‫اسم المادة (‪)Subject‬‬

‫دراسات تجارية باللغة االنجليزية (احصاء)‬

‫عنوان البحث (‪)Research Title‬‬

‫‪Graphs and its importance‬‬
‫اسم الطالب (رباعى‪ ،‬باللغة العربية)‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫رقم الجلوس‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫الرقم القومــى‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫الشعبة‪ :‬اللغة العربية‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫العام الجامعى‪2020 / 2019 :‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ ‬الفرقة‪ :‬الثالثة‬
‫جـــزء خـــاص بالكنتـــرول‬
‫(ال يكتب الطالب فيه شئ)‬

‫المراجعة‬ ‫الرقم السرى‬

‫‪..........................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................‬‬

‫تقييم البحث‬

‫‪..........................................‬‬

‫جزء خاص بالكنترول (ممنوع الكتابه فيه نهائياً)‬

‫تقييم البحث‬ ‫الرقم السرى‬
‫‪0‬‬
 ........................... ...........................

)‫بيانــــــات الطالــــــب (يقوم الطالب بنفسه بملء هذه البيانات‬

‫ الدراسة باللغة العربية‬:‫الشعبة‬

‫ الثالثة‬:‫الفرقة‬
2020 / 2019 :‫العام الجامعى‬
)‫ دراسات تجارية باللغة االنجليزية (احصاء‬:)Subject( ‫اسم المادة‬
Graphs and its importance :)Research Title( ‫عنوان البحث‬

Introduction
Introduction to statistics
The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three
stagesThe first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of Francis Galton and
Karl Pearson, who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for
analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions
included introducing the concepts of standard deviation, correlation, regression analysis and
the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height,
weight, eyelash length among others

( HelenMaryWalker(1975). Studiesinthehistoryofstatisticalmethod.ArnoPress. ISBN 978040506
6283.)

Pearson developed the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, defined as a product-

moment, the method of moments for the fitting of distributions to samples and the Pearson
distribution, among many other things.

(Stigler, S.M. (1989). "Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation". Statistical

Science. 4 (2): 73–79.)

Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making
accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of
uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern computers has expedited
large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are
impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research for
example on the problem of how to analyze big data.

Scientific Content :
1 - Definition of Statistics.

1
2 – Distinguish between a qualitative variable and quantitative variable.

3 - Distinguish between a discrete variable and continuous variable.

4 – Recognize the difference between grouped and ungrouped data.

5-construct a frequency distribution

6 – construct a histogram, a frequency Polygon, pie chart and other graphical.

1 - Definition of Statistics:
Science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, presenting, data to make better decisions.

Statistics techniques are used extensively by marketing, accounting, quality control,

consumer, Professional Sports People, hospital administrators…..

- Type of Statistics
A- Descriptive
- Statistics are methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in an
informative way.

Inferential
- Can be used to take a decision, estimate, prediction or generalize about a
population based on a sample.

Population
 All items that have common characteristics or attributes.

Sample
 Is a portion, or part, of the population of interest.

Type of Variable :
Qualitative variable :
 The characteristic being studied is nonnumeric. Such as gender, religious affiliation,
types of a car, eye color are examples of the qualitative variable.

Quantitative variable :
 Information is reported numerically. Such as balance in your checking account,
minutes remaining in class, or number of children in a family.
 Discrete variables : can assume only certain values (No. of students, No.
of children, No. of rooms)
 A continuous variable : can assume any values within a certain range (Salary,
age, weight, height)

2
Level Of Measurment :
 There are Four Levels Of data:
1 – Numerical data is classified into categories and can’t be arranged in any particular
Order. Such as eye color, gender. Religious affiliation.

2 – Ordinal Level:
Involves data arranged in some Order, but the differences between data value can’t be
determined or are meaningless. Such as a taste – Test of 4 soft drinks “pepsi was ranked
number1 , Cocacola number 2, Seven-up number 3, and Orange Crush number4.

3 – Interval Level:
Similar to the Ordinal level, with the additional Property those meaningful amount Of
differences between data value can be determined. Such as the temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale is an interval level of data.

4 – Ratio Level:
The interval levels with zero starting point. Differences and ratios are meaningful for this
level of measurement such as monthly income of doctors, or Distance traveled by a car per
month.

