timber components and of
the connections were considered. The specimens characteristics and the experi-
mental results are reported in the following.
Moreover, the setup and the results of some specific experimental tests carried
out on connections (hold down and stud-joist node) were presented.
2.1. Shear walls configurations and material characteristics
The main characteristics of the five considered shear walls, marked by the iden-
tifier PLS, are summarized in Table 1 and illustrated in Fig. 2. The main features of
the specimens reflect the most common shear wall configurations used in the Plat-
form Frame building practise in Italy and in Alpine area Countries. Different tech-
niques to fix shear walls with the foundation were tested. The most common
considers the timber frame directly connected to the foundation by means of steel
devices which contrast the wall uplift (hold-down) and the sliding (angle brackets).
Differently, the bottom joist of the wall could be placed over a timber member fixed
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162 151

to the foundation through steel dowels; the sheathing is also nailed to this member

4 L-shape, 9 ring nails/4, 2 bolt M12

to transfer horizontal shear. Moreover, the base connectors may be applied either
directly on the frame (DF) or through the interposed sheathing (IS).
The specimens are single segment shear walls with the exception of PLS4, com-
posed by three segments. The studs of the frame are spaced 625 mm and particle

9 ring nails/4, 2 bolt M12

board sheathings (type P5, according to EN 312:2010 [6] – qmean = 710 kg/m3,
Emean = 2400 MPa, Gmean = 1150 MPa, fc,mean = 15 MPa, ft,mean = 9.5 MPa, according to
Shear base connectors

EN 789:2004 [4] are nailed on both sides of the frame; the edge distance of the fas-
teners was equal to 20 mm. Couples of hold-down are applied at both opposite ends
of each shear wall. In specimens PLS7-8 the timber frame is placed directly on the
base steel device; DF steel angle brackets and hold down are assumed. Diversely, in

4 L-shape
PLS4-5-6 the frame is placed on a base timber element 160  120 mm2 fixed to the
3 M16
2 M16
1 M16

3 M16
6 M20

base device through some steel dowels. The sheathings are protruded 60 mm with
respect to the bottom joist, so to allow the coupling of the shear wall with the base
Main characteristics of the shear wall specimens (timber type in accordance to the strength classification of the standard [8], for glue laminated timber, and of standard [7], for solid timber).

timber element by means of /2.8/70 ring nails placed with the same spacing as the
sheathing-to-frame fasteners; IS hold down connections are considered.
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 3a: a steel profile was fixed through
(1) 1875 mm

(1) 1875 mm

(1) 1875 mm
(2) 1250 mm

(1) 2105 mm

(1) 2065 mm
(3) 625 mm

screws on the top timber joist and couples of sliding skids were used to prevent out-
Segment

of-plane displacements of the wall. An electro-mechanic actuator (500 kN,

±150 mm stroke), fixed at one side to a stiff steel bracing and at the other one to
the steel profile, was used to apply the load. A loading cell was used to measure
the load. Potentiometer transducers were used to measure the relative displace-
ments in many parts of the specimen (Fig. 3b). Tests were carried out imposing a
cyclic variation of the top horizontal displacement between two opposite values
2 + 2 WHT 620, 52 ring nails /4/60, panel interposed.
2 + 2 WHT 340, 20 ring nails /4/60, panel interposed.

2 + 2 WHT 340, 20 ring nails /4/60, panel interposed.

that were gradually increased during the test. In particular, the amplitude of the
step was assumed equal to 2.5 mm up to reaching ±15 mm displacement, 5 mm
in the displacement range ±15/±30 mm and 10 mm for higher displacements. The
displacement was governed through a unit system connected to a computer; the
rate of variation of the displacement was maintained constant and equal to
10 mm per minute.
2 + 2 WHT 620, 52 ring nails /4/60

2 + 2 WHT 620, 52 ring nails /4/60

2.2. Experimental results on shear wall tests

Bolt M20, 20 mm thick washer

Bolt M20, 20 mm thick washer

Bolt M20, no thick washer

In specimens PLS7-8 a progressive plasticization of the panel-to-frame fasteners

Bolt M16, 4 mm washer

Bolt M16, 4 mm washer

was noted and the rupture of several nails occurred in correspondence of the peak
load (Fig. 4a).
In specimens PLS4-5-6, as the hold-downs were not directly connected to the
timber stud of the frame but through the panel, a significant sudden damage con-
cerning the tear of the panel in correspondence of the hold down occurred, due
Hold down

to reaching of the maximum tensile strength in the panel. The crack started in cor-
respondence of the upper nails row of the hold down connection subjected to ten-
sion and developed rapidly with a negative slope of about 30° to the horizontal
(Fig. 4b). An appreciable part of the shear force was transferred from the shear wall
to the steel base by the hold down devices, due to their shear stiffness. In specimen
PLS4, in the proximity of the end of the test, a visible shear deformation in the hold-
/2.8/70 ring nails, 150 mm spacing

/2.8/70 ring nails, 150 mm spacing

/2.8/70 ring nails, 75 mm spacing

/2.8/70 ring nails, 50 mm spacing

/2.8/70 ring nails, 50 mm spacing

down was evidenced (Fig. 4c).

The performance of the specimens can be summarized in a diagram represent-
ing the horizontal load F against the global horizontal displacement at the top of the
wall dtot, evaluated as difference between the horizontal displacement monitored
by transducer T1 and that of the steel device at the bottom of the wall (measured
by transducers T2 and T3). The steel device displacement resulted, however, almost
Nailed connections

negligible (<0.1 mm).

