FIST 3-30

TRANSFORMER
MAINTENANCE

FACILITIES INSTRUCTIONS,
STANDARDS, AND TECHNIQUES
TRANSFORMER
MAINTENANCE
 Acro n y m s a n d Abbre vi atio n s

A air
ANA self-cooled, nonventila ted kW kilow a tt
AN SI Ame rica n N a tion al St a n da rds IE EE Ins titu te of Elect rical a n d
I ns tit ute Elect ronic E ngineers
CEGB Cent r al Electric Gene ra ting M/DW moist ure by dry weigh t
Boa rd mg milligr a m
cfm cubic feet pe r min u te m va mega-volt-a mps
CH 4 meth a n e ND not de tected
C2 H 2 acetylene N2 nit rogen
C2 H 4 et hylene O oil
C2 H 6 et h a n e O2 oxygen
CO ca rbon monoxide OD ou ter dia meter
CO 2 ca rbon dioxide p pb pa r ts per billion
CT cu r ren t t r a n sformer ppm pa r ts per million
DBPC Diter tia ry Bu tyl P a r acresol p si pou nds per squ a re inch
DGA dissolved gas a n alysis R e cla m at io n Bu re a u of Recla m a tion
E HV ex tr a high volt age SCADA Supervisory Con trol a nd Da ta
FA forced air (fa n s) Acquisition
FO forced oil (pu mps) STP s ta nda r d temper a t ure a nd
G some type of ga s pressu re
GA ga s, self-cooled TDCG total dissolved comb ustible gas
gm gr a ms TOA Tr a n sformer Oil Analyst
GS U ge ner a tor step up TTR t r a n sfor mer t u r ns r a tio test
H2 hyd roge n TSC Technical Service Cen ter
ID in ner dia meter UV ult r aviolet
IFT in terfacial te nsion V volts
IEC In ter n a tion al Electrotech nical W wa ter/oil hea t exch a nger
Com mission
IR infr a red
J HA job h aza rd a n alysis
KOH pot assium hyd roxide
kV kilovolt
kVA kilovolt a mpere
 Co n t e nt s
Page

1. P u rpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . La st upda ted October 2000 1

2. In t roduction to Recla m a tion Tr a n sfor me rs . . . . . . . . . . . La st upda ted October 2000 1

3. Tra nsfor mer Cooling Me t hods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . La st upda ted October 2000 1

3.1 Dry Type Tr a nsfor m ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1 Poten tial P roble ms a nd Rem edial Action s for Dry Type
Tr a n sfor me r Cooling Syst em s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Liquid-Im me rsed Tra n sfor me rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.1 Liquid-Im m ersed, Air-Cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.2 Liquid-Im m ersed, Air-Cooled/Forced Liquid-Cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.3 Liquid-Im m ersed, W a t er-Cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.4 Liquid-Im m ersed, Forced Liquid-Cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.5 Poten tial P roble ms a nd Rem edial Action s for Liquid Filled
Tr a n sfor me r Cooling Syst em s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.6 Cooling Syste m Inspection s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4. Oil-Filled Tr a n sfor me r Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . La st upda ted October 2000 10

4.1 Oil-Filled Tr a nsfor m ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.1 Tr a nsfor mer Ta n k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.2 Top Oil The rmom ete rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.3 Win ding Te mpe r a t u re Ther mome ters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.4 Oil Level In dica tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.5 P ress u re Relief Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1.6 S udden P ress u re Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.7 B uch holz Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.8 Tr a nsfor mer B ushings: Tes ting a n d Ma in te n a nce of
High-Volt age Bu shings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Oil P rese rva tion Sea ling Syste ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.1 Sealing Sys tem s Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.2 Ga s P ressu re Con t rol Com pone n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Ga ske ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4 Tr a n sfor me r Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.1 Tr a nsfor mer Oil F u nctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.2 Dissolved Gas An alysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.3 Key Gas Met hod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4.4 Tr a nsfor mer Diagnosis Using Individu al a n d Tot al Dissolved
Key Ga s Concen t r a tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4.5 Rogers Ra tio Met hod of DGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5 Moist u re P roble ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5.1 Dissolved Moist u re in Tra nsfor mer Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5.2 Mois t u re in Tr a n sfor me r Ins ula tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 Tr a n sfor me r Oil Test s Th a t S hould Be Done An n u ally Wit h t he Dissolved
Ga s An alysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.6.1 Dielect ric S t rengt h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

v
 Co n t e n ts (co nt.)
Page

4.6.2 In te rfacial Te nsion (IF T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 61

4.6.3 Acid N u mbe r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 62
4.6.4 Test for Oxyge n In hibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 62
4.6.5 Powe r F actor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 63
4.6.6 F u ra ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 63
4.6.7 Ta king Oil S a m ples for DGA . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 66
4.6.8 Silicone Oil-Filled Tra n sfor me rs . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 70
4.7 Tr a n sfor me r Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 76
4.7.1 Win ding Resist a nces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ... . . . . 76
4.7.2 Core Insula tion Resist a nce a n d In a dver ten t Core Grou nd Tes t . ... . . . . 77

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Table s
T able No. Page

Dry Type Tr a nsfor m er Main te n a nce S u m m a ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 2

Oil-Filled Tr a nsfor m er Main te n a nce S u m m a ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 5
1 Tr a n sfor me r Ga sket Applica tion S u m m a ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 31
2 Ver tical Groove Com pression for Circula r Nit rile Ga ske ts . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 31
3 Ver tical Groove Com pression for Rect a ngula r Nit rile Ga sket s . . . . . . . ... . . 33
4 Dissolved Key Ga s Concen t ra tion Limits in P a r ts Pe r Million (pp m) . . ... . . 38
5 Actions B a sed on Dissolved Combus tible Ga s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 39
6 TOA L1 Limits a nd Ge ner a tion Ra te Pe r Mon t h Ala r m Limits . . . . . . ... . . 44
7 F a ult Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 45
8 Dissolved Ga s Solubility in Tra nsfor me r Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 47
9 Roge rs Ra tios for Key Ga ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 50
10 Typical F a ults in Power Tr a nsfor m ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 54
11 Com p a rison of W a te r Dist ribu tion in Oil a nd P a pe r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 55
12 Doble Limits for In-Service Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 64
13 Addition al Guidelines for In-Se rvice Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 65
14 Com p a rison of Ga s Limit s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 73
15 S ugges ted Levels of Concer n (Limits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 73
16 Doble a nd IE E E P hysical Tes t Limits for Service-Aged Silicone Fluid . ... . . 75
17 Tra n sfor me r Test S u m m a ry Ch a r t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 79

Fig u res
Figure No. Page

1 Typical Oil Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Oil Level Indica tor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

vi
 Co n t e n ts (co nt.)

Fi g ure s (co n t.)

Figure No. Page

3 P ressu re Relief Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 14

4 S udde n P ressu re Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 16
5 Buch holz Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 17
6 F ree B re a t hing Tr a n sfor me r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 21
7 P ressu rized B re a t hing Tr a n sfor me r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 22
8 P ressu rized Iner t Ga s Tr a nsfor mer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 23
9 Ga s P ressu re Con t rol Com ponen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 23
10 F ree Brea t hing Conse rva tor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 25
11 Con serva tor wit h Bla dder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 26
12 Bla dder F ailu re Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 26
13 Auxilia ry Sealing Syste m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 27
14 Cross Section of Circula r Ga ske t in Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 32
15 Cross Section of Ga ske t Re m ain s Cons t a n t Before Tigh te ning a nd Afte r .. . . 34
16 Bowing a t Fla nges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 35
17 Bolt Tigh tening Seque nces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 36
18 Com bustible Ga s Gene r a tion Ve rsu s Te mpe r a t u re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 41
19 Maxim u m Amou n t of Wa te r Dissolved in Miner al Oil
Ve rsus Tem per a t u re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 56
20 Tr a n sfor me r Oil Pe rcen t S a t u ra tion Cu rves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 57
21 W a t er Dist ribu tion in Tra n sfor me r Ins ula tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 58
22 Myers Multiplier Ve rsus Tem pe ra t u re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 59
23 W a t er Con ten t of P a pe r a nd Oil Nomogr a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 60
24 In te rfacial Tension, Acid N u m be r, Ye a rs in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 62
25 Oil S a m pling Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 68
26 S a m ple Syringe (Flu shing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 68
27 S a m ple Syringe (Filling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 69
28 S a m ple Syringe Bubble Re moval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 69
29 Rela tions hip of Oxyge n to Ca rbon Dioxide a nd Ca rbon Monoxide
a s Tr a nsform er Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 71

vii
1. P U R P OS E

This docu men t is to p rovide guida nce to B u re a u of Recla m a tion (Recla m a tion) powerpla n t
pe rson nel in m ain t en a nce, diagnostics, a n d testing of t r a n sfor me rs a n d a ssocia ted
equip me n t.

2. INTRO D UCTION TO RECLAMATION TRAN S FORME R S

Tra n sfor me rs r a ted 500 kilovolt a mperes (kVA) a n d a bove a re considered powe r
t r a nsform ers. Recla m a tion h a s h u n dreds of powe r t r a n sfor me rs wit h volt ages a s low a s
480 volts (V) a nd a s high a s 550 kilovolt s (kV).

All ge ner a tor s tep-up (GS U) t r a nsfor m ers, a nd m a ny st a tion service, a n d excit a tion
t r a nsform ers a re conside red power t ra nsfor mers beca use t hey a re r a ted 500 kVA or la rge r.

S t a nd a rds orga niza tion s such as Am erica n Na tion al S t a nd a rds Ins tit u te/In stit u te of
Elect rical a nd Elect ronic E nginee rs (ANSI/IE E E) consider aver age GS U t r a n sfor me r life to
be 20 to 25 yea rs. This estim a te is ba sed on con tin uous ope r a tion a t r a ted loa d a n d service
condition s wit h a n aver age a mbien t te m per a t u re of 40 °C (104 °F) a nd a te mper a t u re rise
of 65 °C. This estim a te is also ba sed on t he a ss u mp tion t h a t t r a nsform ers receive a dequ a t e
m ain t en a nce ove r t heir se rvice life [24]. Recla m a tion, Bon neville Power Adminis t r a tion,
a nd Weste r n Area Power Administ ra tion con duct regula r st u dies to dete rmine st a tistica l
equip me n t life. These s t udies show t h a t ave rage life of a Recla m a tion t r a nsform er is
40 yea rs. Recla m a tion ge ts longer service t h a n IE E E estim a tes beca use we oper a te a t
lower a mbie n t te m per a t u res a nd wit h lowe r loa ds. A significa n t n u mber of t r a nsform ers
we re p u rch a sed in t he 1940s, 1950s, a nd in to t he 1970s. Seve ral h ave been replaced, bu t
we h a ve m a ny t h a t a re ne a ring, or a re alrea dy well p a st, t heir a n ticip a ted se rvice life. We
s hould expect t r a n sfor me r replaceme n t a nd fa ilu res to increa se d ue to t his age factor.

Cu r ren t minim u m replace men t time is a rou nd 14 mon t hs; a more re alistic time m ay be
18 mon t hs to 2 yea rs. In t he fu t u re, le a d times m ay exte nd well beyon d wh a t t hey a re
today. The refore, high qu ality m ain te n a nce a nd accu r a te diagnostics a re im port a n t for all
t r a nsform ers, bu t absolu t ely esse n tia l for olde r ones—especially for critical t ra n sfor me rs
t h a t would ca u se loss of gene ra tion. It is also ve ry im por t a n t to consider providing spa res
for critical t r a nsform ers.

3. TRAN S FORME R COOLING METHOD S

Hea t is one of t he mos t com mon des t royers of t ra nsfor mers. Oper a tion a t only 10 °C a bove
t he t r a nsfor mer r a ting will cu t t ra nsfor me r life by 50%. Hea t is ca used by in te rn al losses
d ue to loading, high a mbie n t t em per a t u re, a nd sola r ra dia tion. It is im por t a n t to u nder-
s t a nd how you r pa r ticula r t r a nsfor m ers a re cooled a nd how to detect p roble ms in t he
cooling sys tem s. ANSI a n d IE E E require t he cooling cla ss of each t r a nsfor mer to a ppea r on
its n a m epla te. Cooling cla ssifica tions, wit h short expla n a tions, a ppe a r in section s 3.1 a n d
3.2. The le t te rs of t he class design a te inside a t mosphere a nd type or types of cooling. In
some t r a nsform ers, more t h a n one cla ss of cooling a n d loa d r a ting a re indica ted. At each

1
 DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE SUMMARY

See Section 3.1

When new after Do an infrared scan and compare with temperature gage, if any.
energizing and
allowing If transformer is gas filled (nitrogen [N2]), check pressure gage against data
temperature and sheets; never allow gas pressure to fall below 1 pound per square inch
loading to stabilize (psi).

Check loading and compare with nameplate rating.

Functionally test fans and controls for proper operation.

Functionally test temperature alarms and annunciator points.

Check area around transformer clear of debris and parts storage.

Check transformer room for proper ventilation.

After 1 week of Perform infrared scan and compare with temperature gage, if any.
operation at normal
loading Check temperature gage, if any, and compare with nameplate rating.
Check loading and compare with nameplate rating.

Annually Perform an infrared scan before de-energizing.

(Note: The time De-energize and remove panels for internal inspection.
between these
periodic inspections Use vacuum to remove as much dirt as possible.
may be increased if
the first internal After vacuuming, use low pressure dry air (20 to 25 psi) to blow off
inspection of remaining dirt. Caution: Make sure air is dry.
windings and
connections are Check for discolored copper and discolored insulation.
found clean and in
good condition and Check for corroded and loose connections.
if loading is at or
below nameplate Check for carbon tracking on insulation and insulators.
rating.)
Check for cracked, chipped, and loose insulators.

If windings are found dirty, add filter material to air intake ports.

Check fan blades for cleanliness; remove dirt and dust.

Check fans, controls, alarms and annunciator points.

Check pressure gage on N2 filled transformers; compare with weekly data

sheets; never allow pressure to fall below 1 psi.

Repair all problems found in above inspections.

2
s tep of addition al cooling, t he r a ting incre a ses to cor respon d wit h incre a sed cooling. Note
t h a t t he let ter “A” in dica tes air, “FA” in dica tes forced air (fa ns), “O” indica tes oil, “FO”
indica tes forced oil (pu mps), “G” indica tes some type of ga s, a nd “W” indica tes t here is a
wa te r/oil hea t exch a nge r.

3.1 D r y T y p e Tr a n sfo r m e r s

Cooling cla sses of dry type t r a nsfor me rs a re cove red by ANSI/IE E E st a n da rd

C57.12.01 Section 5.1 [1]. A shor t expla n a tion of each cla ss is given below.

1. Cla ss AA a re ve n tila ted, self-cooled t r a n sfor me rs. This me a ns t h a t t here a re

ve n tila tion port s loca t ed in ou tside walls of t he t r a nsform er enclosu re. The re a re no
fa ns to force air in to a nd ou t of t he e nclos u re wit h typically no exte r n al fins or
r a dia tors. Cooler air en t ers t he lower por ts, is he a t ed a s it rises pa s t windings, a nd
exits t he upper ve n tila tion por ts. (It will not be repe a ted below; bu t it is obvious t h a t
in every cooling cla ss, som e he a t is also removed by n a t u ral circula tion of air a rou nd
t he ou tside of t he e nclos u re.)

2. Cla ss AFA t r a nsform ers a re self-cooled (A) a nd a ddition a lly cooled by forced
circula tion of air (FA). This m ea ns t h a t t he re a re ven tila tion port s for fa n inlet s a n d
ou tlet s only. (Inlet s a re us u ally filtered.) Nor m ally, t he re a re no a ddition al
ve n tila tion port s for n a t u r al air circula tion.

3. Cla ss AA/FA t r a n sfor me rs a re ve n tila ted, self-cooled (sa me a s Cla ss AA in ite m 1).
In a ddition, t hey h ave a fa n or fa ns p roviding addition al forced-air cooling. F a n s m ay
be wired to s t a r t a u tom a tically when t he tem pe r a t u re reaches a p re-set value. These
t ra n sfor me rs gene r ally h ave a d u al loa d r a ting, one for AA (self-cooling n a t u r al air
flow) a nd a la rge r loa d r a ting for FA (forced air flow).

4. Cla ss ANV t r a n sfor me rs a re self-cooled (A), non-ve n tila ted (NV) u nit s. The
e nclosu re h a s no ve n tila tion por ts or fa ns a nd is not se aled to exclude migr a tion of
ou tside air, bu t t here a re no provisions to in te n tion ally allow ou t side air to en ter a nd
exit. Cooling is by n a t u r al circula tion of air a rou nd t he enclosu re. This t ra nsfor mer
m ay h ave som e type of fins a t t ached ou tside t he enclosu re to increa se su rface a re a for
a ddition al cooling.

5. Cla ss GA t r a nsfor me rs a re se aled wit h a ga s inside (G) a nd a re self-cooled (A). The

e nclosu re is her me tically se aled to preven t le a k age. These t r a nsform ers typically h ave
a ga s, such as nit roge n or freon, to provide high dielect ric a nd good he a t re moval.
Cooling occu rs by n a t u ral circula tion of air a rou nd t he ou tside of t he enclosu re. The re
a re no fa ns to circula te cooling air; however, t he re m ay be fins a t t ached to t he ou tside
to aid in cooling.

3.1.1 P o t e n ti al P r o bl e m s a n d R e m e d i al Ac ti o n s for Dr y Ty p e Tr a n sfor m e r

Co o li n g S y s te m s [14]. It is im por t a n t to keep t r a n sfor me r enclosu res
rea son a bly cle a n. It is also impor t a n t to keep t he a rea a rou n d t hem clea r. Any
ite m s ne a r or again st t he t r a nsform er im pede hea t t r a nsfer to cooling air a rou nd

3
t he e nclos u re. As dir t accu m ula tes on cooling su rfaces, it becomes more a nd more
difficult for air a rou n d t he t ra n sfor me r to re move hea t. As a result, ove r tim e, t he
t ra n sfor me r tem pe ra t u re slowly rises u n noticed, reducing service life.

Tr a nsfor me r room s a nd va ult s should be ven tila ted. Por t able fa n s (never wa t er)
m ay be u sed for a ddition al cooling if necess a ry. A fa n r a ted a t a bou t 100 cubic
fee t per min u te (cfm) per kilowa t t (kW) of t r a nsform er loss [5], loca ted ne a r t he
top of t he room to remove hot air, will s uffice. These room s/va ults should not be
u sed a s s tor age.

Wh e n t h e tr a n sfo r m e r i s n e w, check t he fa ns a nd all con t rols for proper

oper a tion. After it h a s been e nergized a n d t he loa ding a n d te m per a t u re a re
st a ble, check t he tem per a t u re wit h a n infra red (IR) ca me ra a nd com pa re loa ding
wit h t he n a mepla te. Repe a t t he te m per a t u re checks afte r 1 week of ope ra tion.

O n c e e a c h y e a r u nde r nor m al loa d, check t r a nsform er te mper a t u res wit h a n

IR ca m er a [4,7]. If t he te mper a t u re rise (a bove a mbie n t) is ne a r or above
n a m epla te r a ting, check for overloa ding. C heck t he tem pe r a t u re ala rm for prope r
oper a tion. C heck enclos u res a nd va ults/room s for dir t accu m ula tion on
t ra n sfor me r su rfaces a n d debris nea r or agains t e nclosu res. Re move all ite ms
ne a r e nough to affect air circula tion. To avoid d ust clouds, a vacu u m should first
be used to re move excess dir t. Low p ressu re (20 to 25 pou nds per squ a re inch
[psi]) d ry com pressed air m ay be used for clea ning afte r most dir t h a s been
removed by vacu u m. The t r a nsform er m us t be de-e nergized before t his p rocedu re
u nless it is tot ally enclosed a nd t he re a re no exposed ene rgized conductors.
Por t a ble ge ner a tors m ay be used for ligh ting.

Afte r de-e nergizing t he t r a nsform er, re move access p a nels a n d in spect windings
for dir t- a nd he a t-discolored ins ula tion a n d st r uct u re problem s [14]. It is
im port a n t t h a t dir t not be allowed to accu m ula te on windings beca use it im pedes
he a t removal a nd reduces win ding life. A vacu u m should be u sed for t he initial
winding clea ning, followed by com pressed air [7]. Ca re m ust be t a ken to e ns u re
t he com p ressed air is dry to avoid blowing mois t u re in to win dings. Air press u re
should not be gre a ter t h a n 20 to 25 psi to avoid imbedding s m all p a rticles in to
in sula tion. After cle a ning, look for discolored copper a n d in sula tion, which
in dica tes ove rhe a ting. If discolora tion is fou n d, check for loose con nection s. If
t here a re no loose con nections, check t he cooling p a t hs ve ry ca refully a n d check for
ove rloa ding afte r t he t r a nsfor m er h a s been re-e nergized. Look for ca rbon t r acking
a nd cr acked, chipped, or loose ins ula tors. Look for a n d repair loose cla m ps, coil
sp acers, dete riora ted ba r rie rs, a nd cor roded or loose con nection s.

Check fa ns for p rope r ope r a tion inclu ding con t rols, te m per a t u re switches, a n d
ala r ms. Clea n fa n bla des a nd filters if needed. A dir ty fa n bla de or filt er red uces
cooling air flow over t he win dings a nd reduces service life. If ven tila tion por ts do
not h ave filters, t hey m ay be fa brica ted from hom e-fu r n ace filte r m a te rial. Adding
filte rs is only necess a ry if t he win dings a re dir ty u pon ye a rly inspections.

4
 OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE SUMMARY

Task After 1 Month of Service Annually 3 to 5 Years

Before energizing,
inspect and test all
controls, wiring, fans
alarms, and gages.

Indepth inspection of Oil pumps load current, oil
transformer and flow indicators, fans, etc.
cooling system, See 3.2.5, 3.2.6, and 4.1.
check for leaks and Thermometers 4.1.2 and 3.
proper operation. Heat exchangers.
Transformer tank 4.1.1.
Do a DGA. Oil level gages 4.1.4.
Pressure relief 4.1.5.
Do a DGA.
Oil pumps load current, oil flow Check diaphragm or
indicators, fans etc, see 3.2.5, bladder for leaks if you
3.2.6 and 4.1 have conservator. See
Thermometers 4.1.2 and 3, 4.2.2.
heat exchangers
Transformer tank 4.1.1
Oil level gages 4.1.4
Pressure relief 4.1.5
Do a DGA

IR scan of See 3.2.5 and 4.1.8. See 3.2.5 and 4.1.8.

transformer
cooling system,
bushings and all
wiring.

Test all controls, See 3.2.5, 4.1.4, 4.1.5. See 3.2.5 Thermometers. See 4.1.3.
relays, gages; test Inspect pressure relief for leaks Oil level gages 4.1.4.
alarms and and indication for operation Inspect pressure relief
annunciator points. (rod extension) see 4.1.5 4.1.5.
Sudden pressure relay
4.1.6.
Buchholz relay 4.1.7.
Test alarms, fan and
pump controls, etc. See
3.2.6.

Inspect transformer Check with binoculars for
bushings. cracks and chips; look for
oil leaks and check oil
levels.
IR scan. See 4.1.8.
check with binoculars for
cracks and chips, look carefully
for oil leaks and check oil
levels IR Scan See 4.1.8

Indepth inspection of Close physical

bushings, cleaning inspection, cleaning/
waxing if needed. waxing, and Doble
testing, plus checks in
boxes above left. See
4.1.8.

Doble test Doble test transformer and See 4.1.8 and 4.7.
transformer and bushings before
bushings. energizing. See 4.1.8, 4.7.

Inspect pressure See 4.2.2. See 4.2.2.

controls if you have a Also see 4.2.1 to test pressure
nitrogen over oil gage if trans has N2 over oil
transformer. with no means to automatically
Inspect pressure add N2.
gage.

5
Check pressu re gages by looking a t t he weekly d a t a sheet s; if press u re neve r va ries
wit h tem pe r a t u re ch a nges, t he ga ge is defective. Never allow t he pressu re to go below
a bou t 1 psi du ring cold wea t he r. Add nit roge n to bring t he pressu re up to 2½ to 3 psi
to in su re t h a t moist air will not be p ulled in.

3.2 Li q u i d-Im m e r s e d Tr a n sfor m e r s

Cooling cla sses of liquid-im mersed t r a nsform ers a re covered by IE E E C57.12.00

Section 5.1 [2]. A short expla n a tion of each cla ss follows:

3.2.1 Liq u i d-Im m e r s e d, Air-Co ol e d. There a re t h ree cla sses in t his ca tegory.

1. Cla ss OA: Oil-im mersed, self-cooled. Tra nsfor mer win dings a nd core a re
im me rsed in some type of oil a nd a re self-cooled by n a t u r al circula tion of air
a rou n d t he ou tside enclosu re. Fins or ra dia tors m ay be a t t ached to t he e nclos u re
to aid in cooling.

2. Cla ss OA/FA: Liquid-im m ersed, self-cooled/forced air-cooled. S a me a s OA

a bove, wit h t he addition of fa n s. F a ns a re us u ally mou n ted on r a dia tors. The
t ra n sfor me r typically h a s two loa d ra tings, one wit h t he fa ns off (OA) a nd a la rge r
r a ting wit h fa ns ope r a ting (FA). F a ns m ay be wired to st a r t a u tom a tically a t a
pre-se t te m per a t u re.

3. Cla ss OA/FA/FA: Liquid-

im me rsed, self-cooled/forced
air-cooled/forced air-cooled.
Sa me a s OA/FA a bove wit h
a n a ddition al set of fa ns.
There typically will be t h ree
loa d r a tings cor respon ding to
e ach incre men t of cooling.
Increa sed r a tings a re
obt ained by incre a sing cooling
air ove r portions of t he
cooling s u rfaces. Typically,
t here a re ra dia tors a t t ached
to t he t a n k to aid in cooling.
The two grou ps of fa ns m ay
be wired to s t a r t
a u tom a tically a t pre-se t
levels a s t em per a t u re
increa ses. The re a re no oil
pu m ps. Oil flow t h rough t he
t ra n sfor me r win dings is by
t he n a t u r al principle of F i g u r e 1.—Ty p i c a l Oil Fl o w .
convection (he a t rising).

6
3.2.2 Liq u i d-Im m e r s e d, Air-Co ol e d/F o r c e d Liq u i d-Co ol e d. The re a re two
cla sses in t his grou p.

1. Cla ss OA/FA/FOA: Liquid-im mersed, self-cooled/forced air-cooled/forced liquid,

a nd forced air-cooled. Windings a nd core a re im me rsed in som e type of oil. This
t ra n sfor me r typically h a s r a dia tors a t t ached to t he e nclosu re. The t ra nsfor mer
h as self-cooling (OA) n a t u ral ve n tila tion, forced air-cooling FA (fa ns), a nd forced
oil-cooling (p u mps) wit h a ddition al forced air-cooling (F OA) (more fa ns). The
t ra n sfor me r h a s t h ree loa d ra tings cor responding to e ach cooling step. F a ns a nd
pu m ps m ay be wired to st a r t a u tom a tica lly a t pre-set levels a s tem pe r a t u re
increa ses.

2. Cla ss OA/FOA/FOA: Liquid-im mersed, self-cooled/forced oil, a nd forced air-

cooled/forced oil, a n d forced air-cooled. Cooling con t rols a re a r ra nged to st a r t only
pa rt of t he oil p u m ps a nd pa r t of t he fa ns for t he first loa d r a ting/te mper a t u re
increa se, a n d t he re m aining pu mps a n d fa ns for t he secon d loa d r a ting incre ase.
The n a mepla te will show a t le as t t h ree loa d ra tings.

3.2.3 Liq u i d-Im m e r s e d, Wa t e r-Co ol e d. This ca tegory h a s two cla sses.

1. Cla ss OW: Tra n sfor me r coil a nd core a re im me rsed in oil. Typically a oil/wa te r
he a t exch a nger (r a dia tor) is a t t ached to t he ou t side of t he t a n k. Cooling wa te r is
pu m ped t h rough t he hea t exch a nge r, bu t t he oil flows only by n a t u r al circula tion.
As oil is he a ted by t he win dings, it rises to t he top a nd exit s t h rough piping to t he
r a dia tor. As it is cooled, t he oil descen ds t h rough t he r a dia tor a n d re-e n ters t he
t ra n sfor me r t a n k a t t he bot tom.

2. Cla ss OW/A: Tr a nsform er coil a n d core a re im m ersed in oil. This t r a n sfor me r

h as two r a tings. Cooling for one ra ting (OW) is obt ained a s in 1 above. The self-
cooled r a ting (A) is obt a ined by n a t u r al circula tion of air ove r t he t a n k a nd cooling
su rfaces.

3.2.4 Liq u i d-Im m e r s e d, F or c e d Liq u i d-Co ol e d. This ca t egory h a s two

cla sses.

1. Cla ss FOA: Liquid-im me rsed, forced liquid-cooled wit h forced air-cooled. This
t ra n sfor me r nor m a lly h a s only one r a ting. The t r a n sfor me r is cooled by p u m ping
oil (forced oil) t h rough a r a dia tor nor m a lly a t t ached to t he ou t side of t he t a n k.
Also, air is forced by fa n s ove r t he cooling su rface.

2. Cla ss FOW: Liquid-im m ersed, forced liquid-cooled, wa te r cooled. This

t ra n sfor me r is cooled by a n oil/wa te r hea t exch a nger norm ally mou n ted sepa ra tely
from t he t a n k. Bot h t he t ra nsfor mer oil a nd t he cooling wa te r a re p u mped
(forced) t h rough t he hea t exch a nge r to accom plish cooling.

7
3.2.5 P o t e n ti al P r o bl e m s a n d R e m e d i al Ac ti o n s for Liq u id F ill e d
Tr a n sfor m e r Co ol i n g S y s te m s.

Le a k s. Ta nks a nd r a dia tors m ay develop oil le a ks, especially a t con nections. To

repair a lea k in a r a dia tor core, you m us t remove t he ra dia tor. S m all le a ks m a y
also develop in hea de rs or individu al pipes. These sm all lea ks possibly m ay be
stopped by pee ning wit h a ball pee n h a m me r. Some m a n ufact u re r’s field
person nel t ry to s top lea ks by u sing a two-pa r t epoxy while t he t r a nsfor mer is
u nde r vacu u m. Do not t ry t his u nless t he t r a n sfor me r h a s bee n dr ained, beca use
a vacu u m m ay ca u se bubbles to for m in t he oil t h a t ca n lodge in t he winding a nd
ca use a rcing. Whe n all else fails, t he lea k m ay be welded wit h oil s till in t he
r a dia tor, if prope r preca u tions a re ca refully observed [3, 4]. Welding wit h oil
in side will ca use ga ses to form in t he oil. Ta ke a n oil sa m ple for a dissolved ga s
a n alysis (DGA) before welding a nd 24 hou rs after re-ene rgizing to iden tify ga s
increa ses due to welding. If t he lea k is ba d enough, t he t a n k m ay h ave to be
dr ained so t he lea k ca n be rep aired. Tre a t le a ks ca refully; do not ignore t hem. Oil
le a ks a re se rious m ain te n a nce a nd environ me n t al issues a n d should be cor rected.
R adia tors m ay need to be clea ned in a re a s where deposits a ppea r on pipes a nd
he a ders. Dir t a nd deposits h a m per he a t t ra n sfer to t he cooling air. F in ned
r a dia tors m us t be cle a ned wit h com pressed air whe n t hey becom e dir ty.