Data level, operations, and Statistical Methods

Data level Meaningful Operation Statistical Method
Nominal Classifying and counting Non – parametric
Ordinal All of the above plus Non – parametric
Ranking
Interval All the above plus Addition, Parametric
Subtracting, Multiplication
and Division
Ratio All of the above Parametric

3
 Graphical Presentation
Data are the raw martial of any Statistical analysis. Data may be collected from each and
every item of a specific group from the population, In this case the Statistical procedure is
called “CENSUS”. Or data could be collected only from a portion of the population. In
this case the Statistical procedure is called “ SAMPLE”.
Data sources:
Data can be obtained as their primary of secondary data.
Primary data :
Primary data is data that we collected ourselves by observation, experiment or
questionnaires.
Secondary data :
Secondary data is data that has been collected by someone else. We can obtain this from
sources such as CAMPAS Central Agency of public Mobilization and statistical, market
research companies or report on analysis.
Statistical analysis:
When we use statistics to make a decision, we carry out a statistical analysis.

Ungrouped data and grouped data :

Ungrouped data :
Ungrouped data haven’t been summarized in any way, and are also called raw data.
grouped data :
grouped data haven’t been organized into a frequency distribution.
Frequency distribution:
A Frequency distribution is a grouping of data into mutually exclusive.
Class midpoint:
Class midpoint is appoint that divides a class into two equal parts, this is the average of
the upper and lower class limits.
Class frequency:
Class frequency is the number of observation in each class.
Class interval:
The class interval is obtained by subtracting the lower limit of a class from the lower limit
of the next class.

4
 Construct a frequency distribution:
- Determine the littlest and largest number within the rawdata and find the range..

Determine the suggested number of classes. attempt to find the minimum power of TWO to
give variety is adequate or greater than the amount of observation. Then add one to itpower.
For observation. Then add one to it power. as an example, if the amount of observation is 20,
then the minimum power of two is 5 ( 25 = 32) ; that the number of classes will be 5 + 1 = 6
classes another example; if the amountof observation is 33; that the minimum power of
two are going to be 6 ( 26 = 64 ) ; then the amount of classes are going to be 6 +1 = 7 classes.

Determine a suggested class interval by using the formula

Max – Min
:1 = Find class interval =
No . Of classes
- Set the first lower limit to be less than equal to the smallest observation.
- Count number of observation in each class and call it frequency.
- The relative frequency is the proportion of each frequency to the total
number of observations .the summation of the relative frequencies must be
ONE
EX : Construct a frequency distribution for the data given in the table :
-
65 98 55 62 79 59 50 90 72 56
70 62 66 80 94 79 63 73 71 85
-
Sol :
-
- Min = 50 Max = 98 n = 20
- Find No. Of classes = 6
Max−Min 98−50
- Class interval = No . Of classes 6
=8

- Frequency distribution
Class Frequency
50 up to 58 3
58 up to 66 5
66 up to 74 5
74 up to 82 3
82 up to 90 1
90 up to 98 3
20
Stem and Leaf Displays:
Stem- and leaf display; A Statistical technique for displaying a set of data.

5
Each numerical value is divided into two parts : the leading digits become the stem and the
trailing digits
Become the leaf.
Note : an advantage of the tem-and-leaf display over a frequency distribution is we do not lose
the identity of each observation.
A student in year three achieved the following scores on his twelve statistics
quizzes this semester

86 79 92 84 69 88
91 83 96 78 82 85
Find a stem – and leaf chart.

Sorting the data from smallest to largest

69 78 79 82 83 84
85 86 88 91 92 96
Split each figure into two parts
The first part: In units Is leaf
The Second part : Is stem

Stem Leaf
6 9
7 8 9
8 2 3 4 5 6 8
9 1 2 6
To Convert the leaf & stem into frequency distribution, we count the number in each row
Classes Frequency
60 – 70 1

70 – 80 2

80 – 90 6

90 – 100 3

Total 12

Graphical Presentation of ungrouped data :

6
There are many types of graphs can be used to represent the ungrouped data ,such as:
1 – Pie chart
2 – Bar Chart
3 – Line Chart.

1 –Pie Chart :
Pie chart display the distribution of categorical data by showing the fraction of the case falling
within each of the categories because all of the categories account 100% of the cases, wedges
( pie slices) that added to 100% of the circle.
The Following table shows the average of weekly expenditure for a group of students:

Item Ice cream Chocolate Chips Soda drinks Tea and coffee
Amount 30 20 15 25 30

Find Represent these data graphically using pie chart:

Total Amount = 30 + 20 + 15 + 25 + 30 = 120

¿¿ ¿
Angle Part = Total X 360
30
 The Ice Cream Angle = 120
× 360 = 90
20
 The Chocolate Angle = 120
× 360 = 60
15
 The Chips Angle = 120
× 360 = 45
25
 The Soda Drink Angle = 120
× 360 = 75
30
 The Tea and Coffee Angle = 120
× 360 = 90

360

Coffee Ice Cream

90 90

Soda Drink 75 Chocolate

60
Chips
45

7
 Bar Chart
A bar chart can be used to show any of the levels of measurement ( nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio) A. bar chart displays a batch of numbers with side – by- side bars,
usually spaced evenly along the horizontal base. The bar chart can be simple bar chart or
multiple bar chart.
( Abdel Aaal , Medhat and others , 2020)
simple bar chart:
Simple bar chart can be used to compare values of one quantity.
Multiple bar chart
Used to compare the value of more than one quantity.