The curves F-dtot are plotted in Figs. 5–9, where the curves of the horizontal load
F against the horizontal displacement dc, due to the rotation at the base of the wall,
are also displayed. The displacement dc was calculated by multiplying for the wall
aspect ratio (H/B) the summation of the absolute displacements measured by verti-
cal transducers T4 and T5. For specimens PLS7 and PLS8, the curves F-dsf express the
relation between the shear force and the wall slip at the base (T6); for specimens
PLS4-5-6 the F-dsf curves were omitted, as the slip resulted negligible.
In F-dtot curves emerged an appreciable dissipative capacity in each cycle, even
Timber frame and sheathing

though the hysteretic shape evidences a notable pinching when the displacement is
approaching zero.
The main results of the experimental tests are summarized in Table 2 in terms
of maximum horizontal load (Fmax), top horizontal displacement dtot in correspon-
140  160 studs
160  200 studs

160  120 joists

200  120 joists
Particle, 15 mm

Particle, 15 mm

Particle, 15 mm

Particle, 15 mm
Particle, 20 mm
80  160 studs

80  160 studs

80  160 studs
160  80 joists

160  80 joists

160  80 joists

Red spruceC24

Red spruceC24

dence of Fmax (Dtot) and elastic stiffness (Ktot); the two opposite orientations of
KVH GL24 h

KVH GL24 h

KVH GL24 h

the horizontal displacement are distinguished by the superscripts + and . The stiff-
ness was assumed as the secant value, in the load-displacement envelope curves,
between 10% and 40% of the peak load value, according to EN 12512:2001/
A1:2005 [5].

2.3. Experimental tests on hold-down connections

1875  2800 mm2

1875  2800 mm2

2105  2870 mm2

2065  2870 mm2

3750  2800 mm2

Two experimental tensile tests were carried out on hold-down WHT620. The
tests concerning specimens composed of a couple of hold-down nailed to a C24 tim-
ber stud by means of 52 /4/60 ring nails (Fig. 10a). The timber stud was centred
ID and size

upon a couple of identical hydraulic jacks, with a steel plate interposed; both
hold-downs were fixed by anchor bolts M20 to a contrast device composed by steel
PLS4

PLS5

PLS6

PLS7

PLS8
Table 1

elements. In one specimen, the base of each hold-down was stiffened providing a
thick prismatic steel washer 73  70  20 mm3; differently, in the other specimen
the base of the hold was not stiffened with thick washers. The hydraulic jacks
152 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162

Fig. 2. Main characteristics of specimens: (a) PLS4, (b) PLS5-6 and (c) PLS7-8.

Fig. 3. Test setup: (a) illustration of the apparatus and (b) arrangements of the transducers.
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
Fig. 4. Details of experimental specimens: (a) rupture of some panel-to-frame nails in specimens with DF base connections, (b) local tear out of the sheathing in specimens
with IS hold down connections and (c) and shear deformation in the hold-down in PLS4.
(142 kN each) were activated by an hand pump and the applied force was measured
with a pressure transducer. The displacements between the timber stud and the
steel base (T13-T15) and between the base and the hold-down (T14-T16) were
monitored real time by four potentiometer transducers. The samples collapsed
for a similar peak force (about 95 kN), in consequence of the tensile rupture of
the vertical plate of the hold-down, in correspondence of the top weld of the ribs
(Fig. 10b). The load, referred to a single hold down, against the global displacement,
is plotted in Fig. 10c.
The same experimental procedure was also adopted for the characterization of
the tensile behavior of an hold-down WHT340. In particular, each hold-down was
nailed to the timber stud by means of 20 /4/60 ring nails and it was fixed by anchor
bolts M16 to the contrast device. Moreover, 15 mm thick particle boards were inter-
posed between the hold down and the timber frame and a /44 steel washer, 4 mm
Fig. 5. Shear load against top horizontal displacement of specimen PLS4: exper-
imental results and numerical simulation.
Fig. 6. Shear load against top horizontal displacement of specimen PLS5: exper-
imental results and numerical simulation.
153
thick, was used to stiffen the base of the hold-downs. Both the displacements
between the timber stud and the sheathing and between the sheathing and the
basement were monitored. The collapse of the sample occurred in consequence
of the nail rupture, for a peak force of about 50 kN. The curve representing the load
vs. the relative displacement between the sheathing and the base, referred to a sin-
gle hold down, is summarized in Fig. 10c.
2.4. Experimental tests on stud-joist nodes
Some compression tests were carried out to analyse the local deformability at
stud-joist intersection of a shear wall. The arrangement of the specimens is illus-
trated in Fig. 11a. A vertical stud was centred upon a horizontal base joist and par-
ticle board sheathings 15 mm thick were applied on both sides by means ring nails
Fig. 7. Shear load against top horizontal displacement of specimen PLS6: exper-
imental results and numerical simulation.
Fig. 8. Shear load against top horizontal displacement of specimen PLS7: exper-
imental results and numerical simulation.
154 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162

horizontal load by performing nonlinear static analysis. The mod-

elling hypotheses are described in the following.