P l u g s. Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v ic e a n d y e a rly, p e rfo r m a n IR s c a n a n d

p h y s ic al i n s p e c ti o n of r a d ia t or s a n d tr a n sfo r m e r t a n k s [4,7]. P a r tially
plugged r a dia tors will be cooler t h a n t hose pe rfor ming norm ally. You m ay also
feel t he r a dia tor pipes by h a nd. Plugged r a dia tor sections or individ u al
pipes/plen u m s will be notice ably coole r; howeve r, you will not be a ble to reach a ll
of t he m. Ra dia tors m ay become plugged wit h sludge or foreign debris; t his
u su ally occu rs in wa ter t ubes on t he oil/wa te r hea t exch a nge r. Do not forge t to
check t he bleed line for two-walled hea t exch a nge rs.

If plugged r a dia tors a re discove red, t hey need to be cor rect ed a s soon a s possible.
Some r adia tors a re a t t ached to t he m ain t a n k wit h fla nges a nd h ave isola ting
valves. These m ay be removed for clea ning a n d/or le a k repair wit hou t d raining oil
from t he t ra nsfor mer. If ra dia tors a re a t t ached directly to t he m ain t a n k, oil m u st
be dr ained before cle a ning t he m. If ra dia tors a re plugged wit h sludge, ch a nces
a re t he t r a n sfor me r is slu dged u p also. In t his ca se, t he oil s hould be reprocessed
a nd t he t ra nsfor mer cle a ned in ter n ally. Compe ten t con t r actors s hould be
obt ained if t his is necessa ry.

S l u d g e. If te m per a t u re see ms to be slowly increa sing while t he t r a n sfor me r is

oper a ting u nde r t he s a m e loa d, check t he DGA for moist u re, oxygen, a nd t he
in terfacial te nsion (IF T). The combin a tion of oxygen a n d mois t u re ca u ses
sludging, which m ay be reve aled by a low IFT n u mbe r. Slu dge will slowly build
u p on windings a n d core, a nd t he te mper a t u re will increa se ove r tim e.

8
V a l v e P r o b le m s. If you r t r a n sfor me r h a s isola ting valves for r a dia tors, check to
m a ke su re t hey a re fully open on bot h top a nd bot tom of t he r a dia tors. A broke n
valve ste m m ay ca use t he valve to be fully or p a rtially closed, bu t it will a ppea r
t h a t t he valve is ope n.

Mi n e r a l De p os i t s. Don’t eve n t hin k abou t sp raying wa ter on t he r a dia tors or

t a n k to increa se cooling excep t in t he most dire eme rge ncy. Miner als in t he wa ter
will deposit on r a dia tors a s wa te r eva pora tes a n d a re a lmos t im possible to
remove. These mine r als will red uce t he efficiency of cooling still fu r t he r.
Addition al fa ns blowing on r a dia tors a nd/or t ra nsfor mer t a nk is a be t te r
alte rn a tive [4].

One IR sca n pe rform ed on a t r a nsform er r u n ning a t higher t h a n nor m al

te m per a t u re reve aled t h a t t he oil level wa s below t he upper r a dia tor inlet pipe,
which preven ted oil circula tion. The oil level in dica tor wa s defective a nd s t uck on
nor m al. These in dica tors m u st be tested a s m en tioned below.

3.2.6 Co oli n g S y st e m In s p e c ti o n s. Aft e r 1 m o n th of s e r v i c e a n d y e arl y,

i n s p e c t a n d t e s t t h e fa n s. Look a t t he fa ns a nytime you a re a rou nd
t ra n sfor me rs in t he switchya rd or in t he powerpla n t. If it is a hot d ay a nd
t ra n sfor me rs a re loa ded, a ll t he fa n s should be r u n ning. If a fa n is stopped a nd
t he rest of t he grou p is r u n ning, t he in active fa n s hould be repaired. Du ring a n
in spection, t he te m per a t u re con t roller should be a dju sted to st a r t all t he fa n s.
Lis ten for u n u su al noises from fa n be a rings a nd loose bla des a nd repair or replace
fa ulty fa n s. Ba d be a rings ca n a lso be de tected wit h a n IR sca n if t he fa n s a re
r u n ning.

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d y e a rly, i n s p e c t a n d t e s t th e o il p u m p s.
In spect piping a nd con nections for lea ks. Ove rride t he te m per a t u re con t roller so
t h a t t he pu m p st a r ts. Check t he oil pu m p motor cu r ren t on all t h ree p h a ses wit h
a n accu r a te a m me ter; t his will give a n indica tion if oil flow is cor rect a nd if
u n us u al we a r is ca using a ddition al motor loa ding. Record t his infor m a tion for
la te r com pa rison, especially if t he re is no oil flow in dica tor. If th e m ot or l o a d
c u rr e n t i s l o w , s o m e t h i n g i s c a u si n g lo w o il fl o w. C a refully inspect all
valves to m a ke s u re t hey a re fully ope n. A valve st em m a y brea k a n d le ave t he
valve pa r tially or fully closed, even t hough t he valve h a n dle indica tes t he valve is
fully ope n. P u m p im pelle rs h ave been fou nd loose on t he sh aft, red ucing oil flow.
Slu dge buildup or debris in lines ca n also ca u se low oil flow. If m o to r l o a d
c u rr e n t i s h i g h , t h i s m a y i n d i c a t e i m p e d e d p u m p r o ta ti o n. Lis ten for
u n us u al noises. Th ru st be a ring we a r result s in t he im pelle r a dva ncing on t he
housing. An im peller touching t he housing m a kes a r ubbing sou nd which is
diffe re n t from t he sou nd of a failing motor be a ring. If t his is he a rd, remove t he
pu m p motor from t he hou sing a n d check im pelle r cle a ra nce. Replace t he t h r us t
bea ring if needed, a nd replace t he motor bea rings if t he s h aft h a s too m uch play or
if noise is u n usu al.

9
 Th ree ph ase pu m ps will r u n a nd pu m p some oil eve n when t hey a re r u n ning
backwa rds. Va ne type oil-flow m ete rs will indica te flow on t his low a mou n t. The
best indica tion of t his is t h a t sometimes t he pu m p will be very noisy. The motor
loa d cu r re n t m ay also be lowe r t h a n for full load. If t his is su spected d ue to t he
ext r a noise a nd highe r t r a nsfor m er te mper a t u re, t he pu mp s hould be checked for
prope r rot a tion. Reverse two ph a se le a ds if t his is e ncou n te red.[4]

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d y e a rly, c h e c k t h e o il flo w i n d i c a tor. It h as a

sm all pa ddle which exten ds in to t he oil s t re a m a n d m ay be eit her on t he suction
or disch a rge side of t he p u m p. A low flow of only a bou t 5 feet per secon d velocity
ca uses t he flag to rot a te. Flow ca n be too low, a n d t he in dica tor will still show
flow. If t here is no flow, a spring ret u rn s t he flag to t he off position a nd a switch
provides a n ala r m. Wit h con t rol power on t he switch, ope n t he pu m p circuit a t t he
motor st a r te r a nd m a ke s u re t he cor rect ala r m poin t activa tes when t he p u mp
stops. Check t h a t t he poin ter is in t he righ t position when t he pu mp is off a nd
when it is ru n ning. Poin te rs ca n stick a nd fail to provide a n ala r m whe n needed.
Oil flow m ay also be checked wit h a n ult r a sonic flow me ter. Ult ra sonic lis tening
devices ca n de tect worn bea rings, r ubbing im pellers, a n d ot her u n us u al noises
from oil pu m ps.

P u m p s c a n p u ll air i n t h r o u g h g a s k e ts o n t h e s u c ti o n si d e of t h e p u m p s.
The suction (vacu u m) on t he in t a ke side of t he p u m p ca n pull air t h rough gasket s
t h a t a re not tigh t. P u m p suction h a s also been known to pull air t h rough p acking
a rou n d valve ste ms, in t he s uction side piping. This ca n result in da nge rous
bubbles in t he t r a n sfor me r oil a n d m ay ca use t he ga s detector or Buch holz relay to
oper a te. Dissolved gas a n alysis will show a big incre ase in oxygen a nd nit rogen
con ten t [4]. High oxygen a n d nit rogen con ten t ca n also be ca u sed by ga sket le a ks
elsewhe re.

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d y e a rly, i n s p e c t w a t e r-oi l h e a t e x c h a n g e r s.

Tes t a n d in spect t he pu m ps a s me n tioned above. Look for a nd repair le a ks in
piping a nd hea t exch a nge r body. Exa mine t he la tes t dissolved ga s a n alysis
result s for dissolved moist u re a nd free wa ter. If free wa te r is presen t a nd t he re
a re no ga sket lea ks, t he wa te r por tion of t he wa te r-oil hea t exch a nger m ust be
pressu re tes ted. A le a k m ay h ave developed, allowing wa ter to migr a t e in to t he
t ra n sfor me r oil, which ca n dest roy t he t r a nsform er. If t he he a t exch a nges piping
is double-walled, check t he dr ain for wa te r or oil; check m a n ufact u rer’s ins t r uction
m a n u al.

4. OIL-FILLE D TRAN S FORME R IN S P ECTION S

A t r a nsform er m ain ten a nce progr a m m us t be ba sed on t h or o u g h rou tine inspection s.

These inspections m u st be in a ddition to nor m al daily/weekly da t a ga t he ring t rips to
check oil levels a nd tem pe r a t u res. Some monitoring m ay be done remotely using
supe rvisory con t rol a nd d a t a acquisition (SCADA) syste ms, bu t t his ca n never
substit u te for t horough inspections by com pete n t m ain te n a nce or ope ra tions people.

10
4.1 Oil-F ill e d Tra n sfor m e rs

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d o n c e e a c h y e ar, m a k e a n i n d e p t h i n s p e c ti o n of
o il-fill e d tr a n sfor m e r s. Before begin ning, look ca refully a t t em per a t u re a n d oil level
da t a s heet s. If tem pe ra t u re, p ressu re, or oil level gages never ch a nge, even wit h
sea son al te mper a t u re a nd loa ding ch a nges, som et hing is wrong. The gage m ay be
st uck or da t a s heet s m ay h ave bee n filled in incor rectly. Exa mine t he DGA’s for
evidence of le a ks, etc.

4.1.1 Tra n sfor m e r Ta n k. Check for excessive cor rosion a nd oil lea ks. P a y
special a t ten tion to fla nges a nd ga skets (bus hings, valves, a nd r a dia tors) a nd
lower section of t he m a in t a n k. Report oil le a ks to m ain t en a nce, a nd pay special
a t te n tion to t he oil level indica tor if lea ks a re fou nd. Seve rely cor roded spots
should be wire bru shed a n d p ain ted wit h a r ust in hibitor.

4.1.2 To p Oil Th e r m o m e t e r s. These a re typically se aled spira l-bou rdon-t ube

dial indica tors wit h liquid-filled bulb sen sors. The bulb is norm ally inside a
t her momet er well, which pe net r a tes t he t a nk wall in to oil nea r t he top of t he
t a n k. As oil tem pe ra t u re increa ses in t he bulb, liquid expa nds, which exp a nds t he
spiral t ube. The t ube is a t t ached to a poin t er t h a t indica tes tem pe r a t u re. These
poin te rs m ay also h ave elect rical con t acts to t rigger ala rm s a nd st a r t cooling fa n s
a s te mpe r a t u re increa ses. An ext ra poin ter, nor m ally red, indica tes m axim u m
te m per a t u re since t he la st tim e t he indica tor wa s rese t. This red poin ter rises
wit h t he m ain poin ter bu t will not decre a se u nless m a n u ally reset; t h us, it always
in dica tes t he highest te mpe r a t u re reached since being se t. See t he ins t r uction
m a n u al on you r specific t r a n sfor me r for de t ails.

4.1.3 Wi n d i n g T e m p e r a t u r e T h e r m o m e t e rs. These devices a re supposed to

in dica te hot test spot in t he win ding ba sed on t he m a n ufact u rers hea t r u n test s.
At bes t, t his device is only accu r a te a t top n a mepla te ra ted loa d a n d t hen only if it
is not ou t of calibr a tion [17]. They a re not wh a t t heir n a me im plies a nd ca n be
misle a ding. They a re only winding h o tt e s t-s p o t s i m u l at or s a n d not ve ry
accu r a te. There is no te mper a t u re sen sor im bedded in t he winding hot spot. At
best, t hey p rovide only a rough a pp roxim a tion of hot spot win ding tem per a t u re
a nd s hould not be relied on for accu r acy. They ca n be u sed to t u r n on a ddition a l
cooling or activa te ala r m s a s t he top oil t her mome ters do.

Winding te mper a t u re t her mome ters work t he s a me a s t he top oil t her mome ter
(4.1.2) a bove, excep t t h a t t he bulb is in a sepa r a te t her mome ter well nea r t he top
of t he t a n k. A wire-type hea te r coil is eit her in ser ted in to or wra pped a rou n d t he
t her momet er well which su r rou n ds t he te mpe r a t u re sensitive bulb. In some
t ra n sfor me rs, a cu rren t t ra nsfor me r (CT) is a rou n d one of t he t h ree winding lea ds
a nd p rovides cu r ren t directly to t he hea te r coil in propor tion to win ding cu rren t.
In ot her t r a nsfor mers, t he CT su pplies cu r re n t to a n a u to-t r a nsform er t h a t
supplies cu r ren t to t he he a te r coil. The he a ter wa rm s t he bulb a nd t he dial
in dica tes a te m per a t u re, bu t it is not t he t rue hot test-spot te m per a t u re.

11
These devices a re calibra ted a t t he factory by ch a nging t aps eit he r on t he CT or on
t he a u tot r a nsform er, or by a dju sting t he calibr a tion resistors in t he con t rol
ca binet. They nor m ally ca n not be field calibr a t ed or test ed, ot her t h a n testing t he
t her momet er, as m en tioned. The calibr a tion resistors ca n be a dju sted in t he field
if t he m a n ufact u rer p rovides calibra tion cu rves for t he t r a n sfor me r. In p ractice,
mos t winding te m per a t u re indica tors a re ou t of ca libr a tion, a nd t heir re a dings a re
m ea ningless. These te mpe r a t u re in dica tions s hould not be relied upon for loa ding
oper a tion s or m ain t en a nce decisions.

Fiber optic te m per a t u re sen sors ca n be imbedded directly in to t he win ding a s t he

t ra n sfor me r is being built a n d a re m uch more accu r a te. This syst em is availa ble
a s a n option on new t r a n sfor me rs a t a n increa sed cost, which m ay be wor t h it
since t he t r ue winding “hot tes t-spot” te mpe r a t u re is critical when higher loa ding
is required.

Ther mome ters ca n be removed wit hou t lowe ring t he t r a nsform er oil if t hey a re in
a t her mome ter well. Check you r t r a nsfor me r ins t r uction m a n u al. Look ca refully
a t t he ca pilla ry t ubing betwee n t he t her mome ter well a n d dial indica tor. If t he
t ubing h a s been pinched or acciden tly st ruck, it m ay be res t rict ed. This is not a n
obviou s defect, a nd it ca n ca u se t he dia l poin ter to lock in one position. If t his
defect is fou nd, t he whole gage m us t be re t u r ned to t he factory for rep air or
replace men t; it ca n not be repaired in t he field. Look for a le a k in t he t ubing
syst em; t he gage will be re a ding ve ry low a nd m u st be replaced if a lea k is
discove red. Ther mome ters s hould be re moved a nd tested every 3 to 5 ye a rs a s
described below.

T h e r m o m e t e r Te s t i n g. E v e r y 3 to 5 y e a r s, a n d if tr o u bl e i s s u s p e c t e d, d o a
t h e r m o m e t e r t e s ti n g. S uspen d t he indica tor bulb a n d a n accu r a te m ercu ry
t her momet er in a n oil ba t h. Do not allow eit her to touch t he side or bot tom of t he
con t ainer. Hea t t he oil on a hotpla te while stirring a n d com p a re t he two
t her momet ers while t he te m per a t u re incre ases. If a m agne tic s tir ring/he a ting
pla te is available, it is more effective t h a n h a nd stirring. P ay p a r ticula r a t te n tion
to t he u ppe r te mpe r a t u re r a nge a t which you r t r a n sfor me rs nor m ally oper a te
(50 °C to 80 °C). An oh m me ter should also be used to check switch oper a tion s. If
eit her dial in dica tor is more t h a n 5 °C diffe re n t t h a n t he mercu ry t he r mom ete r, it
should be replaced wit h a sp a re. A n u m ber of sp a res should be kept, ba sed on t he
qu a n tity of t r a n sfor me rs a t t he pla n t. Oil ba t h test kit s a re ava ila ble from t he
Qu alit rol Com pa ny. Afte r calling for Qu alit rol a u t horiza tion a t 716-586-1515, you
ca n ship defective dial t he r momete rs for repair a nd calibr a tion to: Qu alit rol Co.,
1387 F airport Rd., F airpor t, NY 14450.

The ala r m s a n d ot her fu nctions s hould also be tes ted to see if t he cor rect
a n n u ncia tor poin ts activa te, p u mps/fa n s ope ra te, e tc.

If it is not possible to replace t he t em per a t u re gage or send it to t he factory for

repair, place a tem pe r a t u re cor rection factor on you r d a t a for m to a dd to t he dial
rea ding so t he cor rect tem pe ra t u re will be recorded. Also lowe r t he ala rm a nd

12
pu m p-t u r n-on se t tings by t his s a m e correction factor. Since t hese a re pressu re-
filled syst em s, t he indica tor will typically re ad low if it is ou t of calibr a tion. Field
tes ting h a s s hown som e of t hese gages re ading 15 °C to 20 °C lowe r t h a n act u al
te m per a t u re. This is h az a rdous for t r a nsfor mers beca use it will allow t hem to
con tin uou sly ru n hot ter t h a n in t ended, d ue to delayed ala rm s a nd cooling
activa tion. If t he rmom ete rs a re not tes ted a nd er rors corrected, t r a nsform er
service life m ay be shorte ned or prem a t u re failu re m ay occu r.

4.1.4 Oil L e v e l In d ic a to r s. Aft e r 1 m o n th of s e r v i c e, i n s p e c t a n d e v e r y

3 t o 5 y e ar s, c h e c k t h e t a n k o il l e v e l i n d ic a to r s. These a re floa t oper a ted,
wit h t he floa t m ech a nis m m agnetically cou pled t h rough t he t a n k wall to t he dial
in dica tor. As level incre a ses, t he floa t rot a tes a m agne t in side t he t a n k. Ou tside
t he t a n k, a not he r
m agne t follows (rot a tes),
which moves t he
poin te r. The cen te r of
t he dial is norm ally
m a rked wit h a
te m per a t u re 25 °C
(77 °F). High a nd low
level poin t s a re a lso
m a rked to follow level
ch a nges a s t he oil
expa nds a n d con t r acts
wit h tem pe ra t u re
ch a nges. The prope r F i g u r e 2.—Oil L e v e l In d i c a tor.
way to de ter mine
accu r a te oil level is to firs t look a t t he top oil te m per a t u re indica tor. Afte r
dete rmining t he tem pe ra t u re, look a t t he level gage. The poin te r s hould be a t a
rea son a ble level cor responding to t he top oil t em per a t u re. If t he t r a nsfor m er is
fully loa ded, t he top oil tem pe r a t u re will be high, a n d t he level in dica tor s hould be
ne a r t he high m a rk. If t he t ra nsfor mer is de-ene rgized a nd t he top oil
te m per a t u re is nea r 25 °C, t he oil level poin ter should be a t or nea r 25 °C.

To check t he level in dica tor, you ca n remove t he ou t side mech a nism for tes ting
wit hou t lowe ring t r a nsform er oil. After removing t he gage, hold a m agnet on t he
back of t he dial a n d rot a te t he m agnet; t he dial indica tor should also rot a te. If it
fails to respon d or if it dr ags or sticks, replace it. As m en tioned a bove, defective
u nits ca n be sen t to t he factory for rep air.

There m ay also be elect rical switches for ala r m s a n d possibly t ripping off t he
t ra nsfor me r on falling t a nk level. These s hould be checked wit h a n oh m me ter for
p rope r ope r a tion. The ala r m/t ripping circuits s hould also be tes ted to see if t he
cor rect a n n u ncia tor poin t s a n d relays respon d. See t he t r a nsform er in st ruction
book for inform a tion on you r specific in dica tor.

13
If oil h as h a d to be lowered in t he t r a nsform er or conse rva tor for ot he r rea sons
(e.g., inspections), check t he oil level floa t mech a nism. Rot a te t he floa t
m ech a nis m by h a n d to check for free move me n t. Check t he floa t visu ally to m a ke
su re it is secu re to t he a r m a nd t h a t t he a r m is in t he proper s h a pe. Some a r ms
a re form ed (not s t r aigh t).

4.1.5 P r e s s u r e R e li e f D e v i c e s. These devices a re t he t r a n sfor me rs’ las t line of

defen se agains t excessive in ter n al p ress u re. In case of a fa ult or shor t circuit, t he
result a n t a rc inst a n tly va porizes s u r rou nding oil, ca using a r a pid buildu p of
ga seous p ressu re. If t h e p r e s s u r e r e li e f d e v i c e d o e s n o t o p e ra t e p r o p e rl y
a n d p r e s s u r e i s n o t s u ffi c i e n tl y r e li e v e d w i th i n a fe w m ill is e c o n d s, a
c a ta s tr o p h i c ta n k r u p t u r e c a n r e s u lt, s p r e a d i n g fl a m i n g oil o v e r a w id e
a r e a. Two types of t hese devices a re discussed below. The inst ruction m a n u al for
you r t r a nsfor m er m ust be consult ed for specifics.

Ca u ti o n: Neve r pain t press u re-relief devices beca u se pain t ca n ca u se t he plu nge r

or rot a ting sh aft to stick. The n t he device migh t not relieve pressu re, which could
le a d to ca t a st rophic t a nk failu re du ring a fa ult. Look a t t he top of t he device; on
newe r u nit s, a yellow or blue bu t ton should be visible. If t hese h ave bee n p ain ted,
t he bu t ton will be t he s a me color a s t he t a n k. On olde r u nit s, a red flag s hould be
visible; if it h a s bee n p ain ted, it will be t he sa me color as t he t a n k.
If t hey h ave been pain ted, t hey s hould be replaced. It is vir t u ally impossible to
remove all pain t from t he mech a nism a nd be cer t ain t he device will work when
needed.

Ne w e r P r es s u r e R e l ief PROTECTIVE COVER COLORED ROD SHOWS

TRIPPED POSITION
D e v i c es. Newe r press u re COMPRESSION SPRINGS

relief devices a re sp ring-loa ded

valves t h a t a u tom a tically
reclose following a p ress u re ALARM SWITCH

rele a se. The springs a re held

in com pression by t he cover
a nd p ress on a disc which sea ls
DIAPHRAGM
a n ope ning in t he t a n k top. If
pressu re in t he t a n k exceeds
oper a ting pressu re, t he disk GASKETS

moves u pwa rd a nd relieves SWITCH

TRANSFORMER TANK RESET
pressu re. As pressu re LEVER

decre a ses, t he springs reclose

t he valve. Afte r oper a ting, t his Fi g u r e 3.—P r e s s u r e R e li e f D e vi c e .
device le aves a brigh tly colored
rod (brigh t yellow for oil, blue for silicone) exposed a pproxim a tely 2 inches above
t he top. This rod is e a sily seen upon in spection, alt hough it is not always visible
from floor level. The rod m ay be reset by pressing on t he top u n til it is again
recessed in to t he device. The switch m u st also be m a n u ally rese t. A relief device
is shown in t he open position in figu re 3 a bove.

14
Ca u ti o n: Bolt s t h a t hold t he device to t he t a n k m ay be loosened safely, bu t never
loose n screws which hold t he cove r to t he fla nge wit hou t refe rring to t he
in st r uction m a n u al a nd using grea t ca re. Sp rings t h a t oppose t a n k p ress u re a re
held in com pression by t hese screws, a n d t heir stored e nergy could be h aza rdous.

O n c e e a c h y e a r, a nd a s soon as possible afte r a k nown t h rough-fa ult or in t er n al

fa ult, in spect p ress u re devices to see if t hey h ave oper a ted. This m u st be done
from a high-lift bucket if t he t r a nsfor mer is e nergized. Look a t e ach pressu re
relief device to see if t he yellow (or blue) bu t ton is visible. If t he device h a s
oper a ted, abou t 2 inches of t he colored rod will be visible. E ach ye a r, test t he
ala r m circuits by oper a ting t he switch by h a n d a n d m a king su re t he cor rect
a n n u ncia tor poin t is activa ted. If t he relief device oper a tes d u ring oper a tion, do
not re-e ne rgize t he t r a nsfor me r; Doble a n d ot her tes ting m ay be required before
re-ene rgizing, a n d a n oil sa m ple should be se n t for a n alysis

E v e r y 3 to 5 y e a rs, whe n doing ot he r m a in te n a nce or tes ting, if t he t ra n sfor me r

h as a con serva tor, exa mine t he top of t he t r a nsfor mer t a nk a rou n d t he pressu re
relief device. If oil is visible, t he device is lea king, eit her a rou n d t he t a n k ga sket
or relief dia ph r agm. If t he device is 30 ye a rs old, replace t he whole u nit. A
nit rogen bla n ke ted t ra nsfor me r will use a lot more nit roge n if t he relief device is
le a king; t hey should be tested a s described below.

A test st a n d wit h a p ress u re gage m ay be fa brica ted to test t he p ressu re relief

fu nction. Cu r ren t cos t of a press u re relief device is abou t $600, so testing ins tea d
of replaceme n t m ay be pr ude n t. H ave a spa re on h a nd so t h a t t he t a n k will not
h ave to be left ope n. If t he t a n k top or p ress u re relief device h a s gas ke t limiting
grooves, always use a nit rile replace men t ga sket; if t here a re no grooves, use a
cor k-nit rile ga sket. Relief devices t he mselves do not le a k ofte n; t he ga ske t u su a lly
le a ks.

O l d e r P r ess u r e R e l ief De v i ce s. Older pressu re relief devices h ave a dia ph ragm

a nd a relief pin t h a t is dest royed e ach time t he device oper a tes a n d m us t be
replaced.

Ca u ti o n: These p a r t s m u s t b e replaced wit h exact replacem en t p a r t s, or t he

oper a ting relief-pressu re of t he device will be wrong.

The relief pin dete rmines ope ra ting pressu re; a n u mber, which is t he oper a ting
pressu re, nor m ally a ppe a rs on top of t he pin. Check you r specific t r a n sfor me r
in st r uction m a n u al for p rope r ca t alog n u mbe rs. Do not a ssu me you h ave t he righ t
pa rt s, or t h a t cor rect pa r ts h ave been p reviously ins t alled—look it up. If t he
oper a ting pressu re is too high, a ca t a st rophic t a nk failu re could result.

On olde r u nit s, a sh aft rot a tes, ope r a tes ala r m/t rip switches, a nd r aises a s m a ll
red flag when t he u nit relea ses pressu re. If u nit s h ave been pa in ted or a re more
t h a n 30 yea rs old, t hey s hould be replaced wit h t he new model a s soon a s it is
possible to h ave a t r a nsfor mer ou t age.

15
Once e ach ye a r a nd a s soon a s possible after a t h rough-fa ult or in te rn a l fa ult,
exa mine t he indica tor fla g to see if t he device h a s oper a ted. They m us t be
exa mined from a high-lift bucke t if t he t r a nsform er is ene rgized. A clea r a nce
m us t be obt ained to test, rep air, or reset t he device. See t he ins t r uction m a n u al
for you r specific t r a nsform er. Tes t ala r m/t rip circuits by oper a ting t he switch
byh a nd. C heck to m a ke s u re t he cor rect a n n u ncia tor poin t activa tes.

E v e r y 3 to 5 y e a rs, whe n doing ot he r m ain te n a nce or tes ting, exa mine t he top of
t he t r a n sfor me r t a n k a rou nd t he press u re relief device. If t he t r a nsfor m er h a s a
con serva tor a n d oil is visible, t he device is le a king, eit he r a rou nd t he t a n k ga ske t
or relief dia ph r agm. The ga ske t a nd/or device m us t be replaced. Ta ke ca re t h a t
t he new device will fit t he sa me t a n k opening prior to ordering. Mos t of t he m a re
m a de by t he Qu alit rol Comp a ny; con t act t he m a n ufact u rer to obt ain a cor rect
replace men t.

4.1.6 S u d d e n P r e s s u r e R e l a y. In te r n al a rcing in a n oil-filled power

t ra n sfor me r ca n ins t a n tly va porize su r rou n ding oil, ge ner a ting ga s press u res t h a t
ca n ca use ca t a st rophic failu re, r up t u re t he t a nk, a nd spre a d fla ming oil over a
la rge a rea. This ca n da m age or des t roy ot her equipme n t in a ddition to t he
t ra n sfor me r a n d prese n t s ext re me h aza rds to workers.

The relay is designed to detect a s udden press u re increa se ca used by a rcing. It is

set to ope r a te before t he pressu re relief device. The con t rol circuit should de-
e nergize t he t r a nsfor m er a nd p rovide a n ala r m. The relay will ignore nor m al
pressu re ch a nges such a s oil-pu m p su rges, tem pe ra t u re ch a nges, e tc.

Moder n su dde n pressu re relays con sis t of t h ree bellows (see figu re 4) wit h silicone
sealed inside. Ch a nges in pressu re in t he t r a n sfor me r deflect t he m ain sensing
bellows. Silicone inside act s on two con t rol bellows a r r a nged like a bala nce be a m,
one on each side. One bellows senses p ress u re ch a nges t h rough a sm all orifice.
The ope ning is a u tom a tically ch a nged by a bime t allic s t rip to a djus t for nor m a l
te m per a t u re
ch a nges of t he oil. BIMETAL TEMPERATURE COMPENSATOR CONTROL ORIFICE

BLEED VALVE CONTROL BELLOWS

The orifice delays PRESSURE BALANCE BEAM
pressu re ch a nges in SILICONE FLUID ACTUATOR
t his bellows. The ELECTRICAL SWITCH
SENSING BELLOWS
ot her bellows
responds to TO
im media te press u re TRANSFORMER

ch a nges a nd is
affected m uch more
TRANSFORMER OIL
quickly. P ressu re
diffe re nce tilts t he
bala nce bea m a nd ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR
1/8" DIAMETER DRAIN HOLE
activa tes t he switch. SILICONE SENSING FLUID MANIFOLD HOUSING CONTROL BELLOWS
This type relay
a u tom a tically reset s F i g u r e 4.—S u d d e n P r e s s u r e R e la y.

16
when t he two bellows a gain reach pressu re equilibriu m. If t his relay oper a tes, do
not re-e ne rgize t he t r a nsfor me r u n til you h ave dete rmined t he exact ca u se a n d
cor rected t he proble m.

Old style s udden p ress u re relays h ave only one bellows. A s udden excessive
pressu re wit hin t he t r a n sfor me r t a n k exer ts p ress u re directly on t he bellows,
which moves a sp ring-loaded oper a ting pin. The pin ope ra tes a switch which
provides ala r m a n d brea ke r t rip. Aft er t he relay h a s oper a ted, t he ca p m ust be
removed a nd t he switch rese t to nor m al by dep ressing t he reset bu t ton.