Line chart :
A line chart or line plot or line graph or curve chart is a type of chart which displays
information as a series of data points called 'markers' connected by straight line segments.
(Spear, Mary Eleanor (1952). Charting Statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 41)

It is a basic type of chart common in many fields. It is similar to a scatter plot except that the
measurement points are ordered (typically by their x-axis value) and joined with straight line
segments.
(Burton G. Andreas (1965). Experimental psychology. p.186)

A line chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time – a  time series –
thus the line is often drawn chronologically. In these cases they are known as run charts.

Charts often include an overlaid mathematical function depicting the best-fit trend of the

scattered data. This layer is referred to as a best-fit layer and the graph containing this layer
is often referred to as a line graph.

It is simple to construct a "best-fit" layer consisting of a set of line segments connecting

adjacent data points; however, such a "best-fit" is usually not an ideal representation of the
trend of the underlying scatter data for the following reasons:

1. It is highly improbable that the discontinuities in the slope of the best-fit would
correspond exactly with the positions of the measurement values.
2. It is highly unlikely that the experimental error in the data is negligible, yet the curve
falls exactly through each of the data points.
Graphic Presentation of a grouped data:

The three commonly used graphic forms are histogram frequency, polygons, and a
cumulative frequency distribution.

1 – Histogram :

8
A graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis and class frequencies on the
vertical axis. The class frequency are represented by the heights of the bars and the bars are
drawn adjacent to each other.

A histogram is an approximate representation of the distribution of numerical or categorical

data. It was first introduced by Karl Pearson. To construct a histogram, the first step is to
"bin" (or "bucket") the range of values—that is, divide the entire range of values into a series
of intervals—and then count how many values fall into each interval. The bins are usually
specified as consecutive, non-overlapping intervals of a variable. The bins (intervals) must be
adjacent, and are often (but not required to be) of equal size.

( Pearson, K. (1895).  "Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution. II. Skew Variation in Homogeneous
Material"  (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences.  186: 343–414.  )

If the bins are of equal size, a rectangle is erected over the bin with height proportional to
the frequency—the number of cases in each bin. A histogram may also be normalized to
display "relative" frequencies. It then shows the proportion of cases that fall into each of
several categories, with the sum of the heights equaling 1.

However, bins need not be of equal width; in that case, the erected rectangle is defined to have
its area proportional to the frequency of cases in the bin. The vertical axis is then not the
frequency but frequency density—the number of cases per unit of the variable on the
horizontal axis. Examples of variable bin width are displayed on Census bureau data below.

( Freedman, D.; Pisani, R.; Purves, R. (1998).  Statistics (Third ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-97083-8.)

As the adjacent bins leave no gaps, the rectangles of a histogram touch each other to indicate
that the original variable is continuous.

Histograms give a rough sense of the density of the underlying distribution of the data, and
often for density estimation: estimating the probability density function of the underlying
variable. The total area of a histogram used for probability density is always normalized to 1.
If the length of the intervals on the x-axis are all 1, then a histogram is identical to a relative
frequency plot.

A histogram can be thought of as a simplistic kernel density estimation, which uses a kernel to

smooth frequencies over the bins. This yields a smoother probability density function, which
will in general more accurately reflect distribution of the underlying variable. The density
estimate could be plotted as an alternative to the histogram, and is usually drawn as a curve
rather than a set of boxes. Histograms are nevertheless preferred in applications, when their
statistical properties need to be modeled. The correlated variation of a kernel density estimate

9
is very difficult to describe mathematically, while it is simple for a histogram where each bin
varies independently.

An alternative to kernel density estimation is the average shifted histogram, which is fast to

compute and gives a smooth curve estimate of the density without using kernels.

The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control.

Histograms are sometimes confused with bar charts. A histogram is used for continuous data,
where the bins represent ranges of data, while a bar chart is a plot of categorical variables.
Some authors recommend that bar charts have gaps between the rectangles to clarify the
distinction

(( Naomi, Robbins. "A Histogram is NOT a Bar Chart".  Forbes.com. Forbes. Retrieved  31 July 2018.)

A frequency polygon consists of line segments by the class midpoint and the class frequency.

A cumulative frequency distribution is used to determine how many or what proportion of the
data values are below or above a certain value.