3.1. Model characteristics

In the numerical simulations, the timber elements of the frame

were modelled through beams with a linear-elastic behavior; the
relative rotations between studs and joists were permitted.
The sheathing was represented through plane stress elements
with elastic behavior in compression and elastic-brittle behavior
in tension (tensile strength 9.5 MPa), allowing then the possibility
of a tensile failure of the wood-based sheets, as discussed in Sec-
tion 2.2 and shown in Fig. 4b, c The mesh dimension is about
50  50 mm2.
The sheathing-to-frame connections were considered by mod-
elling each nail as a beam with axis perpendicular to the wall, with
nonlinear behavior (as shown in Fig. 13). Non-linear springs were
utilized to model the base connections (the angle brackets and
Fig. 9. Shear load against top horizontal displacement of specimen PLS8: exper-
the hold down) and the local compressive deformability of the
imental results and numerical simulation.
stud-to-joist nodes.
A detailed description of the behavior of the different connec-
Table 2 tions is reported in the following subsections. The schematizations
Experimental results: maximum horizontal load (Fmax), top horizontal displacement of the adopted numerical models are illustrated in Fig. 12.
in correspondence of Fmax (Dtot) and global elastic stiffness (Ktot).
It is evidenced that in general the springs accounting for the
ID +
Fmax F
max D+tot D
tot K+tot K
tot compressive deformability at stud-to-joist nodes were introduced
[kN] [kN] [mm] [mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] at the base of each stud.
PLS4 91.32 89.60 35.15 48.29 6094 6250 In the shear walls PLS7-PLS8 (Fig. 12b), the springs representing
PLS5 80.82 76.38 54.44 48.48 2750 3040 the hold-down axial behavior and the shear behavior of the angle
PLS6 44.42 49.29 38.43 47.00 2565 2256
brackets were jointed directly to the base timber joist; the springs
PLS7 121.41 135.52 49.16 53.06 4360 4060
PLS8 116.04 122.19 39.46 38.57 4581 4364
representing the shear behavior of the hold-down were applied to
the timber studs, at the height of the centroid of the hold-down nails.
Differently, in PLS4-5-6, the springs representing the axial and
/2.8/70, spaced 50 mm in the joist, and 100 mm in the stud. The sample has a width the shear behavior of the hold down were applied to the sheathing,
of 625 mm (typical distance among studs in timber frames) and a height of in correspondence of the lower nails row of the hold-down and of
1375 mm (half of the common shear wall height). The joist has a cross section the centroid of the nails, respectively. Moreover, the presence of
120  160 mm2 and the stud 60  160 mm2; both the elements were made of the hold-down nails connecting the panel to the stud was mod-
C24 red spruce [7].
A sequence of loading-unloading cycles (steps 6 kN, load speed 0.5–0.8 kN/s)
elled (Fig. 12a). The stiffening effect of the steel plate of the hold
was applied on the specimen up to the collapse. A couple of potentiometer trans- down among the hold down nails rows was considered by means
ducers (T17-T18), connected to an electronic acquisition unit interfaced with a of linear truss elements connecting adjacent rows, with geometric
computer, monitored in real time the displacement between the base joist and characteristics as the hold down plate and mechanical characteris-
the end of the timber stud; holes were specifically made in the particle boards to
tics of steel S355 (Es = 210000 MPa, fys = 400 MPa). The horizontal
set the transducers. The whole axial deformation of the stud was also measured
(transducer T19). sliding and the vertical uplift of the base timber element was
It was noted that the curve of the force against the total displacement of the inhibited in the numerical model, as it was fixed to the base steel
connection (Fig. 11b) may be approximated with a tri-linear and the collapse device through some steel dowels adequately tightened, which
occurred at a compressive force equal to 149.5 kN. prevented the displacements at the base (see Section 2.2). The pos-
sibility of vertical detachment between the bottom joist of the wall
3. Modelling of timber shear walls and the base timber element was admitted, while the relative slip-
page was governed by shear springs accounting for the wood-to-
The five timber shear walls described in Section 2.1 were wood friction induced by the axial loads transmitted by the studs
modelled with the software Abaqus and subjected to a monotonic (coefficient of static friction ls = 0.3).

Fig. 10. Experimental tests on hold-down connections: (a) test setup, (b) detail of the rupture of the vertical plate of the hold-down WHT620 at the end of the test and
(c) average global axial load vs. displacement curves referred to a single hold-down WHT620 and WHT340.
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162 155

Fig. 11. Compression test on stud-joist node: (a) test setup and (b) load vs. displacement curves.

Fig. 12. Schematization of the model adopted for the numerical simulations of: (a) PLS4-5-6 and (b) PLS7-8.

3.2. Sheathing-to-frame nailed connection
The behavior of the connection with /2.8 ring nails was derived
from the experimental tests on shear walls PLS7 and PLS8 (Sections
2.1 and 2.2). In particular, the shear-displacement curve of a single
nail was evaluated considering the relative displacement between
the sheathing and the external studs monitored at the middle
height of the specimen by the transducers T11 and T12 (Fig. 3b),
assuming that the nails at the middle height of the external studs
act mostly in the vertical direction (according to Kallsner and
Girhammar [17,18]. As evidenced in the following (Section 4,
Fig. 16a), this hypothesis resulted accurate for the considered
samples.
The force acting on a single nail (fnail) was evaluated in function
of the global horizontal in-plane force Fh, the wall height and
width, H and B, and the nail spacing p:


1 Fh  H p
f nail ¼ : ð1Þ
a B B
The coefficient a was calibrated by means of an iterative process
so to fit as close as possible the experimental displacement moni-
tored by transducers T11 and T12. An average value of a = 1.2 was
obtained. It is observed that this value is in agreement with the
simplified model proposed in Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-1:2004/
A1:2008) [9], which assumes a pure shear flow along the perimeter
of the sheathing: the force on each fastener is considered at most
equal to the plastic capacity of the fastener and the force distribu-
tion parallel with the framing members. By adopting such a simpli-
fied method, a 20% increased equivalent resistance should be
considered for the fasteners along the edges so to predict the actual
lateral load carrying capacity (and displacement capacity) of the
shear wall. The applicability of this simplified method was also
156 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
Fig. 13. Nonlinear behavior of the /2.8 ring nail for the sheathing-to-frame
connection: comparison between experimental and numerical results.
confirmed by the authors in Gattesco and Boem [13], where the
validation of some numerical simulations on timber buildings
was performed.
The experimental force-displacement curve of a single fastener
is illustrated in Fig. 13, where the shear force acting on a single nail
(fnail) at the varying of the displacement at the nail end (dnail) is
plotted. The displacements dnail were evaluated as the mean values
monitored by transducers T11 and T12 (see Fig. 3b). It is high-
lighted that the curve obtained from the specimen PLS7 attained
to a little higher shear resistance and displacement capacity than
that of PLS8, due to the thicker sheathing panel (20 mm instead
15 mm, Table 1).
In the numerical model, the ring nails employed to fix the
wood-based panels to the timber frame of the shear walls were
modelled by means of nonlinear beams with circular cross sec-
tion. This choice was preferred to the introduction of nonlinear
spring elements, as, although the model requires higher analysis
time, the actual direction of action on the nail is automatically
considered and the nail behavior is accurate. Differently, as evi-
denced in Judd and Fonseca [16], the use of single spring may
be numerically unstable and requires the preliminary definition
of the direction of action of the spring (which may also change
during the loading process), while the use of two perpendicular
springs usually overestimates the nail performances both in stiff-
ness and strength in the case of a nonlinear relationship. The
models using this latter schematization would require the defini-
tion of a scale adjustment for the nail relationship of the spring
pair (e.g. [11], an orientation of the two orthogonal springs along
the initial displacement trajectory [16] or a coupling of the spring
pair [26].
In the model used in this study, the beam elements represent-
ing the nailed connections were considered fixed to the timber
frame and pinned to the sheathing and had a circular cross section
(diameter 2.8 mm) with a fibre schematization (9 radial and 24 cir-
cumferential divisions). Starting from the elastic stiffness obtained
from the experimental curves (Kel,nail), the equivalent beam length
(leq) was determined analytically by means of Eq. (2), considering
the Young modulus Es = 210,000 MPa and the second moment of
area (I) of the fastener:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 3Es I
leq ¼ : ð2Þ
K el;nail
The mesh dimension was 1/10 the beam length. The plastic
behavior of the equivalent material for the beam element was
derived from the experimental results so to consider both the non-
linear behavior of the nail and the plastic deformation of the tim-
ber beneath the nail (nail-timber interaction). The characteristics
of the equivalent material are reported in Table 3; the numerical
behavior of a cantilever beam representing a /2.8 ring nail connec-
tion is illustrated in Fig. 13 with a comparison with the experimen-
tal curves. The /2.8 nail behavior obtained from PLS8 was adopted
also for the modelling of the sheathing-to-frame /2.8 nails in spec-
imens PLS4-5-6, as presenting same fastener and sheathing
features.
The lateral force-displacement curve was assumed independent
from the angle of the applied load with respect to the timber grain,
according to the results of Dolan and Madsen [3]. Possible influ-
ences may in general arise in the post peak branch of the force-
displacement curve, at high displacements, when the collapse by
withdrawal in the timber elements is attained, as showed in
Girhammar et al. [15]. But it is not the case, as the collapse of
the analysed connection occurred by nail failure or by punching
of the nail head (Fig. 4a).
In specimens PLS4-5-6 the hold downs are fixed to the stud of
the frame with the particle board sheathing interposed – IS (see
Section 2.1). Thus, also the /4 nails of the hold down contributed
to connect the sheathing to the frame and they were considered
in the numerical models as the nails of the sheathing, by means
of cantilever beams with nonlinear behavior.
Provided that no specific experimental tests results on the per-
formances of /4 ring nails jointing a 15 mm particle boards to tim-
ber elements, the performances of this fastener were obtained by
multiplying per 1.35 the ordinates of the /2.8 nail force vs. dis-
placement curve.
This amplification factor was evaluated as a mean value
between the stiffness ratio and the resistance ratio of the two nail
types. In particular, according to the analytical relationship pro-
posed in Eurocode 5 for the prediction of the stiffness for timber-
to-timber connections (nails without pre-drilling), the ratio
between the stiffness of the /4 nail (Kser,/4) and that of the /2.8
nail (Kser,/2.8) was evaluated by means of the Eq. (3).