O n c e e v e r y 3 to 5 y e a r s, t he sudden p ress u re relay s hould be tested according to

m a n ufact u re r’s inst ructions. Ge ner ally, only a squeeze-bulb a n d pressu re gage
(5 psi) a re required. Discon nect t he t ripping circuit a n d u se a n oh m me ter to test
for relay ope ra tion. Test t he ala rm circuit a n d ve rify t h a t t he cor rect ala r m poin t
is activa ted. Use a n oh m me ter to verify t he t rip sign al is activa t ed or, if possible,
a pply only con t rol volt age to t he bre a ke r a nd m a ke s u re t he t ripping fu nction
oper a tes. Con sult t he m a n ufact u re r’s m a n u al for you r specific t r a nsform er for
det a iled in st r uctions.

4.1.7 B u c h h olz R e l a y (fo u n d o n l y o n tr a n sfo r m e r s w i th c o n s e r v a tor s).

The Buch holz relay h as two oil-filled ch a m bers wit h floa t s a nd relays a rr a nged
ver tically one ove r t he ot her. If high eddy cu r ren t s, local over he a ting, or pa r tial
disch a rges occu r wit hin t he t a n k, bubbles of res ult a n t ga s rise to t he top of t he
t a n k. These rise t h rough t he pipe be tween t he t a n k a nd t he conse rva tor. As ga s
bubbles migr a te along t he pipe, t hey e n ter t he B uch holz relay a nd rise in to t he top
ch a mbe r. As ga s builds up inside t he ch a m be r, it displaces t he oil, decrea sing t he
level. The top floa t desce nds wit h oil level u n til it p a sses a m agnetic switch which
activa tes a n ala r m. The bot tom floa t a nd relay ca n not be activa ted by a ddition al
ga s buildu p. The floa t
is loca ted sligh tly below
t he top of t he pipe so
t h a t once t he top
ch a mbe r is filled,
a ddition al ga s goes in to
t he pipe a nd on up to
t he con serva tor.
Typically, inspection
windows a re provided
so t h a t t he a mou n t of
ga s a nd relay ope r a tion
m ay be viewed d u ring
testing. If t he oil level
falls low enough
(con serva tor em p ty),
switch con t act s in t he
bot tom ch a mber a re
activa ted by t he bot tom Fi g u r e 5.—B u c h h olz R e l a y.

17
floa t. These con t acts a re typically con nected to ca use t he t r a n sfor me r to t rip.
This relay also serves a t hird fu nction, simila r to t he su dde n pressu re relay. A
m agnetically held pa ddle a t t ached to t he bot tom floa t is positioned in t he oil-flow
st rea m be tween t he conserva tor a nd t r a nsform er t a n k. Nor m al flows resulting
from te mper a t u re ch a nges a re sm all a n d byp a ss below t he pa ddle. If a fa ult
occu rs in t he t r a n sfor me r, a pressu re wave (su rge) is crea ted in t he oil. This s u rge
t ra vels t h rough t he pipe a nd displaces t he pa ddle. The pa ddle activa tes t he sa me
m agnetic switch a s t he bot tom floa t m en tioned a bove, t ripping t he t r a n sfor me r.
The flow r a te a t which t he p addle activa tes t he relay is nor m ally a dju st a ble. See
you r specific t r a nsform er in st r uction m a n u al for de t ails.

O n c e e v e r y 3 t o 5 y e a r s while t he t ra nsfor mer is de-ene rgized, fu nction ally test

t he B uch h holz relay by p u m ping a sm all a mou n t of air in to t he top ch a mbe r wit h
a squeeze bulb h a n d pu m p. Wa tch t he floa t oper a tion t h rough t he window. Check
to m a ke su re t he cor rect ala rm poin t h a s been activa ted. Ope n t he bleed valve
a nd ven t air from t he ch a mber. The bot tom floa t a n d switching ca n not be tes ted
wit h air pressu re. On some relays, a rod is provided so t h a t you ca n test bot h
bot tom a nd top sections by pu shing t he floa ts down u n til t he t rip poin ts a re
activa ted. If possible, verify t h a t t he bre a ker will t rip wit h t his oper a tion. A volt-
oh m m ete r m ay also be used to check t he switches. If t hese con t acts activa te
du ring oper a tion, it me a ns t h a t t he oil level is very low, or a pressu re wave h a s
activa ted (bot tom con t acts), or t he t r a nsfor m er is ga ssing (top con t acts). If t his
relay oper a tes, do not re-ene rgize t he t ra nsfor me r u n til you h ave de ter mined t he
exact ca u se.

4.1.8 Tra n sfor m e r B u s h i n g s: T e s ti n g a n d Ma i n te n a n c e of H i g h-Vo lta g e

B u s h i n g s. W hen bu shings a re new, t hey should be Doble tested a s a n accep t a nce
tes t. Refer to t he M4000 Doble test se t in st ructions, t he Doble B us hing Field Tes t
Guide [8], a n d t he m a n ufact u re r’s da t a for guida nce on accept able result s.

Ca u ti o n: Do not t es t a bus hing while it’s in its wood s hipping cr a te, or while it is
lying on wood. Wood is not a s good a n ins ula tor a s porcelain a n d will ca use t he
rea dings to be in accu ra te. Keep t he test results a s a ba seline record to com pa re
wit h fu t u re tes ts.

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d y e a rly, check t he ext er n al porcelain for cr acks

a nd/or con t a min a tion (requires binocula rs). There is no “pe rfect ins ula tor”; a
sm all a mou n t of le a k age cu r ren t always exis ts. This cu r ren t “le a ks” t h rough a nd
along t he bushing s u rface from t he high-volt age con ductor to grou nd. If t he
bus hing is da m aged or he avily con t a min a ted, le a k age cu r re n t becomes excessive,
a nd visible evidence m ay a ppea r a s ca rbon t r acking (t reeing) on t he bu shing
su rface. Fla s hovers m a y occu r if t he bushings a re not cle a ned pe riodically.

Look ca refully for oil lea ks. Check t he bus hing oil level by viewing t he oil-sigh t
gla ss or t he oil level gage. When t he bus hing h a s a gage wit h a poin te r, look
ca refully, beca use t he oil level s hould va ry a lit tle wit h tem per a t u re ch a nges. If
t he poin t er neve r ch a nges, eve n wit h wide a mbie n t tem per a t u re a nd loa d ch a nges,

18
t he gage should be checked a t t he next ou t age. A s t uck gage poin te r coupled wit h
a sm all oil le a k ca n ca use explosive failu re of a bushing, da m aging t he
t ra n sfor me r a n d ot he r switchya rd equipme n t. A cos tly exte nded ou t age is t he
result.

If t he oil level is low a n d t here is a n exter n al oil lea k, check t he bolts for prope r
torque a nd t he ga sket for proper com pression. If torque a nd com pression a re
cor rect, t he bus hing m us t be replaced wit h a spa re. Follow ins t r uction s in t he
t ra n sfor me r m a n u al ca refully. It is ve ry im por t a n t t h a t t he cor rect type ga sket be
in st a lled a nd t he cor rect comp ression be a pplied. A lea ky ga ske t is probably also
le a king wa ter a nd air in to t he t r a nsfor mer, so check t he most rece n t t r a nsfor m er
DGA for high moist u re a nd oxygen.

If t he oil level is low a n d t here is no visible exte rn al lea k, t he re m ay be a n in te r n al

le a k a rou nd t he lower seal in to t he t r a n sfor me r t a n k. If possible, re-fill t he
bus hing wit h t he s a m e oil a nd ca refully monitor t he level a n d t he volu me it t a kes
to fill t he bu shing to t he proper level. If it t a kes more t h a n one qu a r t, m a ke pla n s
to replace t he bus hing. The bu shing m u st be se n t to t he factory for repair or it
m us t be ju n ked; it ca n not be rep aired in t he field.

Ca u ti o n: Neve r open t he fill plug of a ny bu shing if it is a t a n eleva t ed

te m per a t u re. Some bushings h ave a nit roge n bla n ke t on top of t he oil, which
pressu rizes a s t he oil exp a nds. Always con sult t he m a n ufact u re r’s in st r uction
m a n u al which will give t he tem pe ra t u re r a nge a t which t he bushing m ay be s afely
opened. Gene r ally, t his will be be tween 15 °C (59 °F ) a n d 35 °C (95 °F).
P ressu rized hot oil m ay s uddenly gush from t he fill plug if it is re moved while a t
eleva t ed te mpe r a t u re, ca using bu r n h aza rds. Gene r ally, t he bus hing will be a
lit tle cooler t h a n t he top oil te m per a t u re, so t his tem per a t u re gage m ay be used a s
a guide if t he gage h a s been tested a s me n tioned in 4.1.3.

Abou t 90% of all preven t able bus hing failu res a re ca used by moist u re en te ring
t h rough le a ky ga skets, cr acks, or se als. In te r n al moist u re ca n be detected by
Doble tes ting. See F IST 3-2 [9] a nd Doble B ushing Field Test Guide [8] for
t roubles a nd corrective actions. In te r n al moist u re ca uses dete rior a tion of t he
in sula tion of t he bu shing a nd ca n result in explosive failu re, ca using exte nsive
t ra n sfor me r a n d ot he r equipm en t d a m age, a s well a s h aza rds to wor ke rs.

Aft e r 1 m o n t h of s e r v i c e a n d y e a rly, exa mine t he bushings wit h a n IR ca m er a

[4,7]; if one ph ase shows a m a rkedly higher te m per a t u re, t he re is p roba bly a ba d
con nection. The con nection a t t he top is usu ally t he poor one; howeve r, a ba d
con nection inside t he t r a nsform er t a n k will u su ally s how a highe r te mpe r a t u re a t
t he top a s well. In a ddition, a ba d con nection inside t he t r a n sfor me r will us u ally
show hot m et al ga ses (et h a ne a nd et hylene) in t he DGA.

O n c e e v e r y 3 t o 5 y e a r s, a close physica l inspection a nd cle a ning s hould be done

[9]. Check ca refully for lea ks, cr acks, a nd ca rbon t r acking. This inspection will be
required more oft en in a t mosphe res whe re s alt s a n d dus t deposits a ppe a r on t he

19
bus hings. In conditions t h a t produce deposits, a ligh t a pplica tion of Dow Cor ning
grea se DC-5 or GE In sulgel will help reduce risk of exte rn al flas hover. The
downside of t his t re a t me n t is t h a t a gre ase buildup m ay occu r. In high h u midity
a nd wet a rea s, a be t ter choice m ay be a high qu ality silicone pa st e wax a pplied to
t he porcelain, which will reduce t he risk of fla s hover. A sp r ay-on wa x con t aining
silicone, s uch a s Tu r tle Wax br a n d, h a s been fou nd to be very u seful for cle a ning
a nd waxing in one ope ra tion, providing t he deposit s a re not too h a rd. Wax will
ca use wa ter to for m be a ds r a t her t h a n a con tin uous sheet, which red uces
fla s hover risk. Clea ning m ay involve ju st spr aying wit h Tu r tle W ax a n d wiping
wit h a soft clot h. A lim e re moval product, such as “Lim e Away,” also m ay be
u seful. More st ubborn con t a min a tes m ay require solven t s, st eel wool, a n d
br us hes. A high press u re wa ter s t rea m m ay be required to remove salt a nd ot he r
wa ter soluble deposits. Limestone powde r blas ting wit h d ry air will safely remove
m et a llic oxides, che micals, s alt-ca ke, a n d a lmos t a ny h a rd con t a min a te. Ot he r
m a terials, s uch a s pot te rs clay, waln u t or peca n s hells, or cru shed cocon u t shells,
a re a lso u sed for h a rd con t a min a tes. Ca rbon dioxide (CO 2) pelle t bla sting is more
expen sive bu t vir t u ally elimin a tes cle a n up beca u se it eva por a t es. Grou n d up
cor n-cob bla sting will remove soft pollu t a n ts s uch a s old coa tings of built-up
grea se. A com pe ten t experienced con t r actor should be em ployed a nd a t horough
writ te n job h aza rd a n alysis (J HA) perfor med whe n a ny of t hese t rea t me n t s a re
u sed.

Coron a (air ioniza tion) m ay be visible a t tops of bushings a t twiligh t or nigh t,

especially du ring pe riods of r ain, mist, fog, or high h u midity. At t he top, coron a is
con side red nor m al; howeve r, a s a bushing becomes more a nd more con t a min a ted,
coron a will creep lowe r a nd lowe r. If t he bus hing is not clea ned, fla shove r will
occu r when coron a ne a rs t he grou n ded t ra nsfor mer top. If coron a seem s to be
lower t h a n t he top of t he bu shing, inspect, Doble tes t, a nd cle a n t he bus hing a s
quickly a s possible. If fla shove r occu rs (p h a se to grou nd fa ult), it could des t roy
t he bu shing a n d ca use a n exten ded ou t age. Line-to-line fa ults also ca n occu r if all
t he bu shings a re con t a min a ted a n d fla s hover occu rs. A coron a scope m ay be used
to view a n d p hotogra p h low levels of coron a indoors u nde r nor m al illu min a tion
a nd ou tdoors a t twiligh t or nigh t. High levels of coron a m ay possibly be viewed
ou tdoors in t he daytime if a da rk backgrou nd is availa ble, s uch a s t rees, ca nyon
walls, buildings, etc. The coron a scope design is prim a rily for indoor a nd nigh t
time use; it ca n not be u sed wit h blue or cloudy sky backgrou nd. This t ech nology is
available a t t he Tech nical Se rvice Cen te r (TSC), D-8450.

Ca u ti o n: See t he t ra nsfor me r m a n u al for det ailed inst ructions on clea ning a nd

repairing you r specific bu shing su rfaces. Diffe re n t solve n ts, wiping m a terials, a nd
clea ning me t hods m ay be required for differen t bus hings. Differen t repa ir
tech niques m ay also be required for s m all cr acks a n d chips. Ge ner ally, glyp t al or
in sula ting va rnish will repair s m all scra tches, h airline cr acks, a nd chips. S h a rp
edges of a chip should be honed s moot h, a nd t he defective a re a p ain t ed wit h
in sula ting va rnish to provide a glossy finish. H airline cr acks in t he s u rface of t he
porcelain m us t be sea led beca use accu m ula ted dir t a n d mois t u re in t he cr ack m ay
result in fla s hover. Epoxy s hould be used to repair la rger chips. If a bus hing

20
 in sula tor h a s a la rge chip t h a t reduces t he fla s hover dist a nce or h as a la rge cr ack
tot ally t h rough t he in sula tor, t he bus hing m us t be replaced. Some m a n ufact u re rs
offer repair se rvice to da m aged bu shings t h a t ca n not be rep aired in t he field.
Con t act t he m a n ufact u re r for you r pa r ticula r bushings if you h ave rep air
questions.

O n c e e v e r y 3 t o 5 y e a r s, depending on t he a t mosphe re a nd se rvice conditions,

t he bu shings s hould be Doble tested. Refe r to Doble M-4000 test se t inst ructions,
Doble B ushing Field Tes t Guide [8], F IST 3-2, [9] a nd t he m a n ufact u rer’s
in st r uctions for p roper values a n d tes t p rocedu res. Bu shings should be cle a ned
prior to Doble testing. Con t a min a tion on t he ins ula ting su rface will ca u se t he
result s to be in accu r a te. Testing m ay also be done before a n d afte r cle a ning to
check me t hods of cle a ning. As t he bushings age a nd begin to de terior a te, red uce
t he t es ting in terval to 1 yea r. Keep accu r a te records of res ult s so t h a t
replace men ts ca n be ordered in adva nce, before you h ave to re move bus hings from
service.

4.2 Oil P r e s e r v a ti o n S e ali n g S y st e m s

The pu rpose of se aling sys tem s is to preve n t a ir a nd mois t u re from con t a min a ting oil
a nd cellulose ins ula tion. Se aling syste ms a re designed to preven t oil inside t he
t ra n sfor me r from coming in to con t act wit h air. Air con t ains moist u re, which ca u ses
sludging a nd a n a bu nd a n t s upply of oxyge n. Oxyge n in combin a tion wit h moist u re
ca uses gre a tly accele r a ted de terior a tion of t he cellulose. This oxyge n-moist u re
com bin a tion will gre a tly reduce se rvice life of t he t r a nsform er.

Se aling system s on m a ny existing Recla m a tion power t r a nsfor mers a re of t he iner t gas
(nit roge n) p ressu re design; however, we h ave m a ny ot her design s. Cu rren t p r actice is
to buy only con serva tor designs wit h bla dders for t r a nsform er volt ages 115 kV a nd
a bove a n d ca pacities above 10 mega-volt-
a m ps (mva). Below t hese values, we buy
only ine rt ga s pressu re system
t ra n sfor me rs, a s depict ed in figu re 8.

Some of t he sealing syst em s a re

explained below. There m ay be
va ria tions of e ach design, a nd not every
design is covered. The order below is
roughly from e a rlie r to more moder n.

4.2.1 S e a li n g S y s t e m s T y p e s.

Fr ee B r e a t h i n g. Se aling syste ms
h ave progressed from e a rly designs
of “free bre a t hing” t a nks, in which F i g u r e 6.—F r e e B r e at h i n g
a n air sp ace on top of t he oil is Tr a n sfor m e r.

21
ven ted to a t mosphere t h rough a bre a t her pipe. The pipe typically is screened to
keep ou t in sects a nd rode n t s a nd t u rned down to preven t r ain from en t ering.
Brea t hing is ca used by expa nsion a n d con t r action of t he oil a s te mper a t u re
ch a nges. These ea rlie r design s did not use a n air drye r, a nd con den sa tion from
mois t u re form ed on inside walls a nd t a n k top. Moist u re, oxyge n, a n d nit roge n
would also dissolve directly in to oil from t he air. This wa s not t he bes t design. As
m en tioned before, a combin a tion of oxygen a n d mois t u re acceler a tes dete rior a tion
of cellulose ins ula tion. Moist u re also decre a ses dielect ric s t rengt h, des t roying
in sula ting qu ality of t he oil, a n d ca uses for m a tion of slu dge. If you h ave one or
more of t hese ea rlie r design t r a nsform ers, it is recom m en ded t h a t a desicca n t type
air d rye r be a dded to t he bre a t her pipe.

S e a le d or P r e ss u r i z e d
B re a t h i n g. This design is
simila r to t he free bre a t hing
one wit h a ddition of a
pressu re/vacu u m bleeder
valve. When t he
t ra nsfor me r wa s ins t alled,
pressu rized dry air or
nit rogen wa s placed on top of
t he oil. The bleeder valve is
designed to hold p ressu re
in side to a pproxim a tely plus
or min u s 5 psi (figu re7). The Fi g u r e 7.—P r e s s u r iz e d Br e a th i n g
sa me problem s wit h Tr a n sfo r m e r.
mois t u re a n d oxyge n occu r
a s p reviously described. P roblem s a re not a s severe beca u se “bre a t hing” is limited
by t he bleeder valve. Air or N 2 is exh a us ted to t he ou t side a t mosp here when a
positive pressu re more t h a n 5 psi occu rs inside t he t a n k. This process does not
a dd moist u re a nd oxyge n to t he t a n k. However, whe n cooling, t he oil con t r act s
a nd, if pressu re falls 5 psi below t he ou tside a t mosphere, t he valve allows ou tside
air in to t he t a nk, which pulls in mois t u re a n d oxygen.

O n c e e a c h y e a r, check t he press u re gage agains t t he weekly d a t a sheet s; if t he

pressu re never va ries wit h sea son al te mper a t u re ch a nges, t he gage is defective.
Add nit roge n if t he pressu re falls below 1 psi to keep moist u re la de n air from
being pulled in. Add e nough N 2 to bring t he p ress u re to 2 to 3 psi.

P r ess u r i ze d In e r t G a s S e a l e d S ys t e m . This syste m keeps space a bove t he oil

pressu rized wit h a d ry iner t gas, nor m ally nit rogen (figu re 8). This design
preven t s air a nd mois t u re from coming in to con t act wit h insula ting oil. P ressu re
is m ain t ained by a nit rogen ga s bot tle wit h t he p ressu re regula t ed nor m ally
betwee n 0.5 a n d 5 psi. P ress u re gages a re p rovided in t he nit rogen cubicle for
bot h high a nd low press u res (figu re 9). A p ress u re/ vacu u m gage is nor m ally

22
con nected to rea d low p ress u re ga s
in side t he t a n k. This gage m ay be
loca ted on t he t r a n sfor me r a nd
nor m ally h a s high a n d low pressu re
ala r m con t acts. See section 4.2.2
which follows.

Ca u ti o n: Wh e n r e p l a c i n g n i tr o g e n
c yl i n d e r s, d o n ot ju s t or d e r a
“n itr o g e n c yli n d e r” fr o m th e l o c a l
w e ld i n g s u p p li e r. N i tr o g e n fo r
tra n sfor m e rs s h o u ld m e e t AS TM
D-1933 Ty p e III w it h - 59 °C d e w
p o i n t a s s p e c ifi e d i n IEE E
C-57.12.00-1993, p ar a gr a p h 6.6.3
[27, 2].

F ig u r e 8.—P r e s s u riz e d In e rt Ga s
4.2.2 Ga s P r e s s u r e Co n tr ol
Tra n sfor m e r.
Co m p o n e n ts. Aft e r 1 m o n t h of
s e r v i c e a n d y e arl y, i n s p e c t th e g a s p r e s s u r e c o n tr ol c o m p o n e n t s. The re is
nor m ally a n a djus t able, t h ree-ele men t p ress u re con t rol syst em for ine rt ga s,
which m ain t ains a p ressu re ra nge of 0.5 to 5 psi in t he t r a n sfor me r t a n k. The re is
also a bleeder valve t h a t exh a us ts ga s to a t mosp here whe n p ress u re exceeds relief
pressu re of t he valve, nor m a lly 5 to 8 psi.

Ca u ti o n: The
com ponen t p a r t
descrip tion s below a re
for t he typical t h ree-
st age pressu re
regula ting equip men t
supplying iner t ga s to
t he t r a n sfor me r. You r
pa rticula r u nit m ay be
diffe re n t, so check you r
t ra n sfor me r inst r uction
m a n u al.

H i g h P r e ss u r e G a g e.
The high pressu re gage
is a t t ached be twee n t he
nit rogen cylin der a nd
high p ress u re regula tor
t h a t in dica tes cylinde r Front View Side View
pressu re. When t he
cylinder is full, t he gage Fi g u r e 9.—G a s P r e s s u r e Co n tr ol
will rea d a pproxim a tely Co m p o n e n t s.

23
2,400 psi. Nor m ally, t he gage will be equipped wit h a low pressu re ala r m t h a t
activa tes when t he cylinde r is ge t ting low (a rou nd 500 psi). However, ga s will s till
be su pplied, a nd t he regula ting equipm en t will con tin ue to fu nction u n til t he
cylinder is em pty. Refe r to figu re 9 for t he following descriptions.

H i g h P r e ss u r e R e g u l a t or. The high p ressu re regula tor h a s two st a ges. The

in pu t of t he firs t st age is con nected to t he cylinder, a n d t he ou tp u t of t he first
st age is con nected in ter n ally to t he inp u t of t he second s t age. This holds ou t pu t
pressu re of t he second s t age con st a n t. The first s t age ou tpu t is a djus t able by a
h a n d-ope r a ted lever a nd ca n deliver a m axim u m of wh a teve r p ress u re is in t he
cylinder (2,400 psi when full) down to zero. The second s t age ou tpu t is va ried by
t u r ning t he a djus ting screw, norm ally a dju sted to supply a pproxim a tely 10 psi to
t he in pu t of t he low p ressu re regula tor.

Lo w P r e ss u r e R e g u l a t o r. The low pressu re regula tor is t he t hird st age a n d

con t rols press u re a nd flow to t he ga s sp ace of t he t r a n sfor me r. The inp u t of t his
regula tor is con nected to t he ou t pu t of t he secon d st age (a pproxim a tely 10 psi).
This regula tor is typically set a t t he factory to s upply ga s to t he t r a nsfor m er a t a
pressu re of a pproxim a tely 0.5 psi a n d needs no adjus t me n t. If a differen t
pressu re is required, t he regula tor ca n be a dju sted by va rying spring ten sion on
t he valve dia ph ragm. P ress u re is se t a t t his low value beca use m ajor press u re
ch a nges in side t he t ra n sfor me r come from expa nsion a n d con t r action of oil. The
pu rpose of t his ga s feed is to m a ke up for s m all le a ks in t he t a n k ga sket s a n d
elsewhe re so t h a t air ca n not e n te r. Typically, a spring-loa ded bleeder for high
pressu re relief is built in to t he regula tor a n d is set a t t he factory to relieve
pressu res in excess of 8 psi. The valve will close when press u re d rops below t he
set ting, preven ting fu r t he r loss of ga s.

By p a s s V a l v e As se m b ly. The bypa ss valve a sse mbly open s a byp a ss line a rou nd
t he low pressu re regula tor a n d allows t he second s t age of t he high p ressu re
regula tor to fu r nish ga s directly to t he t r a n sfor me r. The pu rpose of t his a sse mbly
is to allow m uch fa st er filling/pu rging of t he ga s sp ace du ring initial in st alla tion
or if t he t r a nsform er t a n k h as to be refilled afte r being opened for inspection.

Ca u ti o n: Du ring norm al oper a tion, t he bypa ss valve m u st be closed, or pressu re

in t he t a n k will be too high.

O i l S u m p. The oil su m p is loca ted a t t he bot tom of t he press u re regula ting

syst em be tween t he low p ressu re regula tor a nd sh u toff valve C. The s u m p collects
oil a nd/or mois t u re t h a t m ay h ave con den sed in t he low p ressu re fill line. The
dr ain plug a t t he bot tom of t he su mp s hould be re moved before t he syste m is pu t
in to ope ra tion a nd also re moved once e ach yea r du ring ope r a tion to dr ain a ny
resid u al oil in t he line. This s u m p a n d line will be a t t he s a m e pressu re a s t he gas
sp ace in t he top of t he t ra nsfor mer. The su mp s hould always be a t a s afe press u re
(less t h a n 10 psi) so t he plug ca n be re moved to a llow t he line to p u rge a few
secon ds a nd blow ou t t he oil. Howeve r, al w a y s look a t t he ga s space pressu re

24
gage on t he t r a n sfor me r or t he low pressu re gage in t he nit rogen cabinet, just to
be su re, before re moving t he dr ain plug.

S h u t off V a l v es. The sh u toff valves a re loca ted ne a r t he top of t he ca binet for t he
pu rpose of isola ting t he t r a nsfor m er t a n k for s hipping or m ain t en a nce. These
valves a re norm ally of double-sea t con st ruction a n d s hould be fully opened agains t
t he stop to preven t ga s le a k age a rou n d t he ste m. A sh u toff valve is also p rovided
for t he pu rpose of sh u t ting off t he nit roge n flow to t he t ra nsfor mer t a nk. This
sh u toff valve m ust be closed p rior to ch a nging cylinde rs to keep t he ga s in t he
t ra n sfor me r t a n k from bleeding off.

S a m p l i n g a n d P u r ge V a l v e. The sa m pling a n d p u rge valve is nor m ally loca ted

in t he uppe r righ t of t he nit rogen cabine t. This valve is typically equipped wit h a
hose fit ting; t he ot her side is con nected directly to t he t r a nsform er ga s space by
coppe r t ubing. This valve is opened while p u rging t he ga s sp ace du ring a new
in st alla tion or m ain te n a nce refill a nd p rovides a pa t h to exh a ust air a s t he gas
sp ace is filled wit h nit roge n. This valve is also opened when a ga s sa m ple is t a ken
from t he ga s space for a n alysis. When t a king gas s a mples, t he line m us t be
sufficie n tly pu rged so t h a t t he sa mple will be from ga s a bove t he t r a n sfor me r oil
a nd not ju st ga s in t he line. This valve m u st be tigh tly closed du ring nor m al
oper a tion to p reve n t ga s lea k age.

Fr ee B r e a t h i n g C on se r v a t o r. This
design a dds a n expa nsion t a n k
(con serva tor) a bove t he t r a n sfor me r so
t h a t t he m ain t a n k m ay be com ple tely
filled wit h oil. Oil expa nsion a nd air
exch a nge wit h t he a t mosphe re (bre a t hing)
occu rs a wa y from t he oil in t he
t ra n sfor me r. This design red uces oxygen
a nd mois t u re con t a min a tion beca use only
a sm all portion of oil is exch a nged be twee n
t he m ain t a n k a nd con serva tor. An oil/air
in terface still exis ts in t he conse rva tor,
exposing t he oil to air. Eve n t u ally, oil in F i g u r e 10.—Fr e e Br e a th i n g
t he conse rva tor is exch a nged wit h oil in Co n s e r v a to r.
t he m ain t a n k, a n d oxyge n a nd ot her
con t a min a tes gain access to t he ins ula tion.

If you h ave t r a nsfor m ers of t his design, it is recom me nded t h a t a bladde r or

dia ph r agm-type conse rva tor be ins t alled (described below) or ret rofit t ed to t he
origin al conse rva tor. In a ddition, a desicca n t-type air dryer s hould a lso be
in st alled.

Co n se r v a to r w i t h B l a d d e r or D i a p h r a g m De si g n . A conserva tor wit h bla dder

or dia p h r agm is simila r to t he design a bove wit h a n a dded air bla dde r (balloon) or
fla t dia ph ragm in t he conse rva tor. The bla dde r or dia ph r agm expa nds a n d

25
con t r act s wit h t he oil a n d isola tes it from t he
a t mosphe re. The in side of t he bla dde r or top
of t he dia p h r agm is open to a t mosp heric
pressu re t h rough a desicca n t air d rye r. As
oil exp a n ds a nd con t r acts a nd a s
a t mosphe ric pressu re ch a nges, t he bla dder
or dia p h r agm “bre a t hes” air in a n d ou t.
This keeps air a n d t r a n sfor me r oil
essen tially a t a t mospheric p ressu re. The oil
level gage on t he con serva tor typically is F i g u r e 11.—Co n s e r v a to r
m agnetic, like t hose me n tioned e a rlie r, w it h B la d d e r.
except t he floa t is positioned nea r t he cen te r
of t he u n d e r s id e of t he bla dder. Wit h a dia p h r agm, t he level in dica tor a r m rides
o n t o p of t he dia p h r agm. Exa mine t he air d ryer periodically a n d ch a nge t he
desicca n t whe n approxim a t ely one-t hird of t he m a terial ch a nges color.

N o t e: A vacu u m will a ppea r in t he t r a nsfor me r if piping be tween t he air dryer

a nd con serva tor is too sm all, if t he air in t a ke to t he dryer is too s m a ll, or if t he
piping is pa r tially blocked. The bladde r ca n not t a ke in air fa st enough when t he
oil level is decrea sing d ue to r a pidly falling te m per a t u re. Miniu m ¾- to 1-inch
piping is recom m en ded. This problem is especially prevalen t wit h t ra n sfor me rs
t h a t a re frequen tly in a n d ou t of se rvice a nd loca ted in geogr a phic a re a s of la rge
te m per a t u re va ria tion s. This sit u a tion m ay allow bubbles to for m in t he oil a nd
m ay even activa te ga s de tector relays s uch a s t he Buch holz a n d/or bladde r failu re
relay. The vacu u m m ay also pull in air a rou n d ga sket s t h a t a re not tigh t e nough
or t h a t h ave de terior a ted (which m ay also ca u se bubbles) [4].