1 – Frequency Histograms :

To construct a histogram, the class frequency are provided on the vertical axis ( the y-axis)
and the class limits ( or class mid-points) are on the horizontal axis ( the X-axis)

Use this data to plot the histogram of this frequency distribution

Classes 20 - 40 - 60 - 80 – 100

frequency 50 80 70 30

10
The classes will be represented on the X-axis (horizontal axis) and the frequency will be
represented on the Y-axis ( vertical axis) as shown in the previous figure.

Cumulative histogram :

The cumulative histogram shows the number of items With values :

- Less than or equal the upper limit of each class.

- More than or equal the lower limit of each class.

And there are two types of cumulative frequencies which are :

- Ascending Cumulative Frequency (ACF)

- Descemding Cumulative Frequency (DCF)

A graph of a cumulative distribution can be produced by the following rules:

- The data values are shown on the horizontal axis. Shown on the vertical axis are
the cumulative frequencies.
- The frequency (one of the above) of each class is plotted as a point.
- The plotted points are connected by straight lines.
- the same rules can be used to plot descending cumulative frequency.

11
Ex:

Plot the (ACF) histogram

C 0- 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 - 50 – 60

F 20 40 50 80 40 20

Ascending frequency distribution

C F (UL) (ACF)

0- 20 Less than 10 20

10 - 40 Less than 20 60

20 - 50 Less than 30 110

30 - 80 Less than 40 190

40 - 40 Less than 50 230

50-60 20 Less than 60 250

Total 250

ACF

250
200
150
100
50
0

UL
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

12
EX:
Plot the (ACF) histogram

C 5- 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 - 50 – 60

F 20 40 50 80 40 20

Descending frequency distribution

C F (LL) (DCF)
5- 20 More than 5 250
10- 40 More than 10 230
20- 50 More than 20 190
40 - 80 More than 30 140
50 - 40 More than 40 60
70-80 20 More than 50 20
Total 150

DCF

250
200
150
100
50

LL

5 10 20 30 40 50 60

13
EX:
The following table shows motor repair costs in pounds for an insurance company's minor
claims department:

Repair 200- 300 400- 500 600- 700 800- 900-1000

cost - - -
No. of cars 6 10 15 20 45 55 140 9
Construct the ascends cumulative frequency and the descending cumulative frequency then
plot them.

1) The ascending cumulative frequency:

C F (UL) (ACF)
200 – 300 6 Less than 300 6
300 – 400 10 Less than 400 6+10=16
400 – 500 15 Less than 500 16+1531
500 – 600 20 Less than 600 31+20=51
600 – 700 45 Less than 700 51+45=96
700 – 800 55 Less than 800 96+55=151
800 – 900 140 Less than 900 151+140=291
900 – 1000 9 Less than 1000 291+9=300
Total 300

The ACF polygon will look like the following figure:

ACF
350

300

250

200

150

100

50
UL
Less than 1000
Less than 500

Less than 700

Less than 800

Less than 900

Less than 300

Less than 400

Less than 600

14
To determine the number of cars for a certain amount of costs, we can use the cumulative
frequency polygon, such as determining the number of cars that will cost less than 650 pounds
as shown in the following figure.

ACF
350

300

250

200

150

100

50
UL

Less than 1000

Less than 300

Less than 800

Less than 900

Less than 400

Less than 500

Less than 600

Less than 700

15
2) The descending cumulative frequency:

C F (LL) (DCF)
200 – 300 6 More than 200 300
300 – 400 10 More than 300 300 – 6 = 294
400 – 500 15 More than 400 294 – 10 = 284
500 – 600 20 More than 500 284 – 15 = 269
600 – 700 45 More than 600 269 – 20 = 249
700 – 800 55 More than 700 249 – 45 = 204
800 – 900 140 More than 800 204 – 55 = 149
900 – 1000 9 More than 900 149 – 140 = 9
Total 300
The ACF polygon will look like the following figure:

DCF
350

300

250

200

150

100

50
LL
900 - 1000
200 – 300

300 – 400

400 – 500

500 – 600

600 – 700

700 – 800

800 – 900

16
 References :

1. Dr. Medhat abdel Aal , introduction Mathematics of finance , Ain shames university
2019.
2. Dr. Mamdouh Abdel Alim , introduction Mathematics of finance , Ain shames
university 2020.
3. ( Helen Mary Walker (1975). Studies in the history of statistical method. Arno
Press. ISBN 9780405066283.)

4. (Stigler, S.M. (1989). "Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of

Correlation". Statistical Science. 4 (2): 73–79.)

5. ^ Howitt, D.; Cramer, D. (2008). Introduction to Statistics in Psychology (Fourth ed.).

Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-205161-3.

6. ^ Freedman, D.; Pisani, R.; Purves, R. (1998). Statistics (Third ed.). W. W.

Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-97083-8.

17