0:8
K ser;/4 /4
¼ ; ð3Þ
K ser;/2:8 /2:8
where / is the nail diameter. It resulted a ratio of 1.33. Moreover,
the nails resistances were predicted by applying the Johansen’s
equations (Eurocode 5), resulting in a ratio of 1.37. However, the
assumption is reasonable considering that these nails in the studied
specimens were loaded well below their maximum capacity. The
material characteristics used to represent the nonlinear behavior
of the /4 ring nails are reported in Table 3.
3.3. Angle brackets and dowel bolts
Each couple of shear angle brackets (applied in specimens PLS7
and PLS8) was modelled by an equivalent horizontal non-linear
spring connecting the base joist to the base and acting in horizontal
direction. A quadri-linear curve was adopted for the load-
displacement behavior of the spring; the main points are summa-
rized in Table 4, which refers to the experimental tests conducted
on the NEW150 shear connectors reported in Tomasi and Sartori
[24]. The vertical contribution was considered negligible due to
the low flexural stiffness of steel angle and to the high stiffness
of the hold down.
Differently, for specimens PLS4-5-6, as the base timber element
was fixed to the bottom steel device through some dowel bolts,
horizontal and vertical translation of the specimen at the base
was assumed negligible, according to the insignificant displace-
ment monitored by transducer T6 (Sections 2.1 and 2.2).
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162 157

3.4. Hold-down connections

The axial behavior of the hold-down connections may be mod-

elled with good accuracy by a nonlinear axial spring acting in the
vertical direction of the shear wall. In the considered shear walls
samples, two different types of hold down were utilized:
WHT620 and WHT340. Moreover, the former was used both with
and without a thick prismatic washer in correspondence of the
anchor bolt.
The numerical model is referred to the experimental results
reported in Section 2.3. The experimental tests evidenced that, in
general, the deformability of a hold-down connection subjected
to tension may be attributed to the nail slip, the out-of-plane flex-
ural deformation of the fastener, the flexural deformation of the
hold-down base and the axial deformation of both the vertical
plate of the hold-down and the anchor bolt. The last two contribu- Fig. 14. Simplified numerical model to study hold-downs subjected to combined
tions result very small; moreover the presence of the thick pris- shear-axial load: (a) static scheme, (b) out-of-plane and base deformation of the
hold-down, (c) shear deformation of the hold-down with thick prismatic washer
matic washer reduces considerably the flexural deformability of and (d) without thick washer.
the hold-down base.
Differently, when the hold-down connection is in compression,
the out-of-plane flexural deformation and the flexural deformation models. Due to the lack of specific experimental tests, some
of the hold-down base are effectively contrasted by the contact of numerical simulations were carried out to assess the different per-
the bottom of the wall with the steel base. Thus, the compressive formance of the hold-down due to the simultaneous presence of
deformation is mainly due to the nail slip contribution. As the shear and axial force. The numerical study considers a simplified
behavior of the nails is independent from the loading direction scheme that analyses the hold down behavior per components that
(negative or positive), the load-displacement curve of a fastener are modelled through nonlinear springs (base connection and out
in compression was obtained from the tensile experimental tests of plane deformation of the steel member), nonlinear beam ele-
by subtracting the displacement between the base and the hold- ments (nails), as described above, and deformable beam element
down (T14-T16 in Fig. 10a) to that measured between the timber (in plane deformation of hold down vertical steel plate). The differ-
stud and the steel base (T13-T15). ent components are illustrated in Fig. 14a. The presence of the stud,
As the experimental tests on shear walls evidenced that the to which the hold-down is nailed, was considered by modelling a
hold-down connection is also able to provide some resistance rigid element (EI = 1) with all the rotations and the out-of-plane
against the horizontal sliding, an axial spring acting in the horizon- translation avoided. Moreover, the horizontal translation at the
tal direction of the shear wall was considered in the numerical base of the hold-down was inhibited.