B l a d d e r F a i l u r e (G a s Ac c u m u l a t or ) R el a y. The bla dde r failu re relay (not on

dia ph r agm-type con se rva tors) is mou n ted on top t he conserva tor for t he pu rpose of
detecting air bubbles in t he oil. S hown a t righ t (figu re 12) is a mode r n relay.
Check you r t r a nsform er VENTS
VALVE
in st r uction m a n u al for specifics FLOAT

beca use designs va ry wit h ELECTRICAL TO DESICCANT

CONNECTION AIR DRYER
m a n ufact u re rs. No bla dder is
tot ally im pe rm ea ble, a n d a lit tle
air will migr a te in to t he oil. In
a ddition, if a hole for m s in t he
bla dder, allowing air to migr a te
in to t he oil, t he relay will de tect
BLADDER
it. As air rises a nd en ters t he
relay, oil is displaced a n d t he
floa t drops, activa ting t he ala r m.
It is simila r to t he top ch a m be r
of a Buch holz relay, since it is CONSERVATOR TANK

filled wit h oil a n d con t ains a

floa t switch. TO TRANSFORMER TANK

F i g u r e 12.—B la d d e r F a il u r e R e la y.

26
Ca u ti o n: Neve r ope n t he ve n t of t he bla dde r failu re relay u nless you h ave
vacu u m or pressu re equipm en t available. The oil will fall in side t he relay a n d
con serva tor a n d p ull in air from t he ou t side. You will h ave to recom mission t he
relay by valving off t he conse rva tor a nd pressu rizing t he bla dder or by placing a
vacu u m on t he relay. See you r specific t r a nsfor mer in st ruction m a n u al for det a ils.

Ca u ti o n: When t he t r a nsform er, relay, a nd bla dde r a re new, some air or ga s is

nor m ally en t r a pped in t he t ra nsfor mer a n d piping a nd t a kes a while to rise a nd
activa te t he relay. Do not a ss u me t he bla dder h a s failed if t he ala rm activa tes
wit hin 2 to 3 mon t h s afte r it is pu t in to oper a tion. If t his occu rs, you will h ave to
recom mision t he relay wit h pressu re or vacu u m. See you r specific t r a nsform er
in st r uction m a n u al for det ails. If no more ala rm s occu r, t he bla dder is in t act. If
ala r ms con tin ue, look ca refully for oil lea ks in t he conse rva tor a nd t r a nsfor m er.
An oil le a k is u su ally also a n air le a k. This m a y be checked by looking a t t he
nit rogen a n d oxyge n in t he dissolved ga s a n alysis. If t hese ga ses a re increa sing,
t here is probably a le a k; wit h a sealed conserva tor, t here should be lit tle of t hese
ga sses in t he oil. Nit rogen m ay be high if t he t r a n sfor me r was s hipped new filled
wit h nit rogen.

E v e r y 3 to 5 y e a rs, (if t he conserva tor h a s a dia ph r agm) remove t he conse rva tor
in spection fla nge a nd look in side wit h a flas hligh t. If t he re is a lea k, oil will be on
top of t he dia ph r agm, a nd it m us t be replaced. The new dia p h r agm m a te rial
should be nit rile. If t he conse rva tor h a s a bla dder a n d a bla dder failu re relay, t he
relay will ala r m if t he bla dde r develops a le a k. If t he con se rva tor h a s a bla dder
a nd does not h ave a bladde r failu re relay, in spect t he bla dder by removing t he
mou n ting fla nge a n d look inside wit h a fla shligh t. If t here is oil in t he bot tom of
t he bla dder, a failu re h a s definitely occu r red, a n d t he bla dder m us t be replaced.
Follow proced u res in t he specific t r a n sfor me r ins t r uction m a n u a l for dr aining t he
con serva tor a n d replace men t; designs a nd procedu res va ry a n d will not be covered
he re.

A u xi l i a r y T a n k S e a l i n g
S ys t e m . The a uxilia ry t a n k
sealing sys tem incorpor a tes
a n ext r a t a n k be tween t he
m ain t ra nsfor mer t a nk a n d
t he con serva tor t a nk. Ine r t
ga s (nor m ally nit rogen) is
placed above oil in bot h t he
m ain a nd middle t a n ks.
Only oil in t he top
con serva tor t a n k is exposed
to air. A desicca n t air dryer
m ay or m ay not be inclu ded
on t he brea t her. As oil in
t he m ain t a n k expa nds a n d
con t r act s wit h tem pe r a t u re,
ga s press u re va ries above
t he oil in bot h (figu re 13). Fi g u r e 13.—Au x ili a ry S e ali n g S y s t e m.

27
 Ch a nges in ga s press u re ca uses oil to go back a n d fort h betwee n t he middle t a nk
a nd t he con serva tor. Air con t aining oxygen a nd moist u re is not in con t act wit h oil
in t he m ain t r a nsform er t a n k. Oxygen a nd moist u re a re a bsorbed by oil in t he
con serva tor t a n k a n d in t erch a nged wit h oil in t he middle one. Howeve r, since ga s
in t he middle t a n k in t erch a nges wit h ga s in t he m ain t a n k, sm all a mou n ts of
oxyge n a nd moist u re ca rried by ga s s till m a ke t heir way in to t he t ra nsfor mer.

Wit h t his a r r a nge men t, t he conse rva tor does not h ave to be loca t ed above t he
m ain t a n k, which reduces t he ove r all heigh t. If you h ave one or more of t hese type
t ra n sfor me rs wit hou t desicca n t air dryers, t hey should be ins t alled.

4.3 Ga s k e t s

Ga ske ts h a ve seve ral impor t a n t jobs in sealing syste m s [6]. A ga sket m ust cre a t e a
seal a nd hold it ove r a long period of time. It m u st be im perviou s a n d not con t a min a te
t he in sula ting fluid or ga s above t he fluid. It should be ea sily removed a nd replaced.
It m ust be ela stic e nough to flow in to im perfection s on t he sealing su rfaces. It m us t
wit h st a nd high a nd low tem pe r a t u res a nd re m ain resilien t enough to hold t he se al
eve n wit h join t moveme n t from expa nsion, con t r action, a nd vibra tion. It m u st be
resilien t enough to not t a ke a “se t” even t hough exposed for a long time to p ress u re
a pplied wit h bolt torque a nd te mper a t u re ch a nges. It m u st h ave sufficie n t st re ngt h to
resis t cr us hing u n der applied loa d a nd resist blowou t u nder syste m pressu re or
vacu u m. It m us t m ain t ain its in tegrity while being h a ndled or ins t alled. If a ga sket
fails to mee t a ny of t hese criteria, a le a k will result. Ga sket lea ks res ult from
im proper torque, choosing t he wrong type gasket m a t erial, or t he wrong size ga sket.
Im p roper sealing su rface p repa r a tion or t he ga ske t t a king a “se t” (becoming h a rd a nd
losing its resilie nce a n d elas ticity) will also ca use a le a k. Us u ally, ga sket s t a ke a set
a s a res ult of te mper a t u re ext re mes a n d age.

S e ali n g (m a ti n g) s u rfa c e p r e p a ra ti o n: Clea n t he met al su rface t horoughly.

Re move all mois t u re, oil a n d grea se, ru st, etc. A wire bru sh a nd/or solven t m a y be
required.

Ca u ti o n: T a k e e x tr a c a r e th a t r u s t a n d d ir t p arti c l e s n e v e r fall i n to t h e
tra n sfor m e r. T h e r e s u lts c o u ld b e c at a s tr o p h i c, w h e n t h e tra n sfor m e r i s
e n e r g iz e d.

Afte r r us t a nd scale h ave been removed, m et al su rfaces should be coa ted wit h Loctite
Ma s ter ga sket No. 518. This m a terial will cu re afte r you bolt up t he ga sket, so
a ddition al glue is not necess a ry. If t he te m per a t u re is 50 °F or more, you ca n bolt up
t he ga sket im media tely. This m a te rial comes in a kit (p a r t No. 22424) wit h prime r, a
t ube of m a terial, a n d inst ructions. If t hese ins t r uction s a re followed, t he seal will la s t
m a ny yea rs, a nd t he ga ske t will be ea sy to re move la ter if necessa ry. If t he
te m per a t u re is u nde r 50 °F, wait abou t ½ to 1 hou r after a pplying t he m a te rial to
su rfaces before bolting. If you a re u sing cork-nit rile or cork-neoprene, you ca n also

28
seal ga sket su rfaces (including t he edge of t he ga ske t) wit h t his s a me m a te rial.
Loctite m a kes ot her sealers t h a t ca n be u sed to se al ga ske ts s uch a s “Hi-t ack.”

GE glyp tol No. 1201B-red ca n also be u sed to p ain t ga sket a n d met al su rfaces, bu t it
t a kes more time a n d you m us t be more ca u tious a bou t tem pe ra t u re. If possible, t his
wor k should be done in te m per a t u res a bove 70 °F to speed pain t cu ring. Allow t he
pain t to com ple tely dry before a pplying glue or t he new ga sket. It is not necessa ry to
remove old glyptol or ot her prime r or old glue if t he su rface is fairly smoot h a nd
u nifor m.

Ca u ti o n: Mos t syn t he tic rubber com pou nds, including nit rile (Bu n a N), con t ain some
ca rbon, which m a kes it semi-conductive. Ta ke ext ra ca re a nd n e v e r drop a ga sket or
pieces of gasket in to a t ra n sfor me r t a n k. The results could be ca t a s t rophic whe n t he
t ra n sfor me r is e nergized.

C hoose t he correct replaceme n t gaske t. The m ain influe nces on gaske t m a t erial
selection a re design of t he ga ske t join t, m axim u m a nd minim u m oper a ting
te m per a t u re, type of fluid con t ained, a n d in ter n al p ressu re of t he t r a nsfor mer.

Cor k-n itril e s hould be u sed if t he join t does n ot h ave grooves or limit s. This
m a terial pe rform s be t te r t h a n cork-neopre ne beca u se it does not t a ke a set a s ea sily
a nd confor m s be t te r to m a ting su rfaces. It also pe rform s be t te r a t highe r
te m per a t u res. Be ext r a ca reful whe n you s tore t his m a t erial beca u se it looks like
cor k-neop re ne (described below), a nd t hey ea sily a re mist a ken for each ot her.
Comp ression is t he s a m e a s for cor k-neop rene, abou t 45%. Cor k-nit rile s hould recover
80% of its t hick ness wit h com pression of 400 psi in accorda nce wit h ASTM F 36.
H a rdness should be 60 to 75 du rom ete r in accorda nce wit h ASTM D2240. (See
published specifica tions for E-98 by m a n ufact u rer Dodge-Regu pol Inc., La nca ste r, PA.)

Ca u ti o n: Co r k-n i tr il e h a s a s h e lf life of o n ly a b o u t 2 y e ar s, s o d o n o t or d e r
a n d s t o c k m or e t h a n c a n b e u s e d d u ri n g t h i s ti m e.

Cor k-N e o pr e n e mixt u re (called coroprene) ca n also be u sed; however, it does not
perfor m a s well a s cor k-nit rile. This m a te rial t a kes a set whe n it is com pressed a n d
should only be used whe n t he re a re no exp a nsion limiting grooves. Using cork-
neop re ne in grooves ca n res ult in le a ks from expa nsion a nd con t raction of m a ting
su rfaces. The m a terial is very porou s a n d s hould be se aled on bot h sides a n d edges
wit h a t hin coa t of Glyptol No. 1201B red or simila r se ale r before in st alling. Glyptol
No. 1201B is a slow d rying pain t used to se al met al fla nges a n d ga sket s, a nd t he p ain t
should be allowed to dry tot ally before in st alla tion. Once com pressed, t his ga sket
should never be re used. These ga sket s should be kept a bove 35 °F before in st a lla tion
to p reve n t t he m from becoming h a rd. Ga sket s should be cu t a n d sealed (pa in ted)
in doors a t tem pe ra t u res above 70 °F for e a se of h a n dling a n d to red uce p ain t cu ring
time. Inst alling neoprene-cor k ga ske ts when tem pe ra t u res a re a t or ne a r freezing
should be avoided beca use t he ga sket could be da m aged a nd lea k. Cork-neopre ne
ga sket s m us t be evenly comp ressed a bou t 43 to 45%. For exa m ple, if t he ga sket is
¼-inch t hick, 0.43 x 0.25 = 0.10. When t he ga ske t is torqued down, it s hould be

29
com pressed abou t 0.10 inch. Or you m ay subt r act 0.1 from ¼ inch to calcula te t he
t hick ness of t he ga sket after it is com pressed. In t his ca se, ¼ = 0.25 so 0.25 min us
0.10 = 0.15 inch would be t he fin al dis t a nce bet wee n t he m a ting su rfaces afte r t he
ga sket is com pressed. In a n em ergency, if comp ression limit s a re required on t his
ga sket, split lock was hers m ay be used. Be nd t he wa she rs u n til t hey a re fla t a n d
in st all e nough of t hem (miniu m of t h ree), eve nly spaced, in t he cen te r of t he ga sket
cross section to preven t excessive comp ression. The t hick ness of t he wa she rs should
be such t h a t t he ga ske t com pression is limited to a pproxim a t ely 43%, as explained
a bove.

N i tr ile “N B R” (Bu n a N) wit h 50 to 60 Du ro (h a rd ness) is ge ner ally t he m a te rial t h a t

should be chose n for most t r a nsfor me r a pplica tions.

Ca u ti o n: Do not confuse t his m a te rial wit h Bu tyl Rubber. B u tyl is not a sa tisfactory
m a terial for t ra nsfor me r gasket s. The te rm s Bu tyl a n d B u n a a re e asily confused, a n d
ca re m us t be t a ken to m a ke s u re Nit rile (Bu n a N) is always used a nd never B u tyl.

Replace all cork neoprene ga ske ts wit h Nit rile if t h e jo i n t h a s r e c e s s e s or

e x p a n s i o n li m i ti n g gr o o v e s. Be ca reful to protect Nit rile from s u nligh t; it is not
su nligh t resist a n t a nd will de terior a te, eve n if only t he edges a re exposed. It should
not be gre a sed when it is u sed in a non mova ble (st a tic) seal. W hen join t s h ave to slide
du ring in st a lla tion or a re used a s a movea ble seal (s uch a s bushing ca ps, oil coole r
isola tion valves, a nd t a p ch a nger d rive s h aft s), t he ga ske t or O-ring should be
lubrica ted wit h a t hin coa ting of DOW No. 111 or No. 714 or equivalen t grea se. These
a re ve ry t hin a n d provide a good seal. Nit rile perfor ms bet te r t h a n cork-neoprene;
when exposed to higher te m per a t u res, it will pe rfor m well up to 65 °C (150 °F).

Viton should be used only for ga ske ts a nd O-rings in tem pe ra t u res higher t h a n 65 °C
or for a pplica tions requiring motion (sh aft se als, etc.). Viton is ve ry tough a nd we a r
resis t a n t; however, it is ve ry expe nsive ($1,000+ pe r s heet) a n d should not be u sed
u nless it is needed for high wea r or high te mper a t u re a pplica tion s. Viton should only
be used wit h com pression limiter grooves a nd recesses. Ca re s hould be t a ken to store
Nit rile a nd Viton sep a ra tely, or order t hem in differen t colors; t he m a terials look alike
a nd ca n be e a sily confu sed, a nd a m uch more expe nsive ga sket ca n be ins t alled
u n necessa rily. Com pression a nd fill requirem en t s for Viton a re t he a s s a m e as t hose
for nit rile, ou tlined above a nd s hown in t a ble 1.

Ga s k e t s iz i n g for s ta n d a rd gr o o v e d e p th s. Nit rile is chose n a s t he exa m ple

beca use it is t he most com monly used m a te rial for t r a nsfor m er ga sketing. As shown
in t a ble 1, nit rile comp ression should be 25 to 50%. Nit rile sheets a re available in
1/16-inch-t hick incre me n ts.

Ga ske t t hick ness is dete rmined by groove dept h a nd s t a nda rd gas ke t t hick ness.
C hoose t he shee t t hick ness so t h a t one-fou r t h to one-t hird of t he ga ske t will p rot r ude
a bove t he groove; t his is t he a mou n t availa ble to be comp ressed. (See t able 2.) Ga sket
shee ts come in st a n da rd t hick nesses in 1/16-inch increm en t s. Choose one t h a t allows
one-t hird of t he ga sket to s tick ou t above t he groove if you ca n, bu t never choose a

30
 Table 1.—Transformer Gasket Application Summary

Best Percent
Gasket Temperature Compres Compatible UV Best
Material Range -sion Fluids Resist Applications
Neoprene -54 to 60 °C 30 Askarels and Yes Use only with
(use Nitrile except (-65 to 140 °F) to hydrocarbon fluids compression limits or
where there is not good with 33 recesses and use only if
ultraviolet [UV] temp. swings UV resistance is needed
exposure) or use Viton

Cork-Neoprene 0 to 60 °C 40 Mineral oil No Use only for flat to flat

(Coroprene) R-Temp surface gaskets with no
this material takes a set (32 to 140 °F) Alpha 1 grooves or compression
easily limits

Cork-Nitrile -5 to 60 °C 40 Mineral oil No Use only for flat to flat

(best) does not take a R-Temp surface gaskets with no
set as easily as cork- (23 to 140 °F) Alpha 1 grooves or compression
neoprene limits

Nitrile -5 to 65 °C 25 Mineral oil No O-rings, flat and extruded

(Buna N) to gaskets; use with
use this except in high (23 to 150 °F) 50 R-Temp, Alpha 1 compression limiters or
temp., high wear, or UV Excellent for recess only
Hydrocarbon fluids

Viton -20 to 150 °C 30 Silicone, Yes High temp.; O-rings, flat

use for high wear to Alpha 1 and extruded gaskets; use
and high temp. (-4 to 302 °F) 33 Mineral oil with compression limiter
applications groove or recess

Note: Viton O-rings are best for wear resistance and tolerating temperature variations. Nitrile (Buna N) can also
be used in low wear applications and temperatures less than 65 °C.

Table 2.—Vertical Groove Compression for Circular Nitrile Gaskets

Standard Recommended Available to Available

groove depth gasket thickness compress compression
(in inches) (in inches) (in inches) (percent)

3/32 1/8 1/32 25

1/8 3/16 1/16 33

3/16 1/4 1/16 25

1/4 3/8 1/8 33

3/8 1/2 1/8 25

31
t hick ness t h a t allows less t h a n one-fou r t h or a s m uch a s one-h alf to prot ru de above
t he groove. Do not t ry to remove old prim er from t he groove.

Horizon t al groove fill is dete r mined by how wide t he groove is. The groove widt h is
equ al to t he ou te r dia me ter (OD) min us t he in ner dia me ter (ID) divided by two:
OD ID
2
. Or ju st me a su re t he groove widt h wit h a n accu r a te caliper.

The widt h of t he groove min us t he widt h of t he gasket is t he room left for t he ga sket to
expa nd while being comp ressed. For nit rile, t he a mou n t of horizon t al room needed is
a bou t 15 to 25%. Therefore, you need to cu t t he ga sket cross section so t h a t it fills
a bou t 75 to 85% of t he widt h of t he groove.
8 6
For exa m ple, a n 8-inch OD groove wit h a 6-inch ID, OD ID is 2 = 1 inch. The refore,
2
t he wid t h of t he groove is 1 inch. Beca u se we h ave to le ave 25% expa nsion sp ace, t he
wid t h of t he ga ske t is 75% of 1 inch, or ¾ inch. So t h a t t he ga sket ca n exp a nd equ ally
towa rd t he cen te r a nd towa rd t he ou tside, you s hould leave one-h alf t he expa nsion
sp ace a t t he in ne r dia m ete r of t he groove a nd one-h alf a t t he ou te r. In t his exa mple,
t here should be a
tot al sp ace of
25% of 1 inch or
(¼ inch) for
expa nsion after
t he ga sket is
in ser ted, so you
should le ave
-inch sp ace a t
t he OD a nd
-inch sp ace a t CROSS SECTION OF CIRCULAR GASKET IN GROOVE
t he ID. See
figu re 14. Fi g u r e 14.—Cr o s s S e c ti o n of Cir c u la r G a s k e t i n Gr o o v e.

Al w a y s c u t t h e o u te r d i a m e t e r fir s t. In t his exa m ple, t he ou ter dia me ter would be

8 inches min us ¼ inch, or 7¾ inches.

N o t e: Since -inch space is required all a rou n d t he ga sket, ¼ inch m us t be

subt r act ed to allow inch on bot h sides. The in ner dia met er would be 6 inches plus
¼ inch or 6¼ inches. Note t h a t ¼ inch is subt r act ed from t he OD bu t a dded to t he ID.

To check you rself, subt ract t he in ner r a dius from t he ou ter to m a ke su re you ge t t he
sa me ga ske t wid t h calcula ted a bove. In t his exa m ple, 3 -inches (ou ter ra dius, ½ of
7¾), min us 3 inches (in ner ra dius, ½ of 6¼), is ¾ inch, which is t he cor rect ga sket
wid t h.

R e c ta n g u l ar N itril e Ga s k e t s la rge r t h a n sheet stock on h a n d ca n be fa brica ted by

cu t ting st rips a n d cor ne rs wit h a t a ble s aw or a u tility k nife wit h r azor bla de. Cu t ting
is e a sier if a lit tle t r a nsform er oil or WD-40 oil is a pplied. Nit rile is also a vailable in
spools in st a n da rd ribbon sizes. The ends m ay be joined using a cya noacryla te

32
 a d hesive (s upe r glue). There a re m a ny types of t his glue; only a few of t hem work well
wit h nit rile, a nd t hey all h ave a ve ry limited shelf life. Re mem ber to always keep
t hem refrige r a ted to exten d shelf life. The one proven to st a n d u p best to tem per a t u re
ch a nges a nd com pression is Lawson R ubbe r Bon der No. 92081. The Lawson p a rt
n u mber is 90286, a nd it is available from La wson P roduct s Co. in Reno, Neva da,
(702-856-1381). Loctite 404 is com monly a vailable a t NAPA a u to pa r ts s tores a nd
wor ks also bu t does not s u rvive te mpe r a t u re va ria tions a s well. S helf life is critical. A
new su pply s hould al w a y s be obt ained whe n a ga sketing job is st a r ted; n e v e r u se a n
old bot tle t h a t h a s bee n on t he s helf since t he la st job.

When bonding t he e nds of ribbon toget her, e nds should be cu t a t a n a ngle (sca rfed) a t
a bou t 15 degrees. The best bon d occu rs whe n t he le ngt h of t he a ngle cu t is a bou t
fou r times t he t hick ness of t he ga sket. Wit h pr actice, a craftspe rson ca n cu t 15-degree
sca rfs wit h a u tility knife. A jig ca n also be m a de from wood to hold t he ga ske t a t a
15-degree a ngle for cu t ting a n d sa nding. The en ds m ay be fu r t he r fine-sa nded or
grou n d on a fine bench grin der wheel to m a tch pe rfectly before a pplying glue. A jig
ca n be fabrica ted to hold t he ga sket a t 15 degrees while cu t ting, sa nding, or grinding.

Table 3.—Vertical Groove Compression for Rectangular Nitrile Gaskets

Standard groove Standard ribbon Recommended Available to Available

depth width gasket thickness compress compression
(in inches) (in inches) (in inches) (in inches) (in inches)

3/32 1/4 1/8 1/32 25

1/8 5/16 3/16 1/16 33

3/16 3/8 1/4 1/16 25

1/4 3/4 3/8 1/8 33

3/8 3/4 1/2 1/8 25

N o t e: Maxim u m horizon t al fill of t he groove s hould be 75 to 85% a s explained above

in t he circula r ga sket section. Howeve r, it is not necess a ry to fill t he groove fully to
75% to obt ain a good seal. Choose t he widt h of ribbon t h a t com es close to, bu t does not
exceed, 75 to 80%. If one st a n da rd ribbon wid t h fills only 70% of t he groove a nd t he
next size s t a nda rd widt h fills 90%, choose t he size t h a t fills 70%. As in t he circula r
groove explained above, place t he ga sket so t h a t exp a n sion space is equ al on bot h
sides. T h e k e y p o i n t i s t h a t th e c r o s s s e c ti o n al a r e a of t h e g a s k e t r e m a i n s t h e
s a m e a s t h e c o v e r i s ti g h te n e d; t h e th i c k n e s s d e c r e a s e s, b u t t h e w i d th
i n c r e a s e s. S e e b e lo w a n d fi g u r e 15.

Ca u ti o n: Nit rile (Bu n a N) is a syn t he tic r ubbe r com pou n d a n d, a s cove r bolts a re
tigh tened, t he ga sket is comp ressed. Thickness of t he ga ske t is decrea sed a n d t he

33
wid t h is increa sed. If a ga ske t is too la rge,
r ubber will be pressed in to t he void
betwee n t he cove r a n d t he se aling su rface.
This will p reve n t a me t al-to-me t al seal,
a n d a le a k will res ult. It is bes t if t he cross
section al a re a of t he ga sket is a lit tle
sm alle r t h a n t he groove cross section al
a rea. As cover bolt s a re tigh te ned, t he
t hick ness of t he gasket decre a ses bu t t he
wid t h increa ses so t h a t cross section al a re a
(t hick ness tim es t he widt h) re m a in s t he
sa me. C a re m u st be t a ke n to e nsu re t h a t
t he ga sket cross section al a re a is e q u al to
o r s li g h tly s m all e r (neve r la rge r) t h a n
t he groove cross section al a re a. This will
provide space for t he rubber to expa nd in
t he groove so t h a t it will not be forced ou t
in to t he met al-to-met al con t act a re a. (See
figu re 15.) If it is forced ou t in to t he
“me t al-to-me t al” seal a rea, a le a k gene r ally
will be t he result. W hen t his h a ppen s, ou r
firs t response is to tigh te n t he bolts, which
ben ds t he cover a rou n d t he ga sket m a te rial
in t he me t al-to-me t al con t act a re a. The
le a k m ay stop (or more ofte n not); bu t t he F i g u r e 15.—Cr o s s S e c ti o n of G a s k e t
next time t he cover is removed, ge t ting a R e m ai n s Co n s ta n t B efor e Ti g h t e n i n g
prope r se al is almost impossible beca use a n d Afte r. w x d = g w x g t
t he cove r is be n t. Ta ke ext r a ca re sizing
t he ga sket, a n d t hese p roble ms won’t occu r.

Ca u ti o n: O n s o m e old e r b u s h i n g s u sed on volt ages 15 kV a nd a bove, it is

necessa ry to ins t all a se micon ductive ga ske t. This type bu shing (such as GE type L)
h as no grou n d con nection be tween t he bot tom porcelain skir t fla nge a nd t he grou n d
ring. The bot tom of t he skir t is nor m ally p ain ted wit h a cond uctive pain t, a nd t hen a
semicond uctive ga sket is ins t alled. This a llows s t a tic elect ric ch a rges to bleed off to
grou n d. The ga ske ts a re typically a se micond uctive neop re ne m a terial. Som etim es,
t he ga sket will h ave conductive me t al s t a ples nea r t he cen te r to bleed off t hese
ch a rges. Whe n replacing t his type gaske t, always replace wit h like m a te rial. If like
ga sket m a te rial is not availa ble, use cork-neoprene.

Thin me t al cond uctive shim s tock m ay be folded over t he ou ter perime ter a rou n d
a pproxim a t ely one-h alf t he circu mference. These pieces of shim stock s hould be evenly
sp aced a rou nd t he circu mference a nd stick fa r enough in towa rd t he cen ter so t h a t
t hey will be held when t he bolts a re tigh tened. As a n exa mple, if t he ga ske t is
8 inches in dia me ter, t he circu mfe re nce would be D or 3.1416 times 8 inches =
25.13 inches in circu mference. Fifty percen t of 25.13 is abou t 12½ inches. C u t
12 s t rips 1-inch wide a nd long enough to be cla m ped by t he fla nge top a nd bot tom

34
when tigh te ned. Fold t he m ove r t he ou tside edge of t he ga sket leaving a lit tle more
t h a n 1-inch space bet wee n, so t h a t t he s him stock pieces will be more or less evenly
sp aced a rou nd t he circu mference.

N o t e: F ailu re to provide a pa t h for st a tic elect ric ch a rges to ge t to grou nd will result
in coron a disch a rges be tween t he grou nd sleeve a n d t he bu shing fla nge. The ga sket
will be r apidly dest royed, a n d a le a k will be t he result.

B olti n g s e q u e n c e s to a v o i d s e a li n g
p r o bl e m s: If prope r bolt tigh tening
sequences a re not followed or im proper
torque a pplied to t he bolt s, se aling
proble m s will result. The res ulting
proble m is illus t r a t ed in figu re 16. A
sligh t bow in t he fla nge or lid top
(exagger a ted for illu st r a tion) occu rs, which
a pplies u neven pressu re to t he ga ske t.
This bow com promises t he se al, a nd t he F i g u r e 16.—B o w i n g a t Fl a n g e s.
ga sket will even t u ally lea k.

P rope r bolting seque nces a re illus t r a ted for va rious type fla nges/covers in figu re 17.
Bolt n u mbers s how t he cor rect tigh tening seque nces.

The n u m be rs do not h ave to be followed exactly; howeve r, t he diagon al tigh te ning

pa t ter n s should be followed. By using prope r torque a n d t he illust r a ted seque nce
pa t ter n s, se aling problem s from imp rope r tigh te ning a nd u neve n pressu re on t he
ga sket ca n be avoided. Use a torque wrench a nd torque bolt s according to t he hea d
st a m p on t he bolt. Check m a n ufact u rers ins t r uction book for p a nca ke ga ske t torque
values.

4.4 Tr a n sfor m e r Oils

4.4.1 Tra n sfor m e r Oil F u n c ti o n s. Tr a nsform er oils perfor m a t lea s t fou r

fu nctions for t he t ra nsfor mer. Oil provides insula tion, provides cooling, a nd helps
extinguis h a rcs. Oil also dissolves ga ses ge ner a ted by oil degra d a tion, moist u re
a nd ga s from cellulose in sula tion, dete rior a tion, a n d gases a nd moist u re from
wh a teve r a t mosp here t he oil is exposed to. Close observa tion of dissolved ga ses in
t he oil, a n d ot her oil p roper ties, p rovides t he mos t valu a ble inform a tion abou t
t ra nsfor me r healt h. Looking for t re nds by com pa ring inform a tion provided in
sever al DGAs, a nd u nde rst a n ding it s me a ning, is t he mos t im por t a n t t r a n sfor me r
diagnos tic tool.

4.4.2 D i s s o lv e d Ga s An al y s i s. Aft e r 1 m o n th of s e r v i c e a n d o n c e e a c h
y e ar, a n d more oft en if a problem is e ncou n te red, do a DGA. This is by fa r t he
mos t im port a n t tool for de ter mining t he he alt h of a t r a nsfor me r.

35
 F i g u r e 17.—B o lt Ti g h t e n i n g S e q u e n c e s.

Ca u ti o n: DGA is u n r e li a bl e if t h e tr a n sfor m e r i s d e-e n e rg i z e d a n d h a s

c o o l e d, if th e tr a n sfor m e r i s n e w , or if it h a s h a d l e s s t h a n 1 t o 2 w e e k s of
c o n ti n u o u s s e r vi c e aft e r o il p r o c e s s i n g.

The pu rpose of t his section is to provide guida nce in in te rpre ting DGA a n d to
sugges t action s ba sed on t he a n alysis. The re a re no “quick a nd su re” ea sy
a nswe rs when de aling wit h t r a n sfor me rs. Tr a n sfor me rs a re ve ry complex, ve ry
expen sive, a nd ve ry im por t a n t to Recla m a tion; a n d e ach one is differen t.
Decisions m ust be ba sed on experienced judgm en t fou nded on all availa ble da t a
a nd con sult a tion wit h expe rie nced people. Along wit h t horough periodic
in spection s cove red e a rlier, t he most im por t a n t key to t r a nsform er life is pe riodic
DGA a nd proper in terpret a tion. E ach DGA m us t be comp a red to p rior DGAs so
t h a t t re nds ca n be recognized a nd r a tes of ga s gene r a tion est ablis hed.