Fig. 15. Load-displacement curves adopted considering the combined shear-axial loading of the three types of hold-down used in the study: (a) axial and (b) shear behavior
in shear-tension, (c) axial and (d) shear behavior in shear-compression.
158 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
The force-displacement relationship for the axial spring Kv
(Fig. 14a, b) was derived from the experimental results on the hold
down (Section 2.3, T14-T16 in Fig. 10a). For elements in compression
the axial stiffness Kv was assumed rigid. The possibility of nails plas-
ticization was considered by adopting the modelling approach
already described in Section 3.2. The in-plane flexural deformation
of the hold down vertical plate was considered assuming an
elastic-plastic behavior of steel (Es = 210,000 MPa, fys = 400 MPa).
To consider for the rotational degree of restraint at the base, a rota-
tional spring was utilized, with stiffness Kh (Fig. 14a). However, in
case of hold down with thick prismatic washer, the deformability
of the base is almost negligible (Fig. 14c) and so a fixed rotation
was assumed (Kh = 1); differently, for hold-down without thick
washer, as the base rotational restraint is very little (Fig. 14d), for
simplicity a value of Kh = 0 was considered.
The calibration of the simple numerical model was made on the
base of the experimental results on the hold down (Section 2.3)
and to the relationship suggested for the axial-shear domain in
the European Technical Approval document for X-Lam connection
[10], adopted also by Rinaldin et al. [21].
The numerical model illustrated in Fig. 14a was used for the
evaluation of the performances of the hold down connection when
subjected to a combined tension and shear action. Numerical tests
were then performed by assuming values of the ratio between the
shear (V) and the tensile (N) forces derived from the analyses of the
tested shear walls (V/N = 0.1). In specimens with hold-down
WHT340, a shear-tension combined action induced an inclined
direction of loading of nails so, at collapse, the vertical and hori-
zontal components of the nail load are lower than their maximum
resistance in the corresponding directions. This causes a reduction
of the global resistance and displacement capacities of the connec-
tion both in shear and in tension. The result well accords with the
approach suggested in the European Technical Approval document
for X-Lam connection [10], adopted also by Rinaldin et al. [21]. On
the contrary, in specimens with hold-down WHT 620 no apprecia-
ble differences were noted both in shear and in tension because the
nail connection is designed overstrength and the fastener collapse
is governed by the vertical plate of the hold down (Fig. 10b). The
corrected curves adopted to represent the hold down effect in ten-
sion are illustrated in Fig. 15a and those representing the shear
effect are shown in Fig. 15b.
For hold down in compression, the same curves as for axial load
only may be used because after the recovery of tolerances at the
base of the hold-down most of the wall vertical compression load
is transmitted to the foundation by direct contact of the bottom
timber joist of the wall. The curves illustrated Fig. 15c were
obtained both from experimental tests, through the above proce-
dure, and using the numerical model schematized in Fig. 14a. Sim-
ilarly, provided that the axial load transmitted by the hold down is
very low, no changes to the curves obtained for shear only load
were applied (Fig. 15d).
3.5. Stud-joist nodes
A nonlinear numerical model was also made and utilized to
simulate the actual behavior of the experimental compressive tests
on stud-joist node reported in Section 2.4 and to check the role of
the deformability of the parts of the sample. Beam elements were
adopted for both the stud and the joist, while the sheathing was
modelled by means of plane stress elements. The nails connecting
the sheathing with the frame were modelled through beams; the
same nonlinear behavior adopted for the nails in the shear walls
was considered (see Section 3.2). The stud was disjointed from
the joist, so to evaluate the contribution of the nailed sheathing.
Non-linear static analyses were conducted by incrementing the
vertical displacement at the top of the stud and monitoring the
vertical reaction at the base of the joist. The vertical force-
displacement curve due to the contribution of the nailed sheathing
is reported in Fig. 11b. The force–displacement curve due to the
local deformability of the timber was estimated by subtracting to
the envelope experimental global curve the numerical one, con-
cerning the nailed sheathing contribution. It is evidenced that the
presence of the nails did not affect significantly the initial elastic
stiffness of the specimen, but influenced the post-elastic behavior
of the sample and its ultimate resistance. The maximum compres-
sion force directly transmitted by the stud-joist node, Fmax, was
approximately estimated at 115 kN, that is about 23% less than
the global force carried by the specimen. According to Amendment
1 of Eurocode 5 [9], the compressive strength perpendicular to the
grain fc,90 was evaluated through the relationship:
F max
f c;90 ¼ ; ð4Þ
Astud;eff  kc;90
The coefficient kc,90 (which accounts for the load configuration,
the possibility of splitting and the degree of compressive deforma-
tion) was assumed equal to = 1.5; Astud,eff is the effective cross sec-
tion of the stud, calculated as the contact length of the node,
increased of 30 mm for each side. A compressive strength of
4.0 MPa resulted.
The local deformation at the stud-joist nodes was considered by
means of nonlinear axial springs connecting the base of the studs
with the base joist. According to the dashed curve reported in
Fig. 11b, the springs had a tri-linear behavior with end of the first
branch approximately at 50% of the peak force, stiffness of the sec-
ond branch evaluated about 1/5 that of the first branch and third
branch with horizontal trend up to the collapse. The peak force Fmax
was estimated using Eq. (4), considering fc,90 = 4.0 MPa and
kc,90 = 1.5. The effective stud cross section for corner nodes, Astud,eff,
was calculated as the contact length of the node increased of
30 mm only for one side.
The initial stiffness Kin was obtained using the Equation:
E90  nAstud
K in ¼ ; ð5Þ
h
where E90 is the Young Modulus in direction perpendicular to the
grain and n is a coefficient to account for the actual deformation
area of the joist.
Numerical studies permitted to calibrate the coefficient n for
the different shear walls. In particular, linear elastic analyses were
performed using a 3D model in which both the stud and the joist
were modelled by means of eight-node solid elements
(10  10  10 mm3) with orthotropic behavior. The values of the
coefficient n for corner nodes resulted equal to 1.18 and 1.20 for
PLS7 and PLS8 samples, respectively, and equal to 1.46 for the
specimens PLS4, 5 and 6. Lower values of n were obtained for larger
cross section of the stud: 160  200 mm2 PLS7, 140  160 mm2
PLS8 and 80  160 mm2 PLS4, PLS5, PLS6. Higher values resulted
for central nodes (2.26 and 2.30 for PLS7 and PLS8 and 2.80 for
PLS4, 5 and 6).
The main points of the tri-linear curves adopted in the numer-
ical models for the load-displacement behavior of stud-joist nodes
are summarized in Table 5 for the different shear walls.
4. Numerical results and discussion
In Figs. 5–9 the results of the numerical simulations concerning
the five shear walls subjected to monotonic load in terms of the
shear load against the global horizontal displacement are shown.
The curves are compared with the experimental diagrams F-dtot
of the in-plane cyclic tests. In general, the trend of the numerical
curves well fit the envelope of the experimental ones.
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162 159

Fig. 16. Loading path of the nails in numerical simulations: (a) specimen PLS8; (b) specimen PLS5 before panel tear-out; (c) PLS5 after panel tear out.