36
Alt h o u g h e x a m p l e s w ill b e p r e s e n t e d la t e r, t h e r e i s n o u n i v e r s all y
a c c e p t e d m e a n s for i n t e r p r e ti n g DGA [15]. Tr a n sfor me rs a re ve ry complex.
Aging, chemical actions a nd re actions, elect ric fields, m a gne tic fields, t he rm al
con t r action a nd exp a n sion, loa d va ria tions, gr avity, a nd ot he r forces all in ter act
in side t he t a n k. Exte rn ally, t h rough-fa ult s, volt age su rges, wide a m bie n t
te m per a t u re ch a nges, a nd ot he r forces such a s t he e a rt h’s m agnetic field a nd
gr avity affect t he t ra n sfor me r. The re a re few if a ny “cu t a nd d ried” DGA
in terpret a tions; eve n exper t s dis agree. Cons ult a tion wit h ot he rs, expe rie nce,
st u dy, comp a ring e a rlie r DGA’s, keeping accu r a te records of a t r a nsform er’s
history, a nd noting infor m a tion fou nd whe n a t r a n sfor me r is disa ssem bled will
increa se exper tise a n d p rovide life extension to t his critical equip men t.

Ke e p i n g a c c u ra t e r e c o r d s of each individu a l t r a n sfor me r is pa r a mou n t. If a

prior t h rough-fa ult, ove rloa d, cooling problem, or nea rby ligh t ning st rike h as
occu r red, t his infor m a tion is ext re mely valu able whe n t rying to dete r mine wh a t is
going on inside t he t r a nsfor m er. Ba seline t r a n sfor me r tes t infor m a tion s hould be
est ablis hed when t he t r a n sfor me r is new or a s soon a s possible t he re aft er. This
m us t inclu de DGA, Doble, a nd ot her test res ults, discu ssed in t he tes ting section,
“4.7 Tra nsfor mer Testing.”

4.4.3 Ke y Ga s M e t h o d of in te rpreting DGA is set for t h in IE E E [11]. Key ga ses

for m ed by degra d a tion of oil a n d pa per insula tion a re hydrogen ( H 2 ), met h a ne
(CH 4), et h a ne (C 2 H 6), et hylene (C 2 H 4 ), acetyle ne (C 2 H 2), ca rbon monoxide (CO),
a nd oxygen (O 2). Excep t for ca rbon monoxide a n d oxyge n, all t hese ga ses a re
for m ed from t he degr a da tion of t he oil itself. C a rbon monoxide, ca rbon dioxide
(CO 2 ), a n d oxyge n a re for med from degr a da tion of cellulose (p a per) ins ula tion.
C a rbon dioxide, oxyge n, nit rogen (N 2 ), a nd moist u re ca n also be absorbed from t he
air if t here is a oil/air in te rface, or if t here is a lea k in t he t a n k. Some of ou r
t ra n sfor me rs h a ve a press u rized nit roge n bla n ke t a bove t he oil a nd, in t hese
ca ses, nit roge n m ay be nea r s a t u r a tion. (See t a ble 4.) Ga s type a nd a mou n ts a re
dete rmined by where t he fa ult occu rs in t he t r a n sfor me r a nd t he seve rity a nd
e nergy of t he eve n t. Eve n ts r a nge from low e nergy even ts such a s pa r tial
disch a rge, which produces hyd roge n a n d t race a mou n t s of me t h a ne a nd et h a ne, to
ve ry high ene rgy su st a ined a rcing, ca p able of gene r a ting all t he ga ses including
acetyle ne, which requires t he most ene rgy.

4.4.4 Tra n sfor m e r D i a g n o s is U si n g I n d i v i d u al a n d T ot al D i s s o lv e d Ke y

Ga s Co n c e n tr ati o n s. A fou r-condition, DGA guide to classify risks to
t ra n sfor me rs wit h no previou s proble m s h a s bee n developed by t he IE E E [11].
The guide uses combin a tions of in divid u al ga ses a n d tot al com bustible ga s
conce n t r a tion. This guide is not u niversa lly accep ted a nd is only one of t he tools
u sed to evalu a te t r a nsform ers. The fou r con ditions a re defined below:

Co n d iti o n 1: Tot al dissolved combus tible ga s (TDCG) below t his level indica tes
t he t r a n sfor me r is ope r a ting s a tisfactorily. Any individ u al combu stible ga s
exceeding specified levels in t a ble 4 should h ave a ddition al inves tiga tion.

37
 Table 4.—Dissolved Key Gas Concentration Limits in Parts Per Million (ppm)

Status H2 CH4 C 2 H2 C2H4 C2H6 CO CO21 TDCG

Condition 1 100 120 35 50 65 350 2,500 720

Condition 2 101-700 121-400 36-50 51-100 66-100 351-570 2,500-4,000 721-1,920

Condition 3 701-1,800 401-1,000 51-80 101-200 101-150 571-1,400 4,001-10,000 1,921-4,630

Condition 4 >1,800 >1,000 >80 >200 >150 >1,400 >10,000 >4,630

1
CO2 is not included in adding the numbers for TDCG because it is not a combustible gas.

Co n d iti o n 2: TDCG wit hin t his r a nge indica tes gre a te r t h a n nor m al combus tible
ga s level. Any individu a l combus tible ga s exceeding specified levels in t able 4
should h ave a ddition al inves tiga tion. A fa ult m ay be p rese n t. Ta ke DGA s a mples
a t lea st ofte n enough to calcula te t he a mou n t of gas gene r a tion per day for each
ga s. (See t able 5 for recom men ded sa mpling frequency a n d action s.)

Co n d iti o n 3: TDCG wit hin t his r a nge indica tes a high level of decomposition of
cellulose ins ula tion a nd/or oil. Any individu a l combus tible ga s exceeding specified
levels in t able 4 should h ave a ddition al investiga tion. A fa ult or fa ults a re
probably prese n t. Ta ke DGA sa m ples a t le a st often enough to calcula t e t he
a mou n t of ga s gene ra tion pe r d ay for each ga s. (See t a ble 5.)

Co n d iti o n 4: TDCG wit hin t his r a nge in dica t es excessive decomposition of

cellulose ins ula tion a nd/or oil. Con tin ued ope r a tion could result in failu re of t he
t ra n sfor me r (t able 5).

Condition n u mbers for dissolved ga ses give n in IE E E C-57-104-1991 (t able 4) a re

ext re mely conse rva tive. We h ave t r a n sfor me rs t h a t h ave ope r a ted safely wit h
in divid u al ga ses in Con dition 4 wit h no problem s; however, t hey a re s t able a nd
ga ses a re not increa sing, or a re incre asing ve ry slowly. If TDCG a n d individ u al
ga ses a re incre a sing significa n tly (more t h a n 30 ppm/d ay), t he fa ult is active a n d
t he t r a n sfor me r should be de-ene rgized whe n Condition 4 levels a re reached.

A s u d d e n i n c r e a s e i n k e y g a s e s a n d th e r a te of g a s p r o d u c ti o n i s m or e
i m p o rt a n t i n e v a l u ati n g a tr a n sfor m e r t h a n t h e a m o u n t of g a s. One
exception is ace tylene (C 2 H 2). The gene r a tion of a ny a mou n t of t his ga s a bove a
few ppm in dica tes high energy a rcing. Trace a mou n t s (a few pp m) ca n be
gene r a t ed by a very hot t her m al fa ult (500 °C). A one-time a rc ca u sed by a ne a rby
ligh t ning st rike or a high-volt age su rge ca n ge ner a te acetyle ne. If C 2 H 2 is fou nd in
t he DGA, oil s a mples should be t a ken weekly to dete rmine if a ddition al acetyle ne
is being gene r a ted. If no addition al ace tylene is fou n d a n d t he level is below t he
IE E E Condition 4, t he t r a nsform er m ay con tin ue in se rvice. Howeve r, if
acetyle ne con tin ues to increa se, t he t r a nsfor me r h a s a n active high ene rgy

38
 Table 5.—Actions Based on Dissolved Combustible Gas

Sampling Intervals and Operating Actions

TDCG Level or TDCG
for Gas Generation Rates
Highest Individual Generation
Gas Rates Sampling
Conditions (See Table 4) (PPM/Day) Interval Operating Procedures
720 ppm of TDCG <10 Annually:
or highest condition 6mo for Continue normal operation.
based on individual EHV trans
Condition 1 gas from table 4
10-30 Quarterly
>30 Monthly Exercise caution. Analyze
individual gases to find cause.
Determine load dependence.
721-1,920 ppm of Exercise caution. Analyze
<10 Quarterly
TDCG or individual gases to find cause.
Condition 2 highest condition Determine load dependence.
based on individual 10-30 Monthly
gas from table 4
>30 Monthly

1,941-2,630 ppm of <10 Monthly Exercise extreme caution.

TDCG or Analyze individual gases to find
Condition 3 highest condition 10-30 Weekly cause. Plan outage. Call
based on individual manufacturer and other
gas from table 4 >30 Weekly consultants for advice.
>4,630 ppm of <10 Weekly Exercise extreme caution.
TDCG or Analyze individual gases to find
highest condition cause. Plan outage. Call
based on individual 10-30 Daily manufacturer and other
Condition 4
gas from table 4 consultants for advice.

>30 Daily Consider removal from service.

Call manufacturer and other
consultants for advice.

NOTES: 1. Either the Highest Condition Based on Individual Gas or Total Dissolved Combustible Gas can
determine the condition (1,2,3, or 4) of the transformer [11]. For example, if the TDCG is between 1,941 ppm and
2,630 ppm, this indicates Condition 3. However ,if hydrogen is greater than 1,800 ppm, the transformer is in
Condition 4, as shown in table 4..
2. When the table says “determine load dependence,” this means, if possible, find out if the gas generation rate in
ppm/day goes up and down with load. Perhaps the transformer is overloaded. Take oil samples every time the load
changes; if load changes are too frequent, this may not be possible.
3. To get TDCG generation rate, divide the change in TDCG by the number of days between samples that the
transformer has been loaded. Down-days should not be included. The individual gas generation rate ppm/day is
determined by the same method.

in ter n al a rc a nd should be t a ke n ou t of se rvice. F u r t he r oper a tion is ext remely

h aza rdous a nd m ay result in ca t a s t rop hic failu re. Oper a ting a t r a n sfor me r wit h
a n active high e nergy a rc is ext rem ely h aza rdous.

Ta ble 4 a ssu m es t h a t no previous DGA tes ts h ave been m a de on t he t ra n sfor me r

or t h a t no r e c e n t his tory exists. If a previous DGA exis ts, it s hould be reviewed
to dete rmine if t he sit u a tion is s t able (ga ses a re not increa sing significa n tly) or
u nst able (ga ses a re increa sing significa n tly). D e c i d i n g w h e t h e r g a s e s ar e
i n c r e a s i n g s i g n ifi c a n t l y d e p e n d s o n y o u r p arti c u lar tr a n sfo r m e r.

39
Fi g u r e 18.—Co m b u s tib l e G a s Ge n e r ati o n Ve r s u s T e m p e r at u r e.

41
spect rome ter. This ch a rt wa s u sed by R.R. Rogers of t he Ce n t r al Elect ric
Gene ra ting Boa rd (C EGB) of E ngla nd to develop t he “Rogers Ra tio Met hod” of
a n alyzing t r a nsfor m ers (discu ssed la ter).

A ver tical ba n d a t left shows wh a t ga ses a nd a pp roxim a te rela tive qu a n tities a re

produced u nde r pa r tial disch a rge con ditions. Note t h a t all t he ga ses a re give n off,
bu t in m uch less qu a n tity t h a n hyd roge n. It t a kes only a very low e nergy eve n t
(p a r tial disch a rge/coron a) to ca u se hydrogen molecules to for m from t he oil.

Ga ses a re form ed in side a n oil-filled t r a n sfor me r simila r to a pe t roleu m refine ry

still, in t h a t va riou s ga ses begin for ming a t specific tem per a t u res. F rom t he Gas
Gene ra tion Ch a r t, we ca n see rela tive a mou n t s of ga s a s well a s a pproxim a te
te m per a t u res. Hydroge n a nd me t h a ne begin to for m in sm all a mou n ts a rou nd
150 °C. Notice from t he ch a rt t h a t beyon d m axim u m poin t s, me t h a ne (C H 4),
e t h a ne a n d e t hylene p roduction goes down as te m per a t u re incre ases. At abou t
250°C, p roduction of et h a ne (C 2 H 6 ) s t a r ts. At abou t 350 °C, production of et hyle ne
(C 2 H 4) begins. Ace tylene (C 2 H 2) st a rt s be twee n 500 °C a nd 700 °C. In t he pa st,
t he prese nce of only t r ace a mou n ts of acetyle ne (C 2 H 2) wa s conside red to indica te
a t em per a t u re of a t le a st 700 °C h a d occu r red; howeve r, recen t discove ries h ave
led to t he conclu sion t h a t a t he r m al fa ult (hot spot) of 500 °C ca n produce t r ace
a mou n t s (a few pp m). La rger a mou n t s of ace tylene ca n only be p roduced a bove
700 °C by in te r n al a rcing. Notice t h a t be tween 200 °C a nd 300 °C, t he prod uction
of me t h a ne exceeds hydrogen. S t a rting a bou t 275 °C a n d on u p, t he prod uction of
e t h a ne exceeds m et h a ne. At abou t 450°C, hydrogen prod uction exceeds all ot he rs
u n til a bou t 750 °C to 800 °C; t he n more acetyle ne is prod uced.

It s hould be noted t h a t sm all a mou n ts of H 2 , C H 4 , a nd CO a re produced by nor m al

aging. Ther m al decomposition of oil-im pregn a ted cellulose p roduces CO, CO 2 , H 2 ,
CH 4 , a nd O 2 . Decom position of cellulose insula tion begin s a t only abou t 100 °C or
less. Therefore, ope r a tion of t r a nsform ers a t no more t h a n 90 °C is im per a tive.
F a ults will p roduce in te rn al “hot spots” of fa r highe r tem pe r a t u res t h a n t hese, a nd
t he result a n t ga ses show up in t he DGA.

Ta ble 6 is a ch a r t of “fa ult types,” p a rt s of which a re p a r a p h ra sed from t he

In ter n a tion al Elect rotech nical Com mission (IEC 60599) [12]. This ch a r t is not
com ple te. It is im possible to ch a rt every ca use a nd effect due to t he ext re me
com plexity of t r a n sfor me rs. DGA m ust be ca refully exa mined wit h t he idea of
dete rmining possible fa ults a nd possible cou rses of action. These decisions a re
ba sed on judgme n t a nd expe rie nce a nd a re seldom “cu t a n d dried.” Mos t
profession al a ssocia tions agree t h a t t here a re t wo ba sic fa ult types, t he rm al a nd
elect rica l. The first t h ree on t he ch a r t a re elect rical disch a rges, a nd t he la st t h ree
a re t her m al fa ult s.

E t h a ne a nd et hyle ne a re sometimes called “hot met al ga ses.” When t hese ga ses

a re being gener a ted a n d acetylene is not, t he problem fou nd inside t he
t ra n sfor me r nor m ally involves hot me t al. This m ay inclu de ba d con t act s on t he
t a p ch a nger or a ba d con nection somewhere in t he circuit, s uch a s a m ain
t ra n sfor me r le a d. S t ray flux impinging on t he t a n k (s uch a s in Wes tinghouse 7M
series t r a nsfor mers) ca n ca u se t hese “hot m et al ga ses.” A shield h as bee n known

42
to becom e loose a nd fall a nd become u ngrou n ded. S t a tic ca n t hen build up a nd
disch a rge to a grou nded su rface a nd prod uce “hot me t al” ga ses. An u nin ten tion al
core grou nd wit h circula ting cu r ren t s ca n also prod uce t hese ga ses. There a re
m a ny ot her exa m ples.

Notice t h a t bot h type fa ult s (t her m al a n d elect rical) m ay be occu r ring a t once, a nd
one m ay ca u se t he ot he r. The a ssocia tions do not me n tion m agne tic fa ults;
howeve r, m agne tic fa ult s (s uch a s s t r ay m agnetic flux im pinging t he steel t a nk or
ot her m agnetic st r uct u res) also ca use hot spots.

At m o s p h e r i c g a s s e s (N 2, CO 2 , a nd O 2 ) ca n be ve ry valu able in a DGA in

reve aling a possible lea k. However, a s m en tioned elsewhere, t he re a re ot her
rea sons t hese ga ses a re fou nd in DGA. Nit roge n m ay h ave come from shipping
t he t r a n sfor me r wit h N 2 in side or from a nit rogen bla n ket. CO 2 a nd O 2 a re for med
by degr a da tion of cellulose. Be ve ry ca reful; look a t seve ral DGAs, a nd see if
a t mosphe ric gases a nd possibly moist u re levels a re incre a sing. Also look a t t he
t ra nsfor me r ca refully if you ca n fin d a n oil le a k. Mois t u re a n d a t mosphe ric gases
will le a k inside when t he t r a nsfor m er is off a nd a m bie n t tem pe ra t u re d rops. (See
section 4.3 on moist u re)

D i s s o lv e d g a s s oft w ar e. Sever al com pa nies offer DGA com pu ter softwa re t h a t

diagnose t r a nsfor mer problem s. These diagnoses m ust be u sed wit h enginee ring
judgme n t a nd should never be t a ken a t face value. The softwa re is const a n tly
ch a nging. The Tech nical Service Cen ter u ses “ Tra nsfor mer Oil An alyst” (TOA) by
Delt a x Resea rch. This softwa re u ses a com posite of seve ral cu r ren t DGA
m et hods. Dissolved ga s a n alysis help is available from t he TSC a t D-8440 a nd
D8450. Bot h groups h ave t he a bove softwa re a nd experience in diagnosing
t ra nsfor me r problem s.

One se t of rules t h a t TOA uses to ge ner a te a la r ms is ba sed loosely on IEC 60599

(t a ble 6). These rules a re also ve ry useful in da ily dissolved ga s a n alysis. They
a re ba sed on L1 limits of IEC 60599 except for ace tylene. IEC 60599 gives a ra nge
for L1 limits in ste ad of a specific value. TOA uses t he ave r age in t his r a nge a nd
t hen gives t he use r a “he a ds up” if a ge ner a tion r a te exceeds 10% of L1 limits per
mon t h. Acetyle ne is t he exception; IE E E set s a n L1 limit of 35 ppm (too high),
a nd IEC se ts ace tylene r a nge a t 3 to 50. TOA picks t he lowest n u mber (3 ppm)
a nd sets t he ge ne r a tion ra te ala r m value a t 3 ppm pe r mon t h.

N o t e s: If one or more ga s gene ra tion r a tes a re equ al to or exceed G1 limits (10%

of L1 limit s per mon t h), you s hould begin to pay more a t te n tion to t his
t ra nsfor me r. Reduce t he DGA sa m ple in te rval, reduce loa ding, pla n for fu t u re
ou t age, con t act t he m a n ufact u re r etc.

If one or more com bustible ga s ge ner a tion r a tes a re equ al to or exceed G2 limit s
(50% of L1 limits pe r mon t h), t his t r a n sfor me r should be con side red in critical
con dition. You m ay wa n t to reduce sa m ple in te rvals to mon t hly or weekly, pla n
a n ou t age, pla n to rebuild or replace t he t r a nsfor me r, e tc. If a n active a rc is

43
 Table 6.—TOA L1 Limits and Generation Rate Per Month Alarm Limits

G1 Limits G2 Limits
GAS L1 Limits (ppm per month) (ppm per month)

H2 100 10 50

CH4 75 8 38

C2H2 3 3 3

C2H4 75 8 38

C2 H6 75 8 38

CO 700 70 350

CO2 7,000 700 3,500

prese n t (C 2 H 2 ge ner a tion), or if ot he r hea t ga ses a re high (above Con dition 4 limits
in t a ble 4), a n d G2 limit s a re exceeded, t he t r a nsform er should be re moved from
service.

Ta ble 7 is t a ke n from IEC 60599 of key ga ses, possible fa ult s, a nd possible

fin dings. This ch a r t is not all inclusive a nd s hould be u sed wit h ot he r
inform a tion. Addition al possible fa ults a re lis ted on following a n d p receding
pages.

Tr a nsfor me rs a re so com plex t h a t it is im possible to p u t a ll sym ptoms a nd ca uses

in to a ch a r t. Seve r al a ddition al t r a n sfor me r problem s a re lis ted below; t here a re
m a ny ot hers.

1. Ga ses a re ge ner a ted by nor m al ope r a tion a n d aging, mostly H 2 a nd CO wit h

som e C H 4 .

2. Ope ra ting t r a nsform ers a t s us t ained overloa d will gene ra te combu stible ga ses.

3. P roble m s wit h cooling sys tem s, discussed in a n e a rlier section, ca n ca u se

ove rhe a ting.

4. A blocked oil duct inside t he t r a nsform er ca n ca use local ove rhe a ting,
gene r a ting ga ses.

5. An oil directing baffle loose inside t he t r a nsfor mer ca uses mis-direction of

cooling oil.

6. Oil circula ting p u m p proble m s (bea ring wea r, im pelle r loose or wor n) ca n ca use
t ra n sfor me r cooling proble m s.

7. Oil level is too low; t his will not be obvious if t he level indica tor is inoper a tive.

8. Slu dge in t he t r a nsfor mer a n d cooling syste m. (See “3. Tr a n sfor me r Cooling
Me t hods.”)

44
 Table 7.—Fault Types

Key Gases Possible Faults Possible Findings

H2, possible trace of CH4 and Partial discharges (corona) Weakened insulation from aging
and electrical stress.
C2H6. Possible CO.

H2, CH4, (some CO if discharges
involve paper insulation).
Possible trace amounts of C2
H6.
Low energy discharges
(sparking).
(May be static discharges)
Pinhole punctures in paper
insulation with carbon and
carbon tracking. Possible
carbon particles in oil. Possible
loose shield, poor grounding of
metal objects

H2, CH4, C2 H6, C2H4, and the
key gas for arcing C2 H2 will be
present perhaps in large
amounts. If C2 H2 is being
generated, arcing is still going
on. CO will be present if paper is
being heated.
High energy discharges Metal fusion, (poor contacts in
tap changer or lead
(arcing) connections). Weakened
insulation, from aging and
electrical stress. Carbonized oil.
Paper destruction if it is in the
arc path or overheated.

H2, CO. Thermal fault less than 300 °C Discoloration of paper

in an area close to paper
insulation (paper is being
heated).
insulation. Overloading and or
cooling problem. Bad
connection in leads or tap
changer. Stray current path
and/or stray magnetic flux.

H2, CO, CH4, C2H6, C2 H4. Thermal fault between 300 °C Paper insulation destroyed. Oil
and 700 °C heavily carbonized.

All the above gases and High energy electrical arcing Same as above with metal
acetylene in large amounts. discoloration. Arcing may have
700 °C and above. caused a thermal fault.

9. Circula ting st r ay cu r re n t s m ay occu r in t he core, st r uct u re, a nd/or t a n k.

10. An u nin te n tion al core grou n d m ay ca u se hea ting by providing a p a t h for st ray
cu r ren t s.

11. A hot-spot ca n be ca used by a ba d con nection in t he le a ds or by a poor con t act

in t he t a p ch a nger.

12. A hot-spot m ay also be ca u sed by disch a rges of st a tic elect rical ch a rges t h a t
build u p on s hields or core a n d s t r uct u res which a re not properly grou nded.

13. Hot-spots m ay be ca u sed by elect rica l a rcing betwee n windings a n d grou nd,
betwee n windings of diffe re n t pote n tial, or in a rea s of differen t poten tial on t he
sa me win ding, d ue to dete riora ted or d a m aged insula tion.

14. Windings a nd in sula tion ca n be da m aged by fa ults downst re a m (t h rough

fa ult s), ca using la rge cu r ren t su rges t h rough t he win dings. Th rough fa ult s ca use
ext re me m agne tic a nd physical forces t h a t ca n dis tor t a nd loosen win dings a nd

45
wedges. The res ult m ay be a rcing in t he t r a nsfor m er, begin ning a t t he time of t he
fa ult, or t he insula tion m ay be wea ke ned a nd a rcing develop la te r.

15. Ins ula tion ca n also be d a m aged by a volt a ge su rge such a s a nea rby ligh t ning
st rike or switching su rge or closing ou t of step, which m ay result in im media te
a rcing or a rcing t h a t develops la t er.

16. Ins ula tion m a y be de terior a ted from age a nd simply wor n ou t. Clea r a nces
a nd dielect ric s t rengt h a re red uced, allowing p a rtial disch a rges a n d a rcing to
develop. This ca n also reduce physical st re ngt h allowing wedging a n d windings to
move exten sively du ring a t h rough-fa ult, ca u sing tot al mech a nical a nd elect rical
failu re.

17. High noise level (h u m d ue to loose windings) ca n gene r a te ga s due to he a t

from friction. Comp a re t he noise to sis ter t r a n sfor me rs, if possible. Sou nd level
m ete rs a re available a t t he TSC for diagnostic comp a rison a n d to est ablis h
ba seline noise levels for fu t u re comp a rison.

T e m p e r a t u r e. Ga s production r a tes increa se expone n tially wit h tem pe ra t u re,

a nd directly wit h volu me of oil a nd p aper in sula tion a t high enough te m per a t u re
to p roduce ga ses [11]. Tem pe r a t u re decre a ses a s dist a nce from t he fa ult
increa ses. Te mpe r a t u re a t t he fa ult cen te r is highest, a nd oil a n d pa pe r here will
produce t he most ga s. As dis t a nce increa ses from t he fa ult (hot spot), te m per a-
t u re goes down a n d t he r a te of ga s gener a tion also goes down. Beca use of t he
volu me effect, a la rge hea ted volu me of oil a nd p aper will p roduce t he s a m e
a mou n t of ga s a s a sm alle r volu m e a t a highe r tem pe ra t u re [11]. We ca n not tell
t he diffe re nce by looking a t t he DGA. This is one re a son t h a t in terp re ting DGAs
is not a n exact scie nce.

G a s Mi xi n g. Concen t r a tion of ga ses in close p roximity to a n active fa ult will be

highe r t h a n in t he DGA oil sa m ple. As dis t a nce increa ses from a fa ult, gas
conce n t r a tions decre a se. Equ al mixing of dissolved ga ses in t he tot al volu me of oil
depe nds on time a nd oil circula tion. If t here a re no pu m ps to force oil t h rough
r a dia tors, com plete mixing of ga ses in t he tot al oil volu me t a kes longe r. Wit h
pu m ping a n d nor m al loa ding, complete mixing equilibriu m should be reached
wit hin 24 hou rs a nd will h ave lit tle effect on DGA if a n oil s a m ple is t a ke n
24 hou rs or more after a proble m begins.

G a s S ol u b i l i t y. Solubilities of ga ses in oil va ry wit h te mper a t u re a nd p ress u re

[13]. Solubility of all t r a nsform er ga ses va ry propor tion ally u p a nd down wit h
p r e s s u r e . Va ria tion of solubilities wit h t e m p e r a t u r e is m uch more com plex.
Solubilities of hydrogen, nit roge n, ca rbon monoxide, a nd oxygen go u p a n d down
proportion ally wit h tem pe ra t u re. Solubilities of ca rbon dioxide, ace tylene,
e t hylene, a n d et h a ne a re reve rsed a nd va ry inversely wit h t em per a t u re ch a nges.
As t em per a t u re ri s e s, solubilities of t hese ga ses go down; a nd a s tem per a t u re
falls, t heir solubilities increa se. Me t h a ne solubility rem ains almost const a n t wit h
te m per a t u re ch a nges. Table 7 is accu ra te only a t s ta n d ar d t e m p e r a tu r e a n d
p r e s s u r e (S T P ), (25 °C/77 °F) a n d (14.7 p s i/29.93 i n c h e s of m e r c u r y, w h i c h
i s s ta n d a r d b ar o m e tri c p r e s s u r e a t s e a l e v e l). Ta ble 8 shows only rela tive
diffe re nces in how ga ses dissolve in t r a n sfor me r oil.

46
 F rom t he solubility t able 8 below, comp a ring hydrogen wit h a solubility of 7% a n d
acetyle ne wit h solubility of 400%, you ca n see t h a t t r a nsfor m er oil h a s a m uch
grea te r ca p acity for dissolving acetyle ne. However, 7% hyd roge n by volu me
represe n ts 70,000 pp m, a nd 400% acetyle ne represe n t s 4,000,000 pp m. You will
probably neve r see a DGA wit h n u m be rs t his high. Nit rogen ca n a pproach
m axim u m level if t he re is a pressu rized nit rogen bla n ket above t he oil. Ta ble 8
shows t he m a x i m u m a mou n t of e ach ga s t h a t t he oil is ca pa ble of dissolving a t
st a nd a rd te mper a t u re a nd p ressu re. At t hese levels, t he oil is said to be
sa t u r a ted.

Table 8.—Dissolved Gas Solubility in Transformer Oil Accurate Only at STP, 25 °C (77 °F)
and 14.7 psi (29.93 inches of mercury)

Solubility in
Transformer Oil Equivalent
Dissolved Gas Formula (% by Volume) (ppm by Volume) Primary Causes/Sources

Partial discharge, corona,

Hydrogen1 H2 7.0 70,000
electrolysis of H2O

Nitrogen N2 8.6 86,000 Inert gas blanket, atmosphere

Carbon Monoxide1 CO 9.0 90,000 Overheated cellulose, air pollution

Oxygen O2 16.0 160,000 Atmosphere

Methane1 CH 4 30.0 300,000 Overheated oil

Overheated cellulose,
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 120.0 1,200,00
atmosphere

Ethane1 C2H 6 280.0 2,800,00 Overheated oil

Ethylene1 C2H 4 280.0 2,800,000 Very overheated oil

Acetylene 1 C2H 2 400.0 4,000,000 Arcing in oil

1
Denotes combustible gas. Overheating can be caused both by high temperatures and by unusual or abnormal electrical stress.

If you h ave conse rva tor-type t r a n sfor me rs a n d nit rogen, oxygen, a nd CO 2 a re

increa sing, t here is a good possibility t he t a n k h a s a le a k, or t he oil m ay h ave bee n
poorly processed. Check t he dia ph r agm or bla dde r for lea ks (section 4.2), a nd check
for oily residue a rou nd t he p ress u re relief device a nd ot he r ga ske ted openings. There
should be fairly low nit rogen a nd especially low oxyge n in a conse rva tor-type
t ra n sfor me r. Howeve r, if t he t r a n sfor me r was s hipped new wit h p ress u rized
nit rogen inside a n d h as not bee n dega ssed properly, t here m ay be high nit roge n
con ten t in t he DGA, b u t th e n itr o g e n l e v e l s h o u ld n o t b e i n c r e a s i n g after t he
t ra n sfor me r h a s bee n in se rvice for a few yea rs. Whe n oil is being in st alled in a new
t ra n sfor me r, a vacu u m is placed on t he t a n k which p ulls ou t nit roge n a nd pulls in
t he oil. Oil is free to a bsorb nit rogen a t t he oil/ga s in terface, a nd some nit roge n m ay
be t r a pped in t he windings, p a per in sula tion, a n d st r uct u re. In t his case, nit roge n
m ay be fairly high in t he DGAs. Howeve r, oxygen should be very low, a nd nit roge n
should not be incre a sing. It is im port a n t to t a ke a n oil s a m ple ea rly in t he

47
t ra n sfor me r’s service life to est ablis h a ba seline DGA; t h e n t a k e s a m p l e s a t l e a s t
a n n u ally. The nit roge n a nd oxygen ca n be com pa red wit h e a rlier DGAs; a nd if t hey
increa se, it is a good indica tion of a le a k. If t he t r a n sfor me r oil h a s eve r been de-
ga ssed, nit rogen a nd oxyge n should be low in t he DGA. It is ext re mely impor t a n t to
keep accu ra te records ove r a t r a nsform er’s life; whe n a proble m occu rs, recorded
inform a tion helps gre a tly in t roubles hooting.

4.4.5 R o g e rs R a ti o Me t h o d of DGA. Rogers R a tio Me t hod of DGA [18] is a n

a ddition al tool t h a t m ay be used to look a t dissolved gases in t r a n sfor me r oil. Roge rs
Ra tio Met hod com pa res qu a n tities of differen t key ga ses by dividing one in to t he
ot her. This gives a r a tio of t he a mou n t of one key ga s to a not he r. By looking a t t he
Ga s Ge ne r a tion C h a rt (figu re 18), you ca n see t h a t, a t cer t ain t em per a t u res, one gas
will be ge ner a ted more t h a n a not her ga s. Rogers used t hese rela tions hips a n d
dete rmined t h a t if a ce rt ain r a tio existed, t he n a specific t em per a t u re h a d bee n
reached. By com pa ring a la rge n u mber of t r a nsform ers wit h simila r ga s r a tios a nd
da t a fou n d when t he t r a nsform ers we re exa mined, Roge rs could t hen s ay t h a t
cer t a in fa ult s we re p resen t. Like t he Key Gas An alysis above, t his me t hod is not a
“su re t hing” a nd is only a n a ddition a l tool to use in a n alyzing t r a nsform er proble m s.
Roge rs R a tio Me t hod, using t h ree-key ga s r a tios, is ba sed on e a rlier wor k by
Doer nebu rg, who u sed five-key ga s ra tios. Ra tio me t hods a re only valid if a
significa n t a mou n t of t he ga ses used in t he r a tio is presen t. A good rule is: N e v e r
m a k e a d e c i s io n b a s e d o n ly o n a r a tio if e i th e r of th e t w o g a s e s u s e d i n a
ra ti o is l e s s th a n 10 ti m e s t h e a m o u n t th e g a s c h r o m at o gr a p h c a n d e t e c t
(12). (Te n times t he individ u al ga s de tection limits a re s hown in t a ble 9 a nd below.)
This r ule m a kes su re t h a t ins t r u me n t in accu r acies h ave lit tle effect on t he ra tios. If
eit her of t he ga ses a re lowe r t h a n 10 times t he det ection limit, you mos t likely do not
h ave t he pa r ticula r p roble m t h a t t his r a tio deals wit h a nyway. If t he ga ses a re not
a t lea st 10 tim es t hese limits, t his does not me a n you ca n not u se t he Rogers Ra tios;
it me a ns t h a t t he results a re not a s ce rt ain a s if t he ga ses were a t le as t a t t hese
levels. This is a not her reminde r t h a t DGAs a re not a n exact scie nce a nd t he re is no
“one best ea sy wa y” to a n alyze t ra nsfor mer problem s. App roxim a te det ection limit s
a re a s follows, depending on t he la b a nd equip men t:

D i s sol v e d G a s A n a ly s i s De t ec t i o n L i m i t s.

Hyd rogen (H 2) a bou t 5 pp m

Me t h a ne (C H 4) a bou t 1 pp m
Acetyle ne (C 2 H 2) abou t 1 to 2 pp m
E t hylene (C 2 H 4) abou t 1 pp m
E t h a ne (C 2 H 6) abou t 1 ppm
C a rbon monoxide (CO) a n d ca rbon cioxide (CO 2) a bou t 25 pp m
Oxyge n (O 2 ) a n d nit roge n (N 2 ) a bou t 50 ppm

When a fa ult occu rs in side a t ra nsfor mer, t he re is no problem wit h miniu m gas
a mou n t s a t which t he r a tio a re valid. The re will be more t h a n e nough ga s prese n t.

48
If a t r a nsfor me r h a s been ope r a ting nor m ally for some tim e a n d a DGA s hows a
sudden increa se in t he a mou n t of gas, t he firs t t hing to do is t a ke a second sa m ple to
verify t here is a problem. Oil sa m ples a re e a sily con t a min a ted du ring sa m pling or a t
t he la b. If t he next DGA s hows ga ses to be more in line wit h prior DGAs, t he ea rlier
oil s a m ple wa s con t a min a ted, a nd t here is no fu rt her ca use for conce rn. If t he
secon d s a mple also s hows incre a ses in ga ses, t he problem is real. To apply R a tio
Me t hods, it helps to subt ract ga ses t h a t we re p resen t prior to s udden gas increa ses.
This t a kes ou t ga ses t h a t h ave bee n ge ner a ted up to t his poin t d ue to nor m al aging
a nd from prior problem s. This is especially t r ue for ra tios using H 2 a nd t he cellulose
in sula tion ga ses CO a n d CO 2 [12]. These a re gene ra ted by nor m al aging.

R og e r s R a t i o Me t h o d U ses t h e Fol lo w i n g T h r ee R a t i os.

C 2 H 2 /C 2 H 4 , CH 4/H 2, C 2 H 4/C 2 H 6

These ra tios a n d t he result a n t fa ult indica tions a re ba sed on la rge n u m be rs of DGAs

a nd t r a nsfor mer failu res a nd wh a t wa s discove red afte r t he failu res.

There a re ot he r r a tio m et hods, bu t only t he Roge rs R a tio Me t hod will be discussed

since it is t he one mos t com monly u sed. The m et hod description is pa ra p h r a sed from
Roge rs’ origin al pa pe r [18] a n d from IEC 60599 [12].

Ca u ti o n: Roge rs R a tio Me t hod is for fa u lt a n al yz i n g, n o t fo r fa u lt d e t e c ti o n.

You m u s t h a v e alr e a d y d e c id e d t h a t you h a ve a problem from t he tot al a mou n t of
ga s (using IE E E limits) or incre a sed ga s gene ra tion r a tes. Rogers Ra tios will only
give you a n indica tion of wh a t t he problem is; it c a n n ot tell you whet her or not you
h ave a problem. If you alre a dy suspect a p roble m ba sed on tot al combus tible ga s
levels or increa sed ra te-of-gene r a tion, t he n you will nor m ally alrea dy h ave e nough
ga s for t his met hod to work. A good syste m to dete r mine whe t he r you h ave a
proble m is to use t able 5 in t he Key Ga s Met hod. If two or more of t he key ga ses a re
in condition two a nd t he ga s gener a tion is a t le a st 10% per mon t h of t he L1 limit,
you h ave a problem. Also, for t he diagnosis to be valid, ga ses used in r a tios s hould
be a t lea s t 10 times t he detection limit s give n ea rlier. The more ga s you h ave, t he
more likely t he Rogers Ra tio Me t hod will give a valid diagnosis. The reverse is also
t rue; t he less ga s you h ave, t he less likely t he diagnosis will be valid. If a ga s used in
t he denomin a tor of a ny ra tio is ze ro, or is s hown in t he DGA a s not detected (ND),
u se t he de tection limit of t h a t pa r ticula r ga s as t he denomin a tor. This gives a
rea son a ble r a tio to use in diagnos tic t able 9. Ze ro codes me a n t h a t you do not h ave a
proble m in t his a re a.

49
 Table 9.—Rogers Ratios for Key Gases

Code range of ratios C 2H2 CH4 C2H4 Detection limits and 10 x detection limits are shown below:
C2H4 H2 C2H6 C2H2 1 ppm 10 ppm
C2H4 1 ppm 10 ppm
<0.1 0 1 0 CH4 1 ppm 10 ppm
0.1-1 1 0 0 H2 5 ppm 50 ppm
1-3 1 2 1 C2H6 1 ppm 10 ppm
>3 2 2 2
Case Fault Type Problems Found
0 No fault 0 0 0 Normal aging
1 Low energy partial 1 1 0 Electric discharges in bubbles, caused by insulation voids or super
discharge gas saturation in oil or cavitation (from pumps) or high moisture in
oil (water vapor bubbles).
2 High energy 1 1 0 Same as above but leading to tracking or perforation of solid
partial discharge cellulose insulation by sparking, or arcing; this generally produces
CO and CO2.
3 Low energy 1-2 0 1-2 Continuous sparking in oil between bad connections of different
discharges, potential or to floating potential (poorly grounded shield etc);
sparking, arcing breakdown of oil dielectric between solid insulation materials.
4 High energy 1 0 2 Discharges (arcing ) with power follow through; arcing breakdown of
discharges, arcing oil between windings or coils, or between coils and ground, or load
tap changer arcing across the contacts during switching with the oil
leaking into the main tank.
5 Thermal fault less 0 0 1 Insulated conductor overheating; this generally produces CO and
than 150 °C CO2 because this type of fault generally involves cellulose
(see note 2) insulation.
6 Thermal fault 0 2 0 Spot overheating in the core due to flux concentrations.
temp. range Items below are in order of increasing temperatures of hot spots.
150-300 °C Small hot spots in core. Shorted laminations in core. Overheating
(see note 3) of copper conductor from eddy currents. Bad connection on
winding to incoming lead, or bad contacts on load or no-load tap
7 Thermal fault 0 2 1 changer. Circulating currents in core; this could be an extra core
temp. range ground, (circulating currents in the tank and core); this could also
300-700 °C mean stray flux in the tank.
8 Thermal fault 0 2 2 These problems may involve cellulose insulation which will produce
temp. range over CO and CO2.
700 °C
(see note 4)
Notes: 1. There will be a tendency for ratio C2H2 /C2H4 to rise from 0.1 to above 3 and the ratio C2H4 /C2H6 to rise from 1-3 to above 3
as the spark increases in intensity. The code at the beginning stage will then be 1 0 1.
2. These gases come mainly from the decomposition of the cellulose which explains the zeros in this code.
3. This fault condition is normally indicated by increasing gas concentrations. CH4 /H2 is normally about 1, the actual value above or
below 1, is dependent on many factors such as the oil preservation system (conservator, N2 blanket, etc.), the oil temperature, and oil
quality.
4. Increasing values of C2H2 (more than trace amounts), generally indicates a hot spot higher than 700 °C. This generally indicates
arcing in the transformer. If acetylene is increasing and especially if the generation rate is increasing, the transformer should be de-
energized, further operation is extremely hazardous.

Ge neral Rem arks:

1. Values quoted for ratios should be regarded as typical (not absolute). This means that the ratio numbers are not “carved in stone”;
there may be transformers with the same problems whose ratio numbers fall outside the ratios shown at the top of the table.

2. Combinations of ratios not included in the above codes may occur in the field. If this occurs, the Rogers Ratio Method will not work
for analyzing these cases.

3. Transformers with on-load tap changers may indicate faults of code type 2 0 2 or 1 0 2 depending on the amount of oil interchange
between the tap changer tank and the main tank.

50
 Exa mple 1

E x a m p l e of a Recla m a tion t r a nsform er DGA:

Rogers Ratio Analysis
Hydroge n (H 2) 9 ppm Code
C2H2/C2H4 = 3/368 = 0.00815 0
Met h a ne (CH 4) 60
E t h a ne (C 2 H 6 ) 53 CH4/H2 = 60/9 = 6.7 2
E t hyle ne (C 2 H 4) 368
Acetyle ne (C 2 H 2) 3 C2H4/C2H6 = 368/53 = 6.9 2
Ca rbon Monoxide (CO) 7
Ca rbon Dioxide (CO 2) 361 This code combination is Case 8 in table 4,
Nit roge n (N 2) 86,027 which indicates this transformer has a thermal
fault hotter than 700 °C.
Oxyge n (O 2) 1,177
TDCG 500

E t hylene a nd et h a ne a re some times called “hot me t al ga ses.” Notice t his fa ult

does not involve pa per insula tion, beca u se CO is ve ry low. H 2 a nd C 2 H 2 a re bot h
less t h a n 10 times t he de tection limit. This me a ns t he dia gnosis does not h ave a
100% confide nce level of being cor rect. However, due to t he high et hyle ne, t he
fa ult is proba bly a ba d con nection whe re a n incoming le a d is bolted to a winding
le a d, or pe r h a ps ba d t a p ch a nger con t act s, or a ddition al core grou nd (la rge
circula ting cu r ren t s in t he t a n k a nd core). See t he two bot tom p roble ms on
t able 10 la te r in t his ch a pte r. This exa m ple wa s chosen to s how a t r a nsform er
t h a t wa s not a “clea r cu t” dia gnosis. E nginee ring judgme n t is always required.

A sm all qu a n tity of acetylene is p rese n t, jus t above t he de tection limit of 1 ppm.

This is not high ene rgy a rcing d ue to t he sm all a mou n t; it h a s more likely bee n
produced by a one-tim e nea rby ligh t ning st rike or a volt age su rge.

Example 2

Latest DGA Prior DGA No. 2 Prior DGA No. 1

Hydrogen (H2) 26 ppm 27 17

Methane (CH4) 170 164 157

Ethane (C2H6) 278 278 156

Ethylene (C2H4) 25 4 17

Acetylene (C2H2) 2 0 0

Carbon Monoxide (CO) 92 90 96

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 3,125 2,331 2,476

Nitrogen (N2) 67,175 72,237 62,641

Oxygen (O2) 608 1,984 440

51
Rogers Ratio Analysis Based on Latest DGA:

Codes

C2H2/C2H4 = 2/25 = 0.080 0

CH4/H2 = 170/26 = 6.54 2

C2H4/C2H6 = 25/278 = 0.09 0

Notice t h a t m et h a ne is increa sing slowly, bu t et h a ne h a d a la rge incre a se be tween

sa mples 1 a nd 2 bu t did not increa se betwee n s a m ples 2 a nd 3. Note t h a t two key
ga ses (C H 2 a n d C 2 H 6) a re a bove IE E E Condition 1 in t able 5, so t he Roge rs R a tio
Me t hod is valid. By refer ring to t a ble 9, t his com bin a tion of codes is Ca se 6, which
in dica tes t he t ra nsfor mer h a s a t her m al fa ult in t he tem pe r a t u re r a nge of 150 °C
to 300 °C.

Life history of t he t ra n sfor me r m u st be exa mined ca refully. It is, again, very

im port a n t to keep accu ra te records of every t r a nsform er. This infor m a tion is
inva lu a ble whe n it becomes necessa ry to do a n eva lu a tion.

The t r a nsfor m er in t his exa m ple is one of t h ree sis ter t ra nsfor mers t h a t h ave h a d
increa sed cooling inst alled a n d a re ru n ning highe r loa ds due to a ge ner a tor
u pgr a de seve ral ye a rs ago. Tr a n sfor me r sou nd level (h u m) is m a rkedly highe r
t h a n for t he t wo siste r t r a nsform ers. The u nit bre a ker experienced a fa ult some
ye a rs ago, which placed high mech a nical s t resses on t he t ra nsfor me r. This
ge ne r ally me a n s loose windings, which ca n gene ra te ga s due to friction (called a
t her m al fa ult) by Rogers Ra tios. Comp a rison wit h siste r u nit s reve als a lmos t
t riple t he e t h a ne a s t he ot he r two, a nd it is a bove t he IE E E Condition 4.Ga ses a re
increa sing slowly; t here h as been no su dde n r a te incre a se in com bustible ga s
production. Notice t he la rge incre ase in O 2 a nd N 2 be tween t he first a nd second
DGA a nd t he la rge decre ase be twee n t he secon d a n d t hird. This p roba bly me a ns
t h a t t he oil s a m ple wa s exposed to air (a t mosp here) a nd t h a t t hese two ga ses a re
in accu r a t e in t he middle sa mple.

C a r bo n D ioxi d e C a r bo n Mo n ox i d e R a t io. This r a tio is not inclu ded in t he

Roge rs R a tio Me t hod of a n alysis. Howeve r, it is useful to dete r mine if a fa ult is
affecting t he cellulose in sula tion. This r a tio is included in t r a n sfor me r oil
a n alyzing soft wa re progr a m s s uch a s Delt a X Rese a rch Tr a nsfor mer Oil An alyst.
This a n alysis is available from t he TSC a t D-8440 a nd D-8450 in Denver.

For m a tion of CO 2 a n d CO from t he degr a d a tion of oil im p regn a ted pa pe r increa ses
r a pidly wit h tem pe ra t u re. CO 2 /CO r a tios less t h a n t h ree a re ge ner ally conside red
a n indica tion of probable pa pe r involve men t in a n elect rical fa ult (a rcing or
sp a r king), along wit h some ca rboniza tion of p a per. Norm al CO 2 /CO ra tios a re
typically a rou nd seve n. Ra tios a bove 10 gene r ally indica te a t he rm al fa ult wit h
t he involveme n t of cellulose. T h i s i s o n l y tr u e if th e CO 2 c a m e fr o m w it h i n
t h e tr a n sfo r m e r (n o l e a k s), a n d t h e s e r a ti o s ar e o n l y m e a n i n gfu l if t h e r e
i s a s ig n ific a n t a m o u n t of b ot h g a s e s. C a u tion m u st be em ployed beca use oil

52
 degr a da tion also produces t hese ga ses, a nd CO 2 ca n also be dissolved in t he oil
from a t mosphe ric le a ks. The oil sa m ple ca n also pick up CO 2 a nd O 2 if it is
exposed to air du ring sa m pling or h a ndling a t t he lab. If a fa ult is s uspected, look
ca refully to see if CO is incre a sing. If CO is incre a sing a rou n d 70 ppm or more pe r
mon t h (gene ra tion limit from IEC 60599), t he re is p robably a fa ult. It is a good
idea to s ubt r act t he a mou n t of CO a nd CO 2 s hown before t he incre a se in CO a n d
CO 2 bega n, so t h a t only ga ses ca used by t he presen t fa ult a re u sed in t he r a tio.
This will elimin a te CO a nd CO 2 gene ra ted by nor m al aging a n d ot her sou rces.
When excessive cellulose degr a da tion is s uspected (CO 2 /CO r a tios less t h a n 3, or
grea te r t h a n 10), it m ay be a dvis able to a sk for a fu r a n a n alysis wit h t he next
DGA. This will give a n in dica tion of u seful life left in t he pa pe r insula tion [12].

You ca n not de-ene rgize a t ra nsfor me r ba sed on fu ra n a n alysis alone. All t his tes t
does is g i v e a n i n d i c a tio n of t he he alt h of t he p a per; it is not a su re t hing. B u t
fu r a n a n alysis is recom me nded by m a ny exper t s to give a n indica tion of re m a ining
life whe n t he CO 2 /CO r a tio is less t h a n 3 or grea te r t h a n 10. Som e oil
la bor a tories do t his tes t on a rou tine basis, a nd some ch a rge ext r a for it.

Ta ble 10 is a da p ted from IEC 60599 Appe ndix A.1.1 [12]. Some of t he wording
h as been ch a nged to reflect Am erica n la ngu age u sage r a t he r t h a n E u rope a n.

4.5 Mo i s tu r e P r ob l e m s

Moist u re, especially in t he prese nce of oxygen, is ext rem ely h aza rdou s to t ra nsfor mer
in sula tion. E ach DGA a nd Doble t es t res ult should be exa mined ca refully to see if
wa ter is increa sing a nd to de ter mine t he mois t u re by dry weigh t (M/DW) or pe rcen t
sa t u r a tion t h a t is in t he pa per insula tion. W hen 2% M/DW is re ached, pla n s should be
m a de for a d ry ou t. Never allow t he M/DW to go above 2.5% in t he p aper or 30% oil
sa t u r a tion wit hou t d rying ou t t he t r a nsform er. E ach tim e t he moist u re is doubled in a
t ra nsfor me r, t he life of t he in sula tion is cu t by one-h alf. Keep in mind t h a t t he life of
t he t r a n sfor me r is t he life of t he pa pe r, a n d t he pu rpose of t he pa per is to keep ou t
mois t u re a n d oxyge n. For se rvice-aged t r a nsform ers r a t ed less t h a n 69 kV, result s of
u p to 35 ppm a re con side red accep t a ble. For 69 kV t h rough 288 kV, t he DGA tes t
result of 25 ppm is conside red accep t able. For gre a t er t h a n 288 kV, moist u re s hould
not exceed 20 pp m. Howeve r, t he u se of a bsolu te values for wa te r does not always
gu a r a n tee s afe conditions, a n d t he percen t by dry weigh t s hould be dete r mined. See
t able 12, “Doble Limits for In-Se rvice Oils,” in section 4.6.5. If va lues a re higher, t he
oil s hould be processed. If t he t r a n sfor me r is kept a s dry a nd free of oxyge n a s
possible, t r a nsform er life will be exte nded.

Recla m a tion specifies t h a t m a n ufact u rers dry new t r a nsform ers to no more t h a n 0.5%
M/DW du ring com missioning. In a t r a nsform er h aving 10,000 pou nds of p a per
in sula tion, t his me a ns t h a t 10,000 x 0.005 = 50 pou n ds of wa ter (a bou t 6 gallons) is in
t he pa pe r. This is not e nough moist u re to be de t rime n t al to elect rica l in tegrity. When
t he t r a n sfor me r is new, t his wa te r is dist ribu ted equ ally t h rough t he t r a nsform er. It
is ext re mely im por t a n t to re move a s m uch wa te r a s possible.

53
 Table 10.—Typical Faults in Power Transformers [12]

Fault Examples

Partial discharges Discharges in gas-filled cavities in insulation, resulting from incomplete

impregnation, high moisture in paper, gas in oil supersaturation or cavitation,
(gas bubbles in oil) leading to X wax formation on paper.

Discharges of Sparking or arcing between bad connections of different floating potential, from
low energy shielding rings, toroids, adjacent discs or conductors of different windings,
broken brazing, closed loops in the core. Additional core grounds. Discharges
between clamping parts, bushing and tank, high voltage and ground, within
windings. Tracking in wood blocks, glue of insulating beam, winding spacers.
Dielectric breakdown of oil, load tap changer breaking contact.

Discharges of Flashover, tracking or arcing of high local energy or with power follow-through.
high energy Short circuits between low voltage and ground, connectors, windings, bushings,
and tank, windings and core, copper bus and tank, in oil duct. Closed loops
between two adjacent conductors around the main magnetic flux, insulated bolts
of core, metal rings holding core legs.

Overheating less Overloading the transformer in emergency situations. Blocked or restricted oil
than 300 °C flow in windings. Other cooling problem, pumps valves, etc. See the “Cooling”
section in this document. Stray flux in damping beams of yoke.

Overheating Defective contacts at bolted connections (especially busbar), contacts within tap
changer, connections between cable and draw-rod of bushings.
300 to 700 °C Circulating currents between yoke clamps and bolts, clamps and laminations, in
ground wiring, bad welds or clamps in magnetic shields.
Abraded insulation between adjacent parallel conductors in windings.

Overheating Large circulating currents in tank and core. Minor currents in tank walls created
over 700 °C by high uncompensated magnetic field. Shorted core laminations.

Notes:
1. X wax formation comes from Paraffinic oils (paraffin based). These are not used in transformers at present
in the United States but are predominate in Europe.
2. The last overheating problem in the table says over 700 °C.” Recent laboratory discoveries have found
that acetylene can be produced in trace amounts at 500 °C, which is not reflected in this table. We have several
transformers that show trace amounts of acetylene that are probably not active arcing but are the result of high-
temperature thermal faults as in the example. It may also be the result of one arc, due to a nearby lightning strike or
voltage surge.
3. A bad connection at the bottom of a bushing can be confirmed by comparing infrared scans of the top of the
bushing with a sister bushing. When loaded, heat from a poor connection at the bottom will migrate to the top of the
bushing, which will display a markedly higher temperature. If the top connection is checked and found tight, the
problem is probably a bad connection at the bottom of the bushing.

54
When t he t r a nsfor mer is e nergized, wa te r begins to migr a te to t he cooles t pa rt of t he
t ra n sfor me r a n d t he site of t he gre a test elect rical st ress. This loca tion is norm ally t he
in sula tion in t he lower one-t hird of t he winding [5]. P a pe r ins ula tion h a s a m uch
grea te r affinity for wa te r t h a n does t he oil. The wa te r will dist ribu te itself u nequ ally,
wit h m uch more wa t er being in t he p a per t h a n in t he oil. The pa pe r will p a r tially d ry
t he oil by a bsorbing wa ter ou t of t he oil. Tem pe ra t u re is also a big factor in how t he
wa ter dis t ribu tes it self bet wee n t he oil a nd p aper. See t a ble 11 below for com p a rison.

Table 11.—Comparison of Water Distribution in Oil and Paper [5]

Temperature Water Water

(degrees C) in Oil in Paper

20° 1 3,000 times what is in the oil

40° 1 1,000 times what is in the oil

60° 1 300 times what is in the oil

The t a ble a bove shows t he t re men dou s a t t r action t h a t p a per in sula tion h a s for wa ter.
The ppm of wa ter in oil shown in t he DGA is only a s m all p a r t of t he wa ter in t he
t ra n sfor me r. It is im port a n t t h a t, whe n a n oil s a m ple is t a ke n, you record t he oil
te m per a t u re from t he top oil tem per a t u re gage.

Some labora tories give pe rce n t M/DW of t he ins ula tion in t he DGA. Ot hers give
perce n t oil sa t u r a tion, a nd some give only t he ppm of wa te r in t he oil. If you h ave a n
accu r a te te mper a t u re of t he oil a n d t he pp m of wa te r, t he Nomogra p h (figu re 23,
section 4.5.2) will give percen t M/DW of t he insula tion a n d t he perce n t oil sa t u r a tion.

Wh e r e d o e s t h e w a t e r c o m e fr o m? Mois t u re ca n be in t he ins ula tion whe n it is

delivered from t he factory. If t he t r a nsform er is opened for inspection, t he ins ula tion
ca n a bsorb moist u re from t he a t mosp here. If t here is a lea k, moist u re ca n en ter in t he
for m of wa ter or h u midity in air. Moist u re is also for med by t he degr a da tion of
in sula tion a s t he t r a nsform er ages. Mos t wa ter pene t r a tion is flow of wet air or r ain
wa ter t h rough poor gas ke t seals due to p ress u re diffe re nce ca used by t r a nsfor me r
cooling. Du ring r ain or s now, if a t r a nsform er is removed from se rvice, some
t ra n sfor me r designs cool r apidly a n d t he pressu re inside drops. The most com mon
mois t u re ingress poin t s a re gas ke ts be tween bu shing bot tom s a nd t he t ra nsfor mer top
a nd t he p ressu re relief device ga sket. Sm all oil lea ks, especially in t he oil cooling
piping, will also allow mois t u re ingress. Wit h r a pid cooling a nd t he res ult a n t press u re
drop, rela tively la rge a mou n ts of wa ter a nd wa ter va por ca n be p u m ped in to t he
t ra n sfor me r in a shor t time. It is im por t a n t to repair s m all oil lea ks; t he s m all
a mou n t of visible oil is not im por t a n t in itself, bu t it also indica tes a poin t where
mois t u re will e n te r [22].

It is critical for life exten sion to keep t r a n sfor me rs a s d ry a n d as free of oxygen a s

possible. Moist u re a nd oxygen ca u se t he pa pe r ins ula tion to decay m uch fa st er t h a n
nor m al a nd for m acids, sludge, a nd more mois t u re. Slu dge se t tles on windings a n d

55
in side t he st r uct u re, ca using t r a nsform er cooling to be less efficien t, a nd slowly over
time tem pe ra t u re rises. (This wa s discu ssed ea rlie r in “3. Tr a nsform er Cooling
Me t hods.”) Acids ca use a n increa se in t he r a te of decay, which for ms more acid,
sludge, a n d mois t u re a t a fa ste r r a t e [20]. This is a viciou s cycle of increa sing speed
for ming more acid a n d ca using more decay. The a nswe r is to keep t he t r a n sfor me r a s
d ry a s possible a nd a s free of oxyge n a s possible. In addition, oxygen in hibitor should
be wa tched in t he DGA testing. The t r a nsform er oil s hould be dried whe n mois t u re
reaches t he values according to t able 12. In hibitor should be a dded (0.3% by weigh t
ASTM D-3787) when t he oil is processed.

Wa ter ca n exist in a t r a n sfor me r in five for ms.

1. F ree wa ter, a t t he bot tom of t he t a n k.

2. Ice a t t he t a n k bot tom (if t he oil specific gra vity is gre a te r t h a n 0.9, ice ca n floa t).
3. Wa ter ca n be in t he for m of a wa ter/oil em ulsion.
4. Wa ter ca n be dissolved in t he oil a nd is give n in ppm in t he DGA.
5. Wa ter ca n be in t he for m of
h u midity if t r a n sfor me rs h ave a n ine rt ga s bla n ket.

F ree wa te r ca uses few p roble ms

wit h dielect ric st re ngt h of oil;
howeve r, it s hould be dr ained a s
soon a s possible. H aving a wa te r-
oil in te rface allows oil to dissolve
wa ter a nd t r a nsport it to t he
in sula tion. P roble ms wit h
mois t u re in in sula tion we re
discu ssed above. If t he t r a nsfor mer
is ou t of se rvice in win te r, wa t er
ca n freeze. If oil specific gr avity is
grea te r t h a n 0.9 (ice specific
gr avity), ice will floa t. This ca n
ca use t ra nsfor mer failu re if t he
t ra nsfor me r is e nergized wit h
floa ting ice in side. This is one
rea son t h a t DGA la bor a tories test
specific gr avity of t r a nsfor me r oil.

The a mou n t of moist u re t h a t ca n be

dissolved in oil incre ases wit h
te m per a t u re. (See figu re 19.) This
is why hot oil is used to d ryou t a
t ra nsfor me r. A wa te r/oil e m ulsion
ca n be for med by p u rifying oil a t F i g u r e 19.—Ma xi m u m Am o u n t of Wa t e r
too high te mper a t u re. W hen t he oil D i s s ol v e d i n Mi n e r al Oil Ve r s u s
T e m p e r a tu r e.

56
cools, dissolved moist u re for m s a n em ulsion [20]. A wa te r/oil e m ulsion ca uses dr a stic
reduction in dielect ric st rengt h.

How m uch moist u re in insula tion is too m uch? Whe n t he in sula tion get s to 2.5%
M/DW or 30% oil s a t u r a tion (give n on some DGAs), t he t r a n sfor me r should h ave a dry
ou t wit h vacu u m if t he t a n k is r a ted for vacu u m. If t he t r a nsform er is old, pulling a
vacu u m ca n do more h a r m t h a n good. In t his ca se, it is be t te r to do rou nd-t he-clock re-
circula tion wit h a Bowser d rying t he oil a s m uch a s possible, which will p ull wa t er ou t
of t he pa pe r. At 2.5% M/DW, t he pa per insula tion is degr a ding m uch fa s ter t h a n
nor m al [5]. As t he pa pe r is degr aded, more wa ter is prod uced from t he decay
product s, a nd t he t r a nsform er becom es even we t te r a nd decays even fas ter. When a
t ra n sfor me r ge ts a bove 4% M/DW, it is in d a nge r of fla shover if t he t em per a t u re rises
to 90 °C.