The numerical results are summarized in Table 6 in terms of
maximum horizontal load Fmax(num), horizontal displacement
Dtot(num) in correspondence of Fmax(num) and global elastic stiffness
Ktot(num). The error percentages with respect to the average exper-
imental results are also reported. The values of the elastic stiffness
and maximum resistance were attained with good accuracy by the
numerical models. Good predictions emerged also for the displace-
ment Dtot(num) with the exception of specimen PLS4 loaded in the
negative direction. In this case a larger shear redistribution among
sheathing nails is likely occurred.
The numerical simulations evidenced that in specimens PLS7
and PLS8 the loading direction of the sheathing-to-frame nails
agree with the analytical pattern proposed by Kallsner and
Girhammar [17,18], as schematically shown in Fig. 16a for PLS8.
In the figure, arrows indicate the loading path of the fasteners; in
particular, the vectors representing the forces exercised by the
frame on the sheathing through the nails are illustrated. It is evi-
denced that the /2.8 ring nails at the middle height of the external
studs almost perform in the vertical direction, those at the middle
length of the joists horizontally, and those applied on the corners
160 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162

Table 3
Elements and materials characteristics defining the curves of the beams equivalent to ring nails assumed for the numerical simulations.

ID /2.8 for PLS4-5-6-8 /2.8 for PLS7 /4 for PLS4-5-6

Radius 1.4 mm 1.4 mm 2 mm
Equivalent length 11 mm 11 mm 17 mm
Elastic mod. 210,000 MPa 210,000 MPa 210,000 MPa
Poisson Ratio 0.3 0.3 0.3
Plastic Stress r [MPa] Plastic strain e [–] Stress r [MPa] Plastic strain e [–] Stress r [MPa] Plastic strain e [–]
2700 0.000 2200 0.000 2220 0.000
3500 0.020 3000 0.025 2470 0.008
5400 0.145 6150 0.163 3700 0.090
Ductile damage, Fracture strain Plastic strain e = 0.146 Plastic strain e = 0.164 Plastic strain e = 0.091
Damage evolution Energy, exponential Energy, exponential Energy, exponential
Fracture energy 1200 N/mm Fracture energy 1200 N/mm Fracture energy 800 N/mm

Table 4 affected the other sheathing-to-frame nails, due to the nails of

Shear behavior of a couple of angle bracket adopted in the
numerical simulations.
NEW150
d [mm]
0.00
2.35
9.00
12.67
21.70
along the diagonal direction of the sheathing. The fasteners main-
tain almost the same direction during the whole test. The collapse
was obtained by reaching the nail shear resistance: the failure of
the fasteners started from the ends of the external studs and then
extended rapidly along their whole length and affected also the
joists. The most of the nails on the internal studs still remained
in the elastic range. The loading on angle brackets, stud-joist nodes
and hold-down did not exceed the ultimate resistances of the
connections.
On the contrary, the numerical models of specimens PLS4,
PLS5 and PLS6 evidenced a nail loading path different in respect
to that observed in PLS7 and PLS8. An example is illustrated in
Fig. 16b, c for specimen PLS5. At first, the most loaded fasteners
resulted those on the base plate, while a lower loading amount
the hold down (blue vectors), which oppose to the relative rota-
tion between the sheathing and the main frame (Fig. 16b). Then,
the nails on the base plate progressively failed, inducing a signif-
F [kN] icant redistribution of the load among the fasteners, as illustrated
0.00
in Fig. 16c. Once the nailed connection of the shear wall with the
16.76 base plate failed, the hold down shear contribution and the fric-
34.62 tion between the foundation plate and the base joist resulted of
36.92 fundamental importance for the prevention of an abrupt horizon-
35.17
tal sliding at the base of the wall. The cracking of the sheathing
was correctly detected by the numerical model (Fig. 17), starting
at the top of the hold down in tension and developing with diag-
onal orientation till the base of the specimen. After the panel tear
out, a re-orientation of the fastener loading occurred on the exter-
nal stud, in the vicinity of the hold-down in tension and at the
base. A quote of the load was also transferred by the internal
studs. The panel tear out induced a decrease of the shear walls
stiffness, as the relative rotation of the sheathing in respect to
the frame was no longer limited by the hold down connection
subjected to tension. At collapse, the nails of the upper joist and
those on the external stud in tension broke up. Hold-down con-
nections subjected to tension attained the plastic strains but
maintain some resistance reserves against failure (overstrength).
The first elastic range at the stud-joist nodes on the side in com-
pression of the shear walls was exceeded, but the ultimate com-
pressive strength was not attained.

Table 5
Compressive behavior of stud-joist nodes.

PLS4-5-6 PLS 7 PLS 8

Corner nodes Central nodes Corner nodes Central nodes Corner nodes Central nodes
d [mm] F [kN] d [mm] F [kN] d [mm] F [kN] d [mm] F [kN] d [mm] F [kN] d [mm] F [kN]
15.0 112.1 15.0 215.2 15.0 249.0 15.0 473.1 15.0 161.4 15.0 306.4
9.2 112.1 9.2 215.2 5.5 249.0 5.5 473.1 5.5 161.4 5.5 306.4
1.5 56.0 1.5 107.6 0.9 124.5 0.9 236.5 0.9 80.7 0.9 153.2
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Table 6
Comparisons between numerical (suffix ‘‘num”) and experimental (‘‘exp”) results in terms of maximum horizontal load (Fmax), horizontal displacement in correspondence of Fmax
(Dtot) and global elastic stiffness (Ktot).

ID Fmax(num) Fmax(exp) Err. Dtot(num) Dtot(exp) Err. Ktot(num) Ktot(exp) Err.