4.5.1 D i s s o lv e d Mo i st u r e i n Tr a n sfor m e r Oil. Moist u re is given in t he

dissolved ga s a n alysis in pp m, a nd some labora tories also give pe rce n t sa t u r a tion.
P ercen t s a t u ra tion m ea ns pe rce n t sa t u r a tion of wa ter in t he oil. This is a
perce n t age of how m uch wa ter is in t he oil com pa red wit h t he m axim u m a mou n t
of wa te r t he oil ca n hold. In figu re 19, it ca n be seen t h a t t he a mou n t of wa te r t he
oil ca n dissolve is grea tly depen den t on tem pe r a t u re. The cu rves (figu re 20) below
a re percen t sa t u ra tion cu rves. On t he left line, find t he ppm of wa ter from you r
DGA. F rom t his poin t, dr a w a horizon t al wit h a s t r aigh t edge. F rom t he oil
te m per a t u re, dr a w a ver tical line. At t he poin t where t he lines in t ersect, rea d t he
perce n t sa t u ra tion cu rve. If t he poin t falls be tween two s a t u r a tion cu rves,

F i g u r e 20.—Tr a n sfo r m e r Oi l P e r c e n t S a t u r a ti o n Cu r v e s.

57
estim a te t he pe rcen t s a t u r a tion ba sed on whe re t he poin t is loca ted. For exa mple, if
t he wa ter is 30 ppm a nd t he te m per a t u re is 40 °C, you ca n see on t he cu rves t h a t t his
poin t of in tersection falls a bou t h alfway betwee n t he 20% cu rve a nd t he 30% cu rve.
This m ea ns t h a t t he oil is approxim a tely 25% s a t u r a ted. Cu rves s hown on figu re 20
a re from IE E E 62-1995 [19].

Ca u ti o n: B e lo w 30 °C, t h e c u r v e s ar e n o t v e r y a c c u r a t e.

4.5.2 Mo i st u r e i n Tr a n sfor m e r In s u l a tio n. The illust ra tion a t righ t

(figu re 21) s hows how mois t u re is dis t ribu ted t h roughou t t r a nsfor m er in sula tion.
Notice t h a t t he moist u re is dist ribu ted according to tem per a t u re, wit h most
mois t u re a t t he bot tom a nd less
a s te mpe r a t u re increa ses
towa rd t he top. In t his
exa m ple, t here is almos t twice
t he mois t u re nea r bot tom a s
t here is a t t he top. Most
service-aged t r a n sfor me rs fail in
t he lowe r one-t hird of t he
windings, which is t he a rea of
mos t mois t u re. It is also t he
a rea of most elect rical st ress.
Moist u re a nd oxygen a re two of
t he t r a n sfor me r’s wors t
e nemies. It is very im por t a n t to
keep t he in sula tion a nd oil as
d ry a s possible a nd a s free of
oxygen a s possible.

F a il u r e s d u e to m o i s tu r e ar e
t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a u s e of
tr a n sfor m e r fa il u r e s [5].
Wit hou t a n accu r a te oil
te m per a t u re, it is impossible for
la bor a tories to p rovide accu r a te
inform a tion abou t t he M/DW or
perce n t sa t u ra tion. It will also
be impossible for you to
calcula te t his infor m a tion
accu r a tely.

Exper ts disagree on how to tell F i g u r e 21.—Wa t e r D i stri b u ti o n i n

Tr a n sfo r m e r In s u la ti o n.
how m uch moist u re is in t he
in sula tion ba sed on how m uch moist u re is in t he oil (ppm). At best, me t hods to
dete rmine moist u re in t he ins ula tion ba sed solely on DGA a re in accu r a te.
The me t hods discussed below to dete r mine moist u re in t he ins ula tion a re
a pproxim a tions a nd no decision should be m a de ba sed on one DGA. However,

58
keep in min d t h a t t he life of t he t ra n sfor me r is t he life of t he ins ula tion. The
in sula tion is quickly degr a ded by excess mois t u re a n d t he prese nce of oxyge n.
B ase a ny decisions on sever al DGAs ove r a pe riod of tim e a n d est a blis h a t ren d of
increa sing mois t u re.

If t he lab does not provide t he percen t M/DW, IE E E 62-1995 [19] gives a m et hod.
F rom t he cu rve (figu re 22), fin d te m per a t u re of t he b o tt o m oil s a m p l e a n d a d d
5 °C. Do not use t he top oil te m per a t u re. This a pproxim a tes tem pe ra t u re of t he
bot tom t hird (coolest pa r t) of t he winding, where most of t he wa ter is loca ted.
F rom t his t em per a t u re, move u p ve rtica lly to t he cu rve. F rom t his poin t on t he
cu rve, move horizon t ally to t he left a n d find t he Myers Multiplier n u mbe r. Ta ke
t his n u m be r a nd m ultiply t he pp m of wa t er s hown on t he DGA. The res ult is
perce n t M/DW in t he u ppe r p a r t of t he in sula tion. This me t hod gives less a mou n t
of wa te r t h a n t he Ge ner al Elect ric nomogr a ph on t he following p age.

Fi g u r e 22.—M y e r s M u lti p li e r Ve r s u s T e m p e r a tu r e.

59
This nomogr a ph,
published by Ge ner al
Elect ric in 1974 (figu re
23), gives t he pe rcen t
sa t u r a tion of oil a nd
perce n t M/DW of
in sula tion. Use t he
nomogr a p h to check
you rself afte r you h ave
com ple ted t he m et hod
illu st ra ted in figu re 22.
The nomogr a ph in
figu re 23 will show
more moist u re t h a n t he
IE E E m et hod.

The cu rves in figu re 23

a re u seful to help
u nde rs t a nd
rela tionships betwee n
te m per a t u re, pe rce n t
sa t u r a tion of t he oil,
a nd perce n t M/DW of
t he in sula tion. For
exa m ple, pick a poin t on
t he pp m wa ter line, say
10 ppm. Place a
st r aigh t edge on t h a t
poin t a nd pick a poin t
on t he te m per a t u re line,
say 45 °C. Rea d t he
perce n t sa t u ra tion a nd
perce n t M/DW on t he
cen ter lines. In t his
exa m ple, perce n t
sa t u r a tion is abou t 6.5%
a nd t he % M/DW is
a bou t 1.5%. Now, hold
t he 10 ppm poin t a nd
move t he sa m ple
te m per a t u re upwa rd
(coole r), a nd notice how
quickly t he moist u re
n u mbers incre a se. For
exa m ple, u se 20 °C a nd
rea d t he % sa t u r a tion of F ig u r e 23.—Wa t e r Co n te n t of P a p e r a n d Oil
oil a t a bou t 18.5% a nd N o n o g ra m.

60
 t he % M/DW a t a bou t 3.75%. The coole r t he oil, t he highe r t he moist u re
perce n t age for t he s a m e pp m of wa te r in t he oil.

Do not m a ke a decision on dryou t ba sed on only one DGA a n d one calcula tion; it
should be ba sed on t ren ds over a period of time. Ta ke a ddition al s a m ples a n d
sen d t hem for a n alysis. Ta k e e xtr a c ar e to m a k e s u r e th e o il te m p e r at u r e i s
c or r e c t. You ca n see by t he nomogr a ph t h a t moist u re con te n t va ries
dr a m a tically wit h te m per a t u re. Ta ke e x tra c a r e t h a t t he s a m ple is not exposed
to air. If after u sing t he more conserva tive IE E E me t hod a n d again s ubseque n t
sa mples s how M/DW is 2.5% or more a nd t he oil is 30% s a t u r a ted or more, t he
t ra n sfor me r should be d ried a s soon a s possible. Check t he nomogr a ph a n d cu rves
a bove to dete r mine t he pe rce n t sa t u r a tion of t he oil. The in sula tion is degr a ding
m uch fa s ter t h a n nor m al due to t he high moist u re con te n t. Drying ca n be a n
expen sive process; it is pr uden t to cons ult wit h ot he rs before m a king a fin al
decision to do dryou t. Howeve r, it is m uch less expe nsive to pe rform a dryou t
t h a n to allow a t r a nsfor mer to degr a de fas ter t h a n nor m al, subs t a n tially
shor te ning t ra n sfor me r life.

4.6 Tr a n sfor m e r Oil T e s ts T h a t S h o u ld B e D o n e An n u ally Wi t h t h e D i s s o lv e d

Ga s An al y s i s.

4.6.1 D i e l e c tr i c S tr e n g t h. This test mea s u res t he volt age a t which t he oil

elect rica lly brea ks down. The t es t gives a good indica tion of t he a mou n t of
con t a min a n t s (wa ter a nd oxida tion pa r ticles) in t he oil. DGA labor a tories
typically use ASTM Test Me t hod No. D-877 or D-1816. T h e a c c e p ta bl e m i n i u m
br e a k d o w n v olta g e is 30 kV for tr a n sfo r m e r s 287.5 kV a n d ab o v e , a n d
25 kV for h i g h v o lta g e tr a n sfor m e r s r a te d u n d e r 287.5 kV. If t he dielect ric
st rengt h test falls below t hese n u mbe rs, t he oil should be reclaimed. Do not ba se
a ny decision on one tes t res ult, or on one type of test; in ste ad, look a t all t he
inform a tion over sever al DGAs a n d est a blis h t ren ds before m a king a ny decision.
T h e d i e l e c tr ic s tr e n g t h t e s t i s n o t e x tr e m e ly v a l u ab l e; m o i st u r e i n
c o m b i n a ti o n w i th o x y g e n a n d h e a t w ill d e s tr o y c e llu lo s e i n s u la ti o n l o n g
b e for e t h e d i e l e c tr i c s tr e n g t h of th e oi l h a s g i v e n a c l u e t h at a n y t h i n g i s
g oi n g w r o n g [5]. The dielect ric st re ngt h tes t also reve als not hing abou t acids
a nd sludge. The test s explained below a re m uch more im por t a n t.

4.6.2 In t e rfa c i al T e n si o n (IFT). This test (ASTM D-791-91) [21], is used by

DGA la bor a tories to de ter mine t he in terfacial te nsion bet wee n t he oil s a m ple a nd
dis tilled wa te r. The oil s a m ple is pu t in to a be a ke r of dis tilled wa t er a t a
te m per a t u re of 25 °C. The oil s hould floa t beca use its specific gr avity is less t h a n
t h a t of wa te r, which is one. There should be a distinct line between t he two
liquids. The IF T n u m be r is t he a mou n t of force (dynes) required to pull a sm all
wire ring upwa rd a dis t a nce of 1 ce n tim ete r t h rough t he wa te r/oil in terface. (A
dyne is a ve ry sm all u nit of force equ al to 0.000002247 pou nd.) Good cle a n oil will
m a ke a ve ry distinct line on top of t he wa te r a n d give a n IF T n u m be r of 40 to
50 dynes pe r ce n tim ete r of t ra vel of t he wire ring.

61
As t he oil ages, it is con t a min a ted by tiny p a r ticles (oxida tion prod ucts) of t he oil
a nd p a per in sula tion. These p a rticles exten d across t he wa te r/oil in t erface line
a nd wea ken t he te nsion betwee n t he two liquids. The more pa r ticles, t he wea ke r
t he in terfacial t ension a n d t he lowe r t he IFT n u mbe r. The IF T a nd acid n u m be rs
toget he r a re a n excelle n t indica tion of when t he oil needs to be reclaimed. It is
recom me nded t he oil be reclaim ed when t he IFT n u mber falls to 25 dynes per
cen time ter. At t his level, t he oil is very con t a min a ted a n d m us t be reclaim ed to
preven t sludging, which begins a rou nd 22 dynes pe r ce n tim ete r. See F IST 3-5
[20].

If oil is not reclaimed, sludge will se t tle on win dings, insula tion, etc., a nd ca use
loa ding a nd cooling problem s discussed in a n e a rlier section. This will gre a tly
shor te n t ra nsfor mer life.

There is a definite
rela tionship be tween t he acid
n u mber, t he IFT, a nd t he
n u mber of yea rs in se rvice.
The accom pa nying cu rve
(figu re 24) s hows t he
rela tionship a n d is fou nd in
m a ny p ublica tions. (It wa s
origin ally publis hed in t he
AIE E t ra ns actions in 1955.)
Notice t h a t t he cu rve shows
t he nor m al service limits bot h
for t he IFT a n d t he acid
n u mber.
Fi g u r e 24.—In t e rfa c i al T e n s i o n, Ac i d
4.6.3 Ac i d N u m b e r. Acid
N u m b e r, Ye a r s i n S e r vi c e .
n u mber (acidity) is t he
a mou n t of pot assiu m hydroxide (KOH) in milligra m s (mg) t h a t it t a kes to
ne u t r alize t he acid in 1 gr a m (gm) of t ra nsfor mer oil. The highe r t he acid n u mber,
t he more acid is in t he oil. New t r a n sfor me r oils con t ain p ractically no acid.
Oxida tion of t he ins ula tion a n d oils for ms acids a s t he t r a nsform er ages. The
oxida tion products for m sludge a nd precipit a te ou t inside t he t r a n sfor me r. The
acids a t t ack me t als inside t he t a n k a nd for m soa ps (more sludge). Acid also
a t t acks cellulose a nd accele r a tes ins ula tion degr a da tion. Sludging h a s been fou nd
to begin whe n t he acid n u m be r re aches 0.40; it is obvious t h a t t he oil should be
reclaimed before it re aches 0.40. It i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e oil b e r e c l a i m e d
w h e n it r e a c h e s 0.20 m g KOH/g m [20]. As wit h all ot hers, t his decision m u st
not be based on one DGA tes t, bu t wa tch for rising t re nd in t he acid n u m be r each
ye a r. Pla n a hea d a nd begin budge t pla n ning before t he acid n u mber re aches 0.20.

4.6.4 T e s t fo r Ox y g e n I n h ib i to r E v e r y 3 to 5 Ye ar s w i t h t h e An n u a l
DGA T e s t. In p revious section s, t he need to keep t he t ra nsfor mer dry a nd O 2 free
wa s e m ph a sized. Mois t u re is dest r uctive to cellulose a nd eve n more so in t he

62
prese nce of oxyge n. Som e publica tion s st a te t h a t each tim e you double t he
mois t u re (pp m), you h alve t he life of t he t r a nsform er. As wa s discu ssed, acids a re
for m ed t h a t a t t ack t he insula tion a nd m et als which for m more acids, ca using a
viscous cycle. Oxygen in hibitor is a key to exten ding t he life of t r a n sfor me rs. The
in hibitor cu r re n tly used is Dite r tia ry B u tyl P a r acresol (DBPC). This wor ks sor t of
like a sacrificial a node in grou nding circuits. The oxygen a t t acks t he in hibitor
in ste a d of t he cellulose insula tion. As t his occu rs a n d t he t ra n sfor me r ages, t he
in hibitor is u sed up a nd needs to be replaced. The ide al a mou n t of DB PC is 0.3%
by tot al weigh t of t he oil (ASTM D-3487).

H a ve t he in hibitor con ten t tested wit h t he DGA eve ry 3 to 5 ye a rs. If t he in hibitor

is 0.08% t he t r a n sfor me r is considered u nin hibited, a n d t he oxyge n freely a t t acks
t he cellulose. If t he in hibitor falls to 0.1%, t he t ra n sfor me r should be re-in hibited.
For exa m ple, if you r t r a nsform er test ed 0.1%, you need to go to 0.3% by adding
0.2% of t he tot al weigh t of t he t ra nsfor me r oil. The n a m epla te gives t he weigh t of
oil—s ay 5,000 pou n ds—so 5,000 pou nds X 0.002 = 10 pou n ds of DBP C needs to be
a dded. It’s ok if you ge t a lit tle too m uch DB PC; t his does not h u r t t he oil.
Dissolve 10 pou nds of DB PC in t ra n sfor me r oil t h a t you h ave he a ted to t he s a m e
te m per a t u re a s t he oil inside t he t r a nsfor mer. It m ay t a ke som e expe rim en t a tion
to get t he righ t a mou n t of oil to dissolve t he DB PC. Mix t he oil a n d in hibitor in a
clea n con t ainer u n til all t he DB PC is dissolved. Add t his mixt u re to t he
t ra n sfor me r using t he me t hod give n in t he t r a nsfor me r ins t r uction m a n u al for
a dding oil.

Ca u ti o n: Do not a t tem pt t his u nless you h ave h a d expe rie nce. Con t act a n
experienced con t r actor or experienced Recla m a tion people if you need help.

In eit her ca se, do not neglect t his im por t a n t m ain t en a nce fu nction; it is critical to
t ra n sfor me r insula tion to h ave t he p roper a mou n t of oxyge n in hibitor.

4.6.5 P o w e r F a c to r. Powe r factor indica tes t he dielect ric loss (le a k age cu r re n t)
of t he oil. This test m ay be done by t he DGA la bor a tories. It m ay also be done by
Doble tes ting. A high power factor in dica tes de terior a tion a nd/or con t a min a tion
by-products s uch a s wa te r, ca rbon, or ot he r cond ucting pa rticles; me t al soa ps
ca used by acids (form ed a s me n tioned above); a t t acking t r a nsfor m er m et als; a nd
product s of oxid a tion. The DGA labs nor m ally test t he power factor a t 25 °C a nd
100 °C. Doble infor m a tion [23] indica tes t he in-se rvice limit for power factor is
less t h a n 0.5% a t 25 °C. If t he powe r factor is gre a te r t h a n 0.5% a nd less t h a n
1.0%, fu r t he r inves tiga tion is required; t he oil m ay require replace me n t or fullers
e a r t h filtering. If th e p o w e r fa c t or i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1.0% a t 25 °C, th e o il m a y
c a u s e fail u r e of th e tr a n sfor m e r; r e pl a c e m e n t or r e c la i m i n g i s r e q u i r e d.
Above 2%, t he oil s hould be re moved from service a nd reclaimed or replaced
beca use equipme n t fa ilu re is a high probability.

4.6.6 F u r a n s. F u ra ns a re a fa mily of orga nic com pou nds which a re form ed by

degr a da tion of pa per insula tion (ASTM D-5837). Ove rhe a ting, oxida tion, a n d
degr a da tion by high moist u re con te n t con t ribu te to t he dest r uction of insula tion

63
 a nd for m fu r a nic compou n ds. C h a nges in fu ra ns betwee n DGA test s a re more
im port a n t t h a n in dividu al n u mbe rs. The sa me is t r ue for dissolved ga ses.
Tr a nsfor me rs wit h grea ter t h a n 250 pa r ts pe r billion (ppb) should be inves tiga ted
beca use p a per in sula tion is being degr a ded. Also look a t t he IFT a nd acid
n u mber.

Doble in-service limit s a re reprod uced below to su ppor t t he a bove recom m ended
guidelines.

Ta ble 12 below is excerp ted from Doble E nginee ring Comp a ny’s Reference Book on
Insulating Liquids an d Gases [23]. These Doble Oil Limit t a bles su ppor t
inform a tion give n in prior sections in t his F IST m a n u al a n d a re shown here as
su m m a ry t a bles.

Table 12.—Doble Limits for In-Service Oils

Voltage Class

69 kV >69 288 kV >288 kV

1
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage, D 877, kV min 26 30

Dielectric Breakdown Voltage 20 20 25

D 1816, .04-inch gap, kV, min.

Power Factor at 25 °C, D 924, max. 0.5 0.5 0.5

2 2 2
Water Content, D 1533, ppm, max. 35 25 20

Interfacial Tension, D 971, dynes/cm, min. 25 25 25

Neutralization Number, D 974, mg KOH/gm, max. 0.2 0.15 0.15

Visual Exam clear and bright clear and bright clear

3 3 3
Soluble Sludge ND ND ND

1
D 877 test is not as sensitive to dissolved water as the D 1816 test and should not be used with oils for extra high voltage
(EHV) equipment. Dielectric breakdown tests do not replace specific tests for water content.
2
The use of absolute values of water-in-oil (ppm) do not always guarantee safe conditions in electrical apparatus. The percent
by dry weight should be determined from the curves provided. See the information in section. “4.5 Moisture Problems.”
3
ND = None detectable.
These recommended limits for in-service oils are not intended to be used as absolute requirements for removing oil from
service but to provide guidelines to aid in determining when remedial action is most beneficial. Remedial action will vary
depending upon the test results. Reconditioning of oil, that is, particulate removal (filtration) and drying, may be required if the
dielectric breakdown voltage or water content do not meet these limits. Reclamation (clay filtration) or replacement of the oil may
be required if test values for power factor, interfacial tension, neutralization number, or soluble sludge do not meet recommended
limits.

64
4.6.7 Ta k i n g Oil S a m p l e s for DGA. S a m pling procedu res a nd lab h a ndling a re
u su ally a rea s t h a t ca u se t he most problem s in ge t ting a n accu r a te DGA. There
a re times whe n a t mosphe ric ga ses, mois t u re, or hydrogen t a ke a su dde n le a p from
one DGA to t he next. As h a s bee n me n tioned, a t t hese times, one s hould
im media tely t a ke a not he r s a m ple to confir m DGA values. It is, of cou rse, possible
t h a t t he t ra n sfor me r h a s developed a n a t mosp heric lea k, or t h a t a fa ult h a s
suddenly occu r red inside. More often, t he sa m ple h a s not bee n t a ken prope rly, or
it h a s been con t a min a t ed wit h a t mosphe ric ga ses or mis h a ndled in ot her ways.
The sa m ple m u st be p rotected from all con t a min a tion, including a t mosp heric
expos u re.

Do not t a ke sa m ples from t he s m all sa m ple por t s loca ted on t he side of t he la rge
sa mple (d r ain) valves. These por ts a re too sm all to a dequ a tely flush t he la rge
valve a n d pipe nipple con nected to t he t a n k; in a ddition, air ca n be dr awn pa st t he
t h re a ds a nd con t a min a te t he sa m ple. F luid in t he valve a nd pipe nipple re m ain
dor m a n t d u ring oper a tion a n d ca n be con t a min a ted wit h moist u re, microscopic
ste m packing p a rticles, a nd ot he r p a r ticles. The volu me of oil in t his loca tion ca n
also be con t a min a ted wit h ga ses, especially hydrogen. Hydrogen is one of t he
e a sies t ga sses to for m. Wit h hot s u n on t he side of t he t r a n sfor me r t a n k whe re
t he sa m ple va lve is loca t ed, high a mbien t te mpe r a t u re, high oil te mpe r a t u re, a n d
ca pt u red oil in t he s a m ple valve a nd exte nsion, hydroge n for med will st ay in t his
a rea u n til a sa m ple is dr a wn.

The la rge sa m ple (dr ain) valve ca n also be con t a min a ted wit h hydrogen by
galva nic action of dissimila r m et als. S a mple valves a re us u ally br a ss, a nd a br a ss
pipe plug s hould be inst alled whe n t he valve is not being used. If a galva nized or
black iron pipe is inst alled in a br a ss valve, t he dissimila r me t als produce a
t her mocouple effect, a nd circula ting cu rren ts a re p roduced. As a res ult, hyd roge n
is gene r a t ed in t he void be tween t he plug a n d valve ga te. If t he valve is not
flu shed v e r y t horoughly t he DGA will s how high hyd roge n.

Oil should not be s a m pled for DGA pu rposes whe n t he t ra nsfor mer is a t or below
freezing te m per a t u re. Tes t values which a re affected by wa ter (such as dielect ric
st rengt h, power factor, a n d dissolved moist u re con te n t) will be in accu r a te.

Ca u ti o n: Tr a n s for m e r s m u s t n ot b e s a m p l e d if t h e r e i s a n e g a ti v e
p r e s s u r e (v a c u u m) a t t h e s a m p l e v al v e.

This is typically not a problem wit h conse rva tor t r a nsform ers. If t he t r a nsform er
is nit rogen bla n ke ted, look a t t he pressu re/vacu u m gage. If t he pressu re is
positive, go a he a d a nd t a ke t he s a mple. If t he pressu re is nega tive, a vacu u m
exist s a t t he top of t he t r a nsform er. If t here is a vacu u m a t t he bot tom, air will be
pulled in whe n t he sa m ple valve is ope ned. W ait u n til t he p ress u re gage re ads
positive before s a m pling. P u lli n g i n a v ol u m e of a ir c o u l d b e d i s a s tr o u s if
t h e tr a n sfo r m e r i s e n e r g iz e d.

If nega tive pressu re (vacu u m) is not too high, t he weigh t of oil (he ad) will m a ke
positive pressu re a t t he sa mple valve, a nd it will be s afe to t a ke a sa m ple. Oil

66
he a d is a bou t 2.9 fee t (2 feet 10.8 inches) of oil per pou n ds pe r squ a re inch (psi). If
it is im por t a n t to t a ke t he s a m ple eve n wit h a vacu u m showing a t t he top, proceed
a s described below.

Use t he s a m ple t ubing a n d ad a ptors described below to a d ap t t he la rge sa m ple

valve to -inch tygon t ubing. Fill a le ngt h (2 to 3 fee t) of tygon t ubing wit h new
t ra n sfor me r oil (no air bubbles) a nd a t t ach one e nd to t he pipe plug a n d t he ot he r
e nd to t he sm all valve. Open t he la rge s a m ple (dr ain) valve a sm all a mou n t a n d
ve ry slowly cr ack open t he sm all valve. If oil i n t h e ty g o n tu b i n g m o v e s
to w ar d t h e tr a n sfor m e r, s h u t off t h e v al v e s i m m e d i at e l y. D o n o t a ll o w a ir
to b e p u ll e d i n t o t h e tr a n sfor m e r. If oil moves towa rd t he t ra nsfor mer, t he re
is a vacu u m a t t he sa m ple valve. Wait u n til t he press u re is positive before t a king
t he DGA s a mple. If oil is pu shed ou t of t he tygon t ubing in to t he wa ste con t aine r,
t here is a positive press u re a nd it is safe to p roceed wit h DGA s a mpling. S h u t off
t he valves a nd configu re t he t ubing a nd valves to t a ke t he s a m ple pe r t he
in st r uctions below.

D GA O i l S a m p le Co n t a i n e r. Gla ss sa mple syringes a re recom men ded. There

a re diffe re n t con t ainers s uch a s s t ainless steel vacu u m bot tles a nd ot he rs. It is
recom me nded t h a t only gla ss syringes be u sed. If t here is a sm all lea k in t he
sa mpling t ubing or con nection s, vacu u m bot tles will dr aw air in to t he sa m ple,
which ca n not be see n in side t he bot tle. The sa m ple will s how high a t mosp heric
ga ses a nd high mois t u re if t he air is h u mid. Ot he r con t a min a tes s uch a s
suspe nded solids or free wa te r ca n not be see n in side t he vacu u m bot tle. Gla ss
syringes a re t he sim ples t to u se beca u se air bubbles a re e asily seen a n d expelled.
Ot he r con t a min a tes a re e asily seen, a nd a not he r s a m ple ca n be im media tely
t a ken if t he s a m ple is con t a min a ted. The downside is t h a t glass syringes m us t be
h a n dled ca refully a nd m u st be p rotected from direct s u nligh t. They s hould be
ret u r ned to t heir shipping con t aine r im media tely afte r t a king a sa m ple. If t hey
a re exposed to s u nligh t for a ny time, hyd roge n will be ge ner a ted a nd t he DGA will
show false hyd rogen re adings.

For t hese rea sons, gla ss syringes a re recom me nded, a nd t he ins t r uction s below
inclu de only t his s a m pling me t hod.

Obt ain a br a ss pipe plug (nor m ally 2 inches) t h a t will t h rea d in to t he s a m ple
valve a t t he bot tom of t he t ra n sfor me r. Drill a nd t a p t he pipe plug for -inch
N PT a nd in ser t a -inch pipe nipple (br a ss if possible) a nd a t t ach a sm all -inch
valve for con t rolling t he sa m ple flow. At t ach a -inch tygon t ubing a da ptor to t he
sm all valve ou tle t. Sizes of t he piping a nd t h rea ds above do not m a t ter; a ny
a r r a nge men t wit h a s m all s a mple valve a n d a d ap tor to -inch tygon t ubing will
suffice. See figu re 25.

67
T a k i n g t h e S a m p l e.

• Remove t he existing pipe

plug a nd inspect t he valve
ope ning for ru st a nd
debris.

• Cr ack open t he valve a nd

allow jus t e nough oil to
flow in to t he wa ste
con t aine r to flu sh t he valve
a nd t h rea ds. Close t he
valve a nd wipe t he t h rea ds
Fi g u r e 25.—Oil S a m p li n g P i p i n g.
a nd ou tle t wit h a clea n d ry
clot h.

• Re-open t he valve sligh tly a nd flus h a pproxim a tely 1 qu a r t in to t he wa ste

con t aine r.

• Ins t all t he br a ss pipe plug (described a bove) a n d a ssocia ted -inch pipe a n d
sm all valve, a n d a short piece of new -inch tygon t ubing to t he ou tlet of t he
-inch valve.

• Neve r use t he s a m e sa m ple t ubing on diffe re n t t r a n sfor me rs. This is one way
a s a m ple ca n be con t a min a ted a n d give false re a dings.

• Ope n bot h t he la rge valve a nd s m all sa mple valve a n d a llow a not her qu a r t to
flush t h rough t he s a mpling a ppa r a t us. Close bot h valves. Do t his before
a t t aching t he gla ss sa m ple syringe. Ma ke s u re t he shor t piece of tygon t ubing
t h a t will a t t ach to t he s a mple syringe is in st alled on t he -inch valve before
you do t his.

• Ins t all t he gla ss sa m ple syringe on t he short piece of -inch t ubing. Tu r n t he

stopcock h a ndle on t he syringe so t h a t t he h a n dle poin ts towa rd t he syringe.
N o t e: T h e h a n d l e al w a y s p o i n ts to w ar d t h e c l o s e d p or t. The ot her two
port s a re ope n to e ach ot he r. See figu re 26.

Fi g u r e 26.—S a m p l e S y ri n g e (Fl u s h i n g).

68
• Open t he la rge s a m ple valve a s m a ll a mou n t a nd a dju st t he -inch valve so
t h a t a gen tle flow goes t h rough t he flushing por t of t he gla ss syringe in to t he
was te bucket.

• Slowly t u rn t he syringe s topcock h a ndle so t h a t t he h a ndle poin ts to t he

flus hing por t (figu re 27). This closes t he flu shing a nd allows oil to flow in to
t he s a m ple syringe. Do not p ull t he syringe h a n dle; t his will crea te a vacu u m
a nd allow bubbles to for m. The syringe h a ndle (piston) should back ou t ve ry
slowly. If it moves
too fa st, a djust t he
sm all -inch valve
u n til t he syringe
slows, a n d hold
you r h a n d on t he
back of t he pis ton so
Fi g u r e 27.—S a m p l e S y ri n g e (F illi n g). you ca n con t rol t he
t r avel.

• Allow a sm all a mou n t, abou t 10 cubic ce n tim ete rs (cc), to flow in to t he syringe
a nd t u r n t he stopcock h a ndle again so t h a t it poin ts to t he syringe. This will
again allow oil to com e ou t of t he flus hing por t in to t he was te bucket.

• P ull t he syringe off t he t ubing, bu t do not

sh u t off t he oil flow. Allow t he oil flow to
con tin ue in to t he wa s te bucke t.

• Hold t he syringe ver tical a nd t u rn t he

stopcock up so t h a t t he h a n dle poin ts away
from t he syringe. P ress t he syringe pis ton
to eject a ny air bubbles, bu t le ave 1 or 2 cc
oil in t he syringe. See t he accom p a nying
figu re 28.

Ca u ti o n: Do not eject all t he oil, or air

will reen te r.
F i g u r e 28.—S a m pl e S yr i n g e
• Tu r n t he s topcock h a n dle towa rd t he B u b b l e R e m o v a l.
syringe. The s m all a mou n t of oil in t he
syringe should be free of bubbles a nd re a dy to receive t he sa m ple. If t he re a re
still bubbles a t t he top, repea t t he process u n til you h ave a s m all a mou n t of oil
in t he syringe wit h no bubbles.

• Rea t t ach t he tygon t ubing. This will again allow oil to flow ou t of t he flus hing
port. Slowly t u rn t he s topcock h a ndle towa rd t he flus hing por t which again
will allow oil to fill t he syringe. The syringe piston will again back slowly ou t
of t he syringe. Allow t he syringe to fill abou t 80% full. Hold t he pis ton so you
ca n s top its movem en t a t a bou t 80% filled.

Ca u ti o n: Do not pull t he piston. This will ca u se bubbles to for m.

69
• Close t he stopcock by t u r ning t he h a ndle towa rd t he syringe. Oil a gain will
flow in to t he wa ste con t aine r. S h u t off bot h valves, re move t he s a mpling
a pp a r a t u s, a n d reinst all t he origin al pipe plug.

Ca u ti o n: Do not eject a ny bubbles t h a t for m afte r t he sa m ple is collected;

t hese a re ga ses t h a t s hould be included in t he la b s a mple.

• Ret u r n t he syringe to it s origin a l con t ainer im media tely. D o n o t all o w

s u n li g h t t o i m p a c t th e c o n ta i n e r for a n y l e n g t h of ti m e. Hyd roge n will
for m a n d give false re a dings in t he DGA.

• Ca refully p acka ge t he syringe in t he sa me m a n ne r t h a t it wa s shipped to t he

facility a nd sen d it to t he la b for processing.

• Dispose of wa st e oil in t he pla n t was te oil con t ainer.

4.6.8 S ili c o n e Oil-F ill e d Tr a n sfor m e r s. Silicone oils beca me more com mon
when PCBs we re discon tin ued. They a re m ainly u sed in t r a nsfor me rs inside
buildings a nd t h a t a re sm alle r t h a n gener a tor step-up t r a nsfor mers. Silicone oils
h ave a higher fire poin t t h a n miner al oils a nd, t herefore, a re u sed where fire
conce rn s a re more critical. As of t his writing, t here a re no definitive published
st a nd a rds. IE E E h as a guide a n d Doble h a s som e service limits, bu t t here a re no
st a nd a rds. Infor m a tion below is t a ke n from t he IE E E p ublica tion, from Doble,
from a r ticles, from IEC 60599 concep ts, a nd from Delt a X Rese a rch’s/Tr a nsfor m er
Oil An alyst rules. Silicone oil dissolved ga s a n alysis is in t he begin ning s t ages,
a nd t he s ugges ted m et hods a nd limits below a re s ubject to ch a nge a s we gain
more experience. However, in t he a bse nce of a ny ot he r me t hods a nd limit s, use
t he ones below a s a begin ning.

Silicone oils u sed in t r a nsform ers a re polydim et hylsiloxa ne fluids, which a re

diffe re n t t h a n miner al oils. Ma ny of t he ga ses ge ner a ted by t he rm al a nd elect rical
fa ult s a re t he sa me. The ga ses a re gener a ted in differen t p roportions t h a n wit h
t ra n sfor me r mine ra l oils. Also, some fa ult ga ses h ave differen t solubilities in
silicone oils t h a n in miner al oils. Therefore, t he s a m e fa ult s would produce
diffe re n t conce n t r a tion s a n d diffe re n t ge ner a tion r a tes in silicone oils t h a n
miner al oils.

As wit h mine r al oil-filled t r a nsform ers, t h ree principal ca uses of ga s ge ner a tion
a re a ging, t he rm al fa ults, a n d/or elect rical fa ults res ulting in de terior a tion of solid
in sula tion a nd de terior a tion of silicone fluid. These fa ults h ave bee n discussed a t
le ngt h in p rior sections a nd will not be discu ssed in grea t de t ail here.

Over hea ting of silicone oils ca u ses degr a da tion of fluid a nd gene r a tion of ga ses.
Ga ses ge ner a ted depe nd on t he a mou n t of dissolved oxyge n in t he fluid,
te m per a t u re, a nd how close ba re coppe r conductors a re to t he hea ting. Whe n a
t ra n sfor me r is new, silicone oil will typically con t ain a lot of oxyge n. Silicone
t ra n sfor me rs a re typically se aled a n d pressu rized wit h nit roge n. New silicone oil
is not dega ssed; a n d, a s a rule, oxyge n concen t r a tion will be equivalen t to oxyge n
solubility (m axim u m) in silicone. The silicone h a s been exposed to a t mosphe re for

70
som e time du ring m a n ufact u re of t he t r a nsfor mer a n d m a n ufact u re r a nd stor age
of silicone oil itself. Therefore, ca rbon monoxide a nd ca rbon dioxide a re e a sily
for m ed a nd dissolved in t he silicone due to t he a bu nd a nce of oxyge n in t he oil
resulting from t his a t mosphe ric exposu re. In nor m al new silicone t r a n sfor me rs
(no fa ults), bot h ca rbon monoxide a nd ca rbon dioxide will be gene ra ted in t he
initial yea rs of oper a tion. As t he t r a n sfor me r ages a nd oxyge n is deple ted,
gene r a tion of t hese ga ses slows a nd conce n t r a tion s level off [25]. See figu re 29
below for t he rela tion ship of decrea sing oxygen a n d increa sing ca rbon monoxide
a nd ca rbon dioxide a s a t r a n sfor me r ages. This cu rve is for ge ner al infor m a tion
only a nd should not be t a ken to represen t a ny p a r ticula r t ra nsfor mer. A re al
t ra n sfor me r wit h ch a nges in loa ding, a mbien t te m per a t u res, a n d va rious d u ty
cycles would m a ke t hese cu rves look tot ally diffe re n t.

Afte r t he
t ra n sfor me r is
older (a ssu ming no
fa ult s h ave
occu r red), oxygen
conce n t r a tion will
reach equilibriu m
(figu re 29).
Re aching
equilibriu m m ay
t a ke a few ye a rs
depe nding on t he
size of t he
t ra n sfor me r,
loa ding, a m bien t
te m per a t u res, e tc.
Afte r t his time,
oxyge n, ca rbon
monoxide, a nd Fi g u r e 29.—R e l ati o n s h i p of O x y g e n to Carb o n
ca rbon dioxide D i o xi d e a n d Car b o n Mo n o x i d e a s Tr a n sfo r m e r Ag e s.
level off a nd t he
r a te of p roduction of t hese ga ses from nor m al aging should be rela tively cons t a n t.
If ge ner a tion r a tes of t hese ga ses ch a nge gre a tly (seen from t he DGA), a fa ult h a s
occu r red, eit her t her m al or elect rical. Ra te of gene r a tion of t hese ga ses a nd
a mou n t s ca n be used to roughly dete rmine wh a t t he fa ult is. Once you notice a n
significa n t increa se in r a te of ge ner a tion of a ny ga s, it is a good idea to s ubt r act
t he a mou n t of ga s t h a t wa s alrea dy in t he t ra nsfor mer before t his increa se. This
e nsu res t h a t ga ses used in t he diagnosis a re only ga ses t h a t we re gene ra ted afte r
t he fa ult bega n.

C a rbon monoxide will be a lot highe r in a silicone t r a nsform er t h a n a miner al

oil-filled one. The difficulty is in t rying to de ter mine wh a t is prod ucing t he CO; is
it coming from nor m al aging of oil or from de terior a tion of pa per from a fa ult
con dition. The only solu tion is a fu r a n a n alysis. If t he CO con te n t is grea te r t h a n
t he IE E E limit of 3,000 pp m [26], a n d t he ge ner a tion ra te G1 is me t or exceeded, a
fu r a n a n alysis is recom me nded wit h t he a n n u al DGA. If a t her m al fa ult is

71
occu r ring a nd is p roducing CO a n d sm all a mou n ts of m et h a ne a nd hyd roge n, t he
fa ult m ay be m a sked by t he norm al p roduction of CO from t he silicone oil itself. If
t he CO ge ner a tion r a te h a s gre a tly increa sed, along wit h ot her ga ses, it becomes
obviou s t h a t a fa ult h a s occu r red. The fu r a n a n alysis ca n only tell you if t he pa pe r
is involved (being hea ted) in t he fa ult.

Some ge ner al conclu sion s ca n be dr a wn by com pa ring silicone oil a nd mine r al oil
t ra nsfor me rs.

1. All silicone oil filled t r a nsfor m ers will h ave a grea t deal more CO t h a n nor m al
miner al oil filled t r a nsform ers. CO ca n come from two sou rces, t he oil it self a nd
from degr ad a tion of p a per in sula tion. If t he DGA s hows lit tle ot he r fa ult in ga s
gene r a tion besides CO, t he only way to tell for ce r t ain if CO is coming from p a per
degr a da tion (a fa ult) is to r u n a fu ra n a n alysis wit h t he DGA. If ot her fa ult gases
a re a lso being gener a ted in significa n t a mou n ts, in a ddition to CO, obviou sly t here
is a fa ult, a nd CO is coming from pa pe r degr ad a tion.

2. There will ge ner ally be more hydrogen presen t t h a n in a mine ral oil-filled
t ra nsfor me r.

3. Due to “fa ult m a sking,” men tioned above, it is almost impossible to diagnose
wh a t is going on inside a silicone filled t r a n sfor me r based solely on DGA. One
exception is if acetyle ne is being ge ner a ted, t here is a n active a rc. You m u st also
look a t ga s ge ner a tion r a tes a nd ope ra ting his tory. Look a t loa ding history,
t h rough fa ult s, a nd ot he r incide n ts. It is impe r a tive t h a t de t ailed records of
silicone oil filled t r a n sfor me rs be ca refully kep t u p-to-d a te. These a re invalu able
when a p roble m is e ncou n te red.

4. If acetyle ne is being gener a ted in a ny a mou n t, t he re is a definitely a n active

elect rica l a rc. The t ra n sfor me r should be removed from se rvice.

5. In gener al, oxyge n in a silicone-filled t r a nsform er com es from a t mosp heric

le a ks or wa s prese n t in t he t ra nsfor me r oil when it wa s new. This oxygen is
con su m ed a s CO a nd CO 2 a re for med from t he nor m al he a ting from ope r a tion of
t he t r a n sfor me r.

6. Once t he t r a n sfor me r h a s m a t u red a nd t he oxygen h a s leveled off a n d

rem ained rela tively con st a n t for two or more DGA s a mples, if you see a su dde n
increa se in oxygen, a nd pe rh aps ca rbon dioxide a nd nit roge n, t he t r a nsform er h a s
developed a le a k.

In t a ble 14 below a re IE E E limit s [26], com pa red wit h Doble [25] in a st udy of
299 oper a ting t ra nsfor mers. The t able of ga ses from t he Doble st udy see ms more
realis tic. They s how ga s level ave rage of 95% of t ra nsfor me rs in t he s t udy. Note,
wit h t he la st fou r ga ses, limits given by t he IE E E (t rial use guide) r u n ove r 70%
highe r t h a n t he Doble 95% nor m s. B u t wit h t he first t h ree ga ses, hydroge n,
m et h a ne, a n d e t h a ne, t he IE E E limits a re well below t he a mou n t of ga s fou n d in
95% norm s in t he Doble st udy. We ob vi o u sl y c a n n ot h a v e li m i ts th at a r e
b e lo w t h e a m o u n t of g a s fo u n d i n n o r m a l o p e ra ti n g tr a n sfor m e r s.

72
 Therefore, it is s uggested t h a t we use t he Doble (95% nor m) limits. The
95% norm limit mea n s t h a t 95% of t he silicone oil t r a nsfor m ers st udied h a d ga s
levels below t hese limits. Obviously, 5% h a d ga ses higher t h a n t hese limits.
These a re problem t ra nsfor mers t h a t we s hould pay more a t te n tion to.

Table 14.—Comparison of Gas Limits

Gas Doble 95% Norm IEEE Limits

Hydrogen 511 200

Methane 134 100

Ethane 26 30

Ethylene 17 30

Acetylene 0.6 1

CO 1,749 3,000

CO2 15,485 30,000

Total Combustibles 2,024 3,360

In t a ble 15, t he IE E E limit s for L1 were chose n. For L2 limit s, a s t a tis tical
a n alysis wa s a pplied, a nd two st a n da rd devia tion s were a dded to L1 to obt ain L2.
For L3 limits, t he L1 limits were doubled.

Table 15.—Suggested Levels of Concern (Limits)

L1 L2 L3 G1 G2
Gas (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm per month) (ppm per month)

Hydrogen 200 240 400 20 100

Methane 100 125 200 10 50

Ethane 30 40 60 3 15

Ethylene 30 25 60 3 15

Acetylene 1 2 3 1 1

CO 3,000 3,450 6,000 300 1,500

CO2 30,000 34,200 60,000 1,500 15,000

TDCG 3,360 3,882 6,723 na na

Ga s ge ner a tion r a te limits G1 a re 10% of L1 limits pe r mon t h. G2 gene r a tion r a te

limits a re 50% of L1 limit s per mon t h. These ba sic concept s were t a ken from IEC
60599 [12], for miner al oil t r a nsform ers a nd a pplied to silicone oil t r a nsfor me rs

73
due to abse nce of a ny ot her criteria. As ou r experience grows in silicone DGA,
t hese m ay h ave to be ch a nged, bu t t hey will be used in t he begin ning.

Limits L1, L2, a nd L3 represen t t he concen t r a tion in individu a l ga ses in pp m. G1

a nd G2 represen t s ge ner a tion r a t es of in divid u al ga ses in ppm pe r mon t h. To
obt ain G1 a n d G2 in ppm pe r day divide t he pe r mon t h n u mbe rs by 30. Except for
acetyle ne, G1 is 10% of L1 a n d G2 is 50% of L1. The ge ner a tion ra tes (G1, G2),
a re poin t s whe re ou r level of concer n should incre ase, especially when considered
wit h t he L1, L2, a nd L3 limit s. At G2 gene ra tion r a te, we s hould be ext remely
conce rned a n d reduce t he DGA sa mpling in t erval accordingly, a nd pe r h a ps pla n
a n ou t age, etc.

Except for ace tylene, gene ra tion r a te levels G1 a nd G2 were t a ken from IEC 60599
reference [12] which is used wit h miner al oil t r a n sfor me rs. An y a m o u n t of
o n g o i n g a c e t yl e n e g e n e r ati o n m e a n s a c ti v e ar c i n g i n s i d e t h e
tra n sfor m e r. In t h i s c a s e, th e tr a n s for m e r s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d fro m
s e r v i c e. These criteria were chose n beca use of a n absence of a ny ot her criteria.
As dissolved ga s a n alysis criteria for silicone oils becomes be t te r k nown a nd
qu a n tified t able 15 will ch a nge to reflect new infor m a tion.

As w i t h m i n e r al o il-fill e d tr a n sfor m e r s, g a s g e n e r a ti o n r a t e s ar e m u c h
m o r e i m p or ta n t t h a t t h e a m o u n t of g a s p r e s e n t. Tot al accu m ula ted ga s
depe nds a lot on a ge (a n olde r t r a nsform er h as more ga s). If t he r a t e of ge ner a tion
of a ny combu stible ga s shows a s udden incre a se in t he DGA, t a ke a not her oil
sa mple im media tely to confir m t he gas gene r a tion r a te incre a se. If t he second
DGA confir m s a ge ner a tion ra te increa se, get some ou tside a dvice. Be ca reful; ga s
gene r a tion ra tes incre ase som ewh a t wit h tem pe ra t u re va ria tions ca u sed by
increa sed loa ding a nd su m me r a mbien t te mpe r a t u res. Howeve r, highe r oper a ting
te m per a t u res a re also t he mos t likely con ditions for a fa ult to occu r. The re al
question is h a s t he increa sed gas gene r a tion r a te been ca u sed by a fa ult or
increa sed tem pe ra t u re from gre a t er loa ding or higher a mbien t te m per a t u re?

If gas gene r a tion r a tes a re fairly con st a n t (no big increa ses a nd less t h a n G1
limits a bove), wh a t do we do if a t r a nsfor me r exceeds t he L1 limit s? We begin to
pay more a t te n tion to t h a t t r a nsfor m er, just a s we do wit h a mine r al oil
t ra n sfor me r. We m ay s hor te n t he DGA s a m pling in te rval, reduce loa ding, check
t ra n sfor me r cooling, ge t som e ou t side a dvice, etc. As wit h miner al oil
t ra n sfor me rs, age exer t s a big influe nce in accu m ula ted ga s. We s hould be m uch
more conce rned if a 3-ye a r old t r a nsfor m er which h a s exceeded t he L1 limits t h a n
if a 30-yea r old t r a nsfor mer exceeds t he limit s. However, if G1 ge ner a tion r a t es
a re exceeded in eit her a n old or new t r a n sfor me r, we should step up ou r level of
conce rn.

If accu m ula ted ga s exceeds t he L2 limit, we m ay pla n to h ave t he t r a nsfor mer

dega ssed. Exa mine t he p hysical test s in t he DGAs a n d com p a re t hem to t he
Doble/IE E E t able (t able 16) (Reference Book on Insulating L iquids an d Gasses)
[23]. The oil should be t re a ted in wh a teve r m a n ne r is a pp ropria te if t hese limits
a re exceeded.

74
 If bot h L1 limits a nd G1 limit s a re exceeded, we should becom e m o r e c o n c e r n e d.
Reduce sa m pling in tervals, get ou t side advice, reduce loa ding, check t r a n sfor me r
cooling a nd oil levels, e tc. If G2 g e n e r ati o n li m i ts ar e e x c e e d e d, w e s h o u ld
b e e x tr e m e l y c o n c e r n e d. It will not be long before L3 limit s a re exceeded, a nd
con sider a tion m u st be given to removing t he t r a nsfor me r from se rvice, for testing,
repair, or replace me n t.

If a c e t yl e n e i s b e i n g g e n e ra t e d, t h e tr a n sfor m e r s h o u ld b e ta k e n o u t of
s e r v i c e. However a s wit h miner al oil t r a nsform ers, a one-tim e ne a rby ligh t ning
st rike or t h rough fa ult ca n ca use a “one-tim e” ge ner a tion of acetylene. If you
notice acetyle ne in t he DGA, im media tely t a ke a not he r sa m ple. If t h e a m o u n t of
a c e t yl e n e is i n c r e a s i n g, a n a c ti v e e l e c tr i c a l ar c i s p r e s e n t w it h i n t h e
tra n sfor m e r. It s h o u l d b e ta k e n o u t of s e r vi c e .

If you h ave a critical silicone (or miner al oil-filled t ra nsfor mer), such a s a single
st a tion service t r a nsform er, or excit a tion t r a nsfor mer, you should find ou t if a
sp a re is availa ble a t a not her facility or from Weste rn Area Power Ad minist r a tion
or Bon neville Power. If t here a re no ot her possible spa res consider begin ning t he
bu dget process for get ting a spa re t r a n sfor me r.

Ta ble 16 lis ts test limit s for se rvice-aged silicone filled t ra n sfor me r oil. If a ny of
t hese limits a re exceeded, it is sugges ted t h a t t he oil be t re a ted in wh a teve r
m a n ner is a pprop ria te to ret u rn t he oil to servicea ble con dition.

Table 16.—Doble and IEEE Physical Test Limits for Service-Aged Silicone Fluid

Unacceptable Values ASTM

Test Acceptable Limits Indicate Test Method

Visual Clear free of particles Particulates, D 1524

free water D 2129

Dielectric breakdown 30 kV Particulates, D 877

voltage dissolved water

Water content 70 ppm (Doble) Dissolved water D 1533

maximum 100 ppm (IEEE) contamination

Power factor max. 0.2 Polar/ionic D 924

at 25 °C contamination

Viscosity at 47.5–52.5 Fluid degradation D 44

25 °C, cSt contamination

Acid neutralization 0.1 (Doble) Degradation of D 974

number max, 0.2 (IEEE) cellulose or
mg KOH/gm contamination

Note: If only one number appears, both Doble and IEEE have the same limit.

75
 If t he above limits a re exceeded in t he DGA, t he silicone oil should be
filtered, dried or t rea ted to cor r ect t he specific p roblem.

4.7 Tr a n sfor m e r T e s ti n g

Wh e n t h e tr a n sfo r m e r i s n e w b e fo r e e n e r gi z i n g a n d e v e ry 3 t o 5 y e ar s, t h e
tra n sfor m e r a n d b u s h i n g s s h o u ld b e D o bl e te st e d. Tr a nsfor me r testing falls in to
t h ree broa d ca tegories: F actory tes ting when t he t r a nsfor mer is new or h a s been
refu rbished, accept a nce testing upon delivery, a n d field t es ting for m ain te n a nce a nd
diagnos tic p u rposes. Some test s a t t he factory a re com mon to most powe r
t ra n sfor me rs, bu t m a ny of t he factory t es ts a re t r a nsform er- specific. Table 17 list s
sever al test s. This test ch a rt h a s been a da pted from IE E E 62-1995 reference [19]. Not
all of t he lis ted test s a re done a t t he factory, a nd not all of t hem a re done in t he field.
E ach t r a n sfor me r a nd e ach sit u a tion is differen t, requiring its own u nique a pproach
a nd test s.

Det ails of how to r u n specific tes ts will not be addressed in t his F IST. It would be
im pr actical to repe a t how to do Doble tes ting of a t ra nsfor mer whe n t he inform a tion is
rea dily availa ble in Doble p ublica tions. Wit h some exception s, t his is t r ue for mos t of
t he t es ts. Specific infor m a tion is re a dily available wit hin t he t es t in st r u m en t
m a n ufact u re rs liter a t u re. Anot he r exa mple is t he t ra nsfor me r t u r ns r a tio t es t (TTR);
specific t es t inform a tion is availa ble wit h t he ins t r u me n t. Howeve r, infor m a tion on
som e tes ts m ay not be ava ila ble a nd will be cove red briefly.

4.7.1 Wi n d i n g R e s i s ta n c e s. Winding resist a nces a re tes ted in t he field to check

for loose con nection s, broken st ra nds, a nd high con t act resist a nce in t a p ch a nge rs.
Key ga ses incre a sing in t he DGA will be e t h a ne a n d/or et hyle ne a n d possibly
m et h a ne. Res ult s a re com p a red to ot her p h a ses in wye con nected t r a nsform ers or
betwee n p airs of ter min als on a delt a-con nect ed winding to det er mine if a
resis t a nce is too high. Resist a nces ca n also be com pa red to t he origin al factory
m ea su re men ts. Agree me n t wit hin 5% for a ny of t he a bove comp a risons is
con side red sa tisfactory. You m ay h ave to conver t resis t a nce m ea su re men ts to t he
reference te mpe r a t u re u sed a t t he factory (u su ally 75 °C) to com pa re you r
resis t a nce m ea su rem en t s to t he factory result s. To do t his u se t he following
for m ula:

Ts Tk
Rs Rm
Tm Tk
Rs = Resist a nce a t t he factory reference te mpe r a t u re (fou n d in t he t r a nsform er
m a n u al)
Rm = Resist a nce you act u ally mea s u red
Ts = F actory reference tem pe ra t u re (us u ally 75 °C)
Tm = Tem pe ra t u re a t which you took t he me as u reme n t s
Tk = a con st a n t for t he p a r ticula r m et al t he win ding is m a de from:
234.5 °C for copper 225 °C for alu min u m

76
sufficie n t to ca use des t r uctive circula ting cu rren ts a nd m u st be fu r t he r
investiga ted [19]. A solid core grou nd m ay rea d ze ro oh m s; t his, of cou rse, ca uses
des t r uctive circula ting cu rren t s also.

Some limited success h a s been obt ained in “bu r ning off” u nin te n tion al core
grou n ds using a dc or ac cu r ren t sou rce. This is a risky ope r a tion, a nd t he cu rren t
m ay ca u se a ddition al da m age. The cu rren t sou rce is nor m ally limited to 40 to
50 a m ps m axim u m a nd should be increa sed slowly so a s to u se a s lit tle cu rren t a s
possible to accom plis h t he t a sk. This should only be used a s a la s t resor t a n d t hen
only wit h consult a tion from t he m a n ufact u rer, if possible, a n d wit h ot he rs
experienced in t his t a sk.

78
 Table 17.—Transformer Test Summary Chart

Part to be Tested Test to be Performed

Windings Resistance Across Windings
Turns Ratio/Polarity/Phase
Excitation Current at All Tap Positions
Short Circuit Impedance
Insulation Resistance to Ground
Capacitance (Doble)
Power Factor/Dissipation Factor (Doble)
Induced Voltage/Partial Discharge/Riv
Bushings Capacitance (Doble)
Dielectric Loss (Doble)
Power Factor/Dissipation Factor (Doble)
Partial Discharge (Doble)
Temperature (Infrared)
Oil Level (Sight Glass)
Visual Inspection (Cracks and Cleanliness)
DGA Insulating Oil Dissolved Gas Analysis
Dielectric Strength
Interfacial Tension
Acid Number
Visual Inspection
Color
Water Content
Oxygen Inhibitor
Power Factor/Dissipation Factor
Tap Changers - Load Contact Pressure and Continuity
Temperature (Infrared)
Turns Ratio at All Positions
Timing
Motor Load Current
Limit Switch Operation and Continuity
Tap Changers - No Load Contact Pressure and Continuity
Centering
Turns Ratio at All Positions
Visual Inspection
Core Core Insulation Resistance to Tank
Ground Test
Tanks and Associated Devices Pressure/Vacuum/Temperature Gages - Calibration
Temperature (Infrared)
Visual Inspection (Leaks and Corrosion)
Conservator Visual Inspection (Leaks and Corrosion)
Air Drier Desiccant Proper Color
Valves in Proper Position
Sudden Pressure Relay Calibration and Continuity
Buchholz Relay Proper Operation and Continuity
Cooling System Temperature (Infrared)
Heat Exchanger Radiators Clear Air Flow
Visual (Leaks, Cleaning, and Corrosion)
Fans Controls
Visual Inspection and Unusual Noise
Pumps Rotation and Flow Indicator
Motor Load Current

79
RE F E RE NCE S

1. IE E E S t a nd a rd C57.12.01-1989 S t a n da rd Gene r al Requireme n ts for Dry-Type

Dist ribu tion, Power, a nd Regula ting Tr a nsform ers (ANSI).

2. IE E E S t a nd a rd C57.12.00-1993 S t a n da rd Gene r al Requireme n ts for Liquid-Im me rsed

Dist ribu tion, Power, a nd Regula ting Tr a nsform ers (ANSI).

3. Powe r Tr a nsfor mer Ma in te n a nce a n d Tes ting, Ge ner al P hysics Corpor a tion. 1990.

4. Guidelines for t he Life Exte nsion of S ubst a tions E P RI, TR-105070. Ap ril 1995.

5. Tra nsfor mer M ain t en a nce Guide, by J .J Kelly, S.D. Myers, R.H. P a r rish,
S.D. Meyers Co. 1981.

6. Tra nsfor mer Gene r al Ga sketing P rocedu res, by Ala n Cote, S.D. Meyers Co. 1987.

7. N F PA 70B-1998 Recom men ded P r actice for Elect rical Equip me n t Ma in te n a nce.

8. Bus hing Field Tes t Guide, Doble E nginee ring Com p a ny. 1966.

9. Testing a nd Main ten a nce of High-Volt age Bu shings, F IST 3-2, B u rea u of
Recla m a tion. 1991.

10. IE E E S t a nd a rd C57.19.00, 1991 Gene ral Require me n ts a nd Test P rocedu re for

Ou tdoor Powe r Appa r a t us Bus hings.

11. IE E E S t a nd a rd C57.104-1991 Guide for t he In terp re t a tion of Ga ses Gene ra ted in Oil-
Im m ersed Tr a nsfor mers.

12. In te rn a tion al Elect rotech nical Com mission (Dr aft IEC 60599 Edition 2), Miner al Oil-
Im pregn a ted Elect rical Equipme n t in Se rvice-In te rpret a tion of Dissolved a nd F ree
Ga s An a lysis. 1997.

13. Dissolved Ga s An alysis of Tr a n sfor me r Oil, by Joh n C. Drotos, Joh n W. Por te r, Ra ndy
S tebbins, publis hed by t he S.D. Meyers Co. 1996.

14. IE E E S t a nd a rd C57.94, 1982, Recom men ded P r actice for In st alla tion, Applica tion,
Oper a tion a nd M ain ten a nce of Dry-Type Ge ner al P u rpose Dis t ribu tion a nd Powe r
Tra nsfor mers.

15. Criteria for t he In terp re t a tion of Da t a for Dissolved Ga ses in Oil from Tr a nsfor mers
(A Review), by P a ul Griffin, Doble E nginee ring Co. 1996.

16. Main ten a nce of High Volt a ge Tr a nsform ers, by Ma r tin Hea t h Cote Associa tes,
London, E ngla nd. 1989.

17. The r m al Monitors a nd Loa ding, by H a rold Moore, from Tr a nsform er P erfor m a nce
Monitoring a nd Diagnostics E P RI. Septe mber 1997.

80
18. IE E E a n d IEC Codes to In terpret Incipien t F a ult s in Tr a n sfor me rs, Using Ga s in Oil
An alysis, by R.R. Roge rs C.E.G.B, Tr a n smission Division, Guilford, E ngla nd. Circa
1995.

19. IE E E S t a nd a rd 62-1995, IE E E Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Elect rical Power
Appa r a t us, P a rt 1: Oil Filled Power Tr a nsform ers, Regula tors, a nd Reactors.

20. F IST 3-5 Main te n a nce of Liquid In sula tion: Miner al Oils a n d Ask a rels. 1992.

21. ANSI/ASTM D 971-91, S t a nd a rd Tes t Me t hod for In terfacial Ten sion of Oil Again st
W a te r by t he Ring Me t hod.

22. E PRI S ubs t a tion Equip men t Diagnos tics Conference VII, Expe rie nce wit h In-Field
W a te r Con t a min a tion of La rge Power Tr a n sfor me rs, by Victor V. Sokolov a n d Boris V.
Va nin, Scie n tific a nd E ngineering Ce n ter “ZTZ Se rvice Co.,” U kr aine. 1999

23. Doble E nginee ring Comp a ny “Refe re nce Book on In sula ting Liquids a nd Ga ses”
RBILG-391. 1993.

24. ANSI/IE E E C57.92-1981, Guide for Loa ding Mine r al Oil Im m ersed Tr a nsform ers.

25. Doble E nginee ring Comp a ny Clien t Confe re nce Min u tes 1998 Insula ting Fluids
No. 65PAIC98.

26. IE E E P 1258, Trial-Use Guide for t he In t erpret a tion of Gases Ge ner a ted in Silicone-
Im m ersed Tr a nsfor mers. 1999.

27. ASTM D-1933-97. St a nda rd Specifica tion of Nit roge n Ga s a s a n Elect rical Ins ula ting
Ma terial.

28. ASTM D-3487-88, St a nda rd Specifica tion for Miner al In sula ting Oil Used in
Elect rical Appa r a t us.

29. ASTM D-5837-96, St a nda rd Test Met hod for F u r a nic Com pou n ds in Elect rical
Ins ula ting Liquids by High P erfor m a nce Liquid Ch rom a togr a phy.

30. ASTM F-36-99, S t a nd a rd Tes t Me t hod for Com pressibility a n d Recove ry of Ga ske t
Ma terials.

31. ASTM D-2240-97, St a nda rd Test Met hod for Rubbe r P rope rty – Du rome ter H a rdness.

81