[kN] [kN] [%] [mm] [mm] [%] [N/mm] [N/mm] [%]
PLS4+ 90.13 91.32 1.3 33.00 35.15 6.1 6103 6094 0.2
PLS4- 89.23 89.60 0.4 30.00 48.29 37.9 6371 6250 1.9
PLS5 86.71 78.60 10.3 56.04 51.46 8.9 2831 2895 2.2
PLS6 50.50 46.85 7.8 45.28 42.72 6.0 2526 2411 4.8
PLS7 137.74 128.46 7.2 51.84 51.11 1.4 4109 4210 2.4
PLS8 124.02 119.12 4.1 41.16 39.01 5.5 4447 4473 0.6
 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
Fig. 17. Contour of the cracking evolution on the sheathing at the base in the numerical model of specimen PLS5: (a) first crack occurs, (b) spread of the crack.
The damage evolution of specimens PLS6 was qualitatively sim-
ilar to that described for PLS5. Also in PLS4, at first, the most loaded
fasteners were those on the base plate but, as they gradually col-
lapsed, the nail shear loading localised mostly on the top joist
and on the studs between adjacent sheathings. The panel tear
out was also detected, however the associated stiffness reduction
in the shear wall capacity curve resulted more limited in respect
to PLS5 and PLS6, due to lower incidence of the hold down nails
which opposed to the rotation of the single panels, and it was how-
ever less marked in the positive direction of the top horizontal
force, in respect to the negative one.
In summary, the sheathing tear out have a limited effect on the
shear capacity of the wall but the early cracking of the panel close
to hold down connections and the consequent increase in deforma-
bility likely lead to a significant reduction of the serviceability per-
formances of the structure.
5. Conclusions
A numerical model was proposed in the paper for the simula-
tion of the behavior of timber shear walls braced with nailed
wood-based sheathing when subjected to horizontal in-plane
shear forces. Nonlinear-static analyses with monotonic loading
were conducted assuming for the timber elements an elastic
behavior and considering the actual nonlinear behavior of the con-
nections (the sheathing-to-frame nails, the angle brackets, the hold
down and the stud-joist nodes).
To check the reliability of the numerical models, some experi-
mental tests were carried out on full-scale timber shear walls sub-
jected to horizontal cyclic loads. Typical configurations used in the
Platform Frame building practise in Italy and in Alpine area were
examined. Specific samples were designed to investigate the actual
deformation of a hold-down subjected to tension and the
compressive behavior of the base timber joist in correspondence
of a stud.
The comparison between the experimental and the numerical
results proved a good reliability of the numerical models. In partic-
ular it is evidenced that the different method in the application of
the base steel devices influenced the force distribution among nails
and their loading direction.
In fact, when the timber frame is directly connected to the foun-
dation system, the deformation of the frame is contrasted by the
nails on the perimeter of the panel, which result quite uniformly
loaded and maintain approximately the same loading direction
during the whole test: the nails at the middle height of the external
studs almost perform in the vertical direction, those at the middle
161
length of the joists horizontally and those applied on the corners
along the diagonal direction of the sheathing, according the analyt-
ical elastic models available in the literature. The collapse is due to
a diffuse nail failure, which starts from the ends of the external
studs and then extended rapidly along their whole length and
affects also the joists while the most of the nails on the internal
studs still remain in the elastic range.
Differently, when the hold downs are fixed to the studs with the
panel interposed and the sheathings are also nailed to a fixed tim-
ber base plate, the distribution of shear among the nails is signifi-
cantly different with respect to the above case. In fact, at the
beginning, the fasteners shear loading is mainly distributed among
the base plate nails. Then, as these fasteners attain to their ultimate
displacement, the most loaded nails localize into the upper area of
the specimen. The presence of the hold-down connection and the
friction between the timber frame and the base plate provides a
not negligible contribution against the horizontal sliding of the
shear wall, preventing its abrupt failure once the base plate nails
collapse. Moreover, it is evidenced that fixing the hold down on
the sheathing, the panel rotation in respect to the timber frame
is initially contained, stiffening the shear wall performances. How-
ever, this induces a concentration of forces in correspondence of
the hold down nails, causing important tensile stresses in the
sheathing and its tear out. To the panel rupture is associated a stiff-
ness reduction in the shear wall capacity curve, whose entity
depends on the rate of the hold down nails in respect to the other
sheathing to frame fasteners. The tear out, which induce a shear
redistribution among the fasteners, can limit the resistance capac-
ity of the shear wall, anticipating the nail collapse.
The numerical models evidenced the importance of a correct
modelling of the base connectors, which has to take into account
for the different application techniques (directly to stud or with
panel interposed). Future development of the research should
investigate on the actual behavior of the hold-down connection
with panel interposed when subjected to the combined action of
axial and shear forces. In fact, the numerical study evidenced that
the global resistance and displacement capacities of the compo-
nents of the connection (shear, axial) need to be adequately evalu-
ated. Moreover, an extension of the numerical investigations on a
wider range of specimens will permit to strengthen the validity
of the model and thus make it appropriate for a parametric study.
Acknowledgments
The experimental tests were carried out thanks to the financial
support of the glue-laminated factory Stratex S.p.a., Sutrio, Udine
162 N. Gattesco, I. Boem / Construction and Building Materials 122 (2016) 149–162
(Italy). Dr. Allen Dudine, Dr. Andrea Cernigoi and Dr. Franco
Trevisan are gratefully acknowledged for their valuable help
during the experimental tests.
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