Project Communications

Project communications
Introduction
Once the project is underway there are two main functions the Project Manager must
perform:
o lead the team undertaking the tasks allocated within the Project Plan, and
o communicate on a continuing basis with everyone involved in the process or
outcomes of the project.
Outside of the Project Plan itself, it is these two functions that will ensure, more than any
other, that the project achieves its desired objectives on time, to quality and within cost.
Communications play a significant role in leadership and the ability to communicate is an

important competency of an effective Project Manager or Co-ordinator.
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Communication management
Communication management
Purposeful Organisational Communication
Purposeful organisational communication means that:
 people at all levels are sensitive to changes in the outside environment
 top managers give inspiration and direction
 managers are skilful persuaders
 the work of specialists is well integrated
 all possible steps are taken to overcome geographical barriers
 everyone knows what is required of them
 those with power are trusted
 no group is treated as inferior because of prejudice
 people support each other in teams
 there is an effective flow of ‘bottom-up’ communication
 communication processes are speedy and cost-effective, and
 individuals are skilled in personal communication
Part of good communication is asking specific questions and listening effectively. (see appendix 1 for
Clarifying Questions examples and Effective Listening Guidelines)
Communications within the project environment go beyond simply talking with people. Effective
project communications include:
 interpersonal communication (communicating with others), and the particular

management style appropriate to the situation and the context in which it is taking place
 the flow of information into, out of and within the project environment, and
 the reports and reviews used as control measures to ensure the project, and any future
projects, run smoothly.
For this to work effectively there are a number of critical competencies that both Project Managers
and Project Co-ordinators must have. These are skills and knowledge to:
 effectively plan the communications needs of the projects (communications planning)

 manage project information, in particular manage the project information plan
(Communications Management Plan)
 manage communications within the project environment, both formal and informal (as
part of the Project Plan), and
 analyse communications management outcomes with a view to improving current and
future processes (control and review).
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Interpersonal communication and management style
The first critical element noted above is the interpersonal communications and management style
used by the Project Manager or Co-ordinator.
The role and responsibilities of a Project Manager or Co-ordinator are complex enough given that
he/she must not only look after a number of important elements in the management of the project
plan, her/she must also integrate all the functions of the project within an ever-changing
environment. This means that when it comes to communicating with others, important skills are:
 being able to express oneself simply and objectively

 listening – not just to what is said but also to what is not being said
 being able to contribute information effectively and with tact
 acknowledging and using the expertise and advice of others
 being able to explain what the team is doing concisely and clearly
 being able to gain trust, confidence and support of others, and
 being able to manage conflict situations.
Planning the flow of information

Within any project, effective communications don’t just happen – they are planned and implemented
in a structured and clear way. This is just as much a part of your role in the management of the
project as is the development of a budget or schedule. It involves developing a strategy to make the
best use of the people and processes available to you given the nature of the project, the
environment in which it is to be run, and culture of the group for whom, or with whom, you are
working. Some people prefer information to be presented succinctly and others like to have all the
detail. Understand the people you are working with so that you can provide information
appropriately.
There are a number of devices in a communications strategy, ranging from short, informal
meetings to tightly structured communications schedules. These take into account the normal,
preferred way of doing things and are often planned to take place at critical stages in the lifecycle
of your project.
When developing such strategies you should be aware of two important areas that will either assist
or impede the flow of information throughout the project lifecycle. These are:
 The way the project environment is set up to deal with the flow of information, and
 The way the information flow is managed and controlled.

Office procedures
All projects will have, in one form or another, a project office. There will be somewhere where the
procedures important to the smooth functioning of the office, and more importantly the smooth
running of the project, are put in place and from which the overall project is managed or its
functions coordinated.
In this kind of setting all project communications will fall into two categories:
 Office records, and
 Office procedures.
Office records will usually include:

 General correspondence – formal and informal – and files
 Client specific files – again, both formal and informal, and
 Records relating to past, future or other related projects.
As far as the office procedures are concerned, most project offices will have details on how
communications are handled (regardless of form – letter, memo, email etc), and who has
responsibility for the maintenance of such procedures. This will be detailed in the Communications
Management Plan and can include the following:
 Project office correspondence – the processes for sending and receiving it
 Method/s of clarifying file by nature of correspondence
 Project-related files and their unique classification
 Inwards/outwards correspondence
 Correspondence registers and maintenance of the file register
 Indexing and distribution
 Allocation of file numbers
 File location, including archives
 Allocation of new files or parts of files
 Correct handling of parts of files
 Storage and movement of files, and
 File security.
Not all these will be appropriate for every project or project office. Despite this, effective project
management is all about planning and controlling every aspect of those functions important to the
achievement of the project objectives, including the way formal and informal communications are
carried out.

Project documentation
Many things happen within a project. Some of them important enough to have a major impact on
whether or not the project objectives are achieved, and others seemingly so insignificant that they
are hardly worth remembering. Documentation relevant to a project and the way it achieves its
objectives includes far more than just the original plan
More effective projects will have records on just about every communication – formal and informal,
important and seemingly unimportant – that comes into or goes out of the project environment.
And these documents will be tightly controlled by the use of Standard Operating Procedures
(SOP’s), document templates (ie, blank forms for filling out when taking orders, recording telephone
conversations, requesting changes, recording minutes of meetings etc), or a combination of SOP’s
and templates.
When considering the sort of documentation that will be important to your project, you should give
some thought to the following:
 A system whereby pages and books can be numbered to ensure that information can be
quickly found and discrepancies identified.
 Change request documentation that records every change, be it to the project or to the
documentation supporting the project, for future review, wrap up and historical records.
 Change control records, especially those showing where change is first identified,
analysed for relevance, implemented, and results reviewed. This could be a formal
template, a book dedicated to this purpose, or simply a part of your ongoing records that
capture discussions and decisions about the project.
 Initiation procedures that allow for the start up of projects or elements of the project,
including the initiation of new or upgraded communications methodologies or tools.
 Records of reproductions requested and/or made, especially the processes whereby
documents can be copied and passed to others. This includes reproduction by electronic
means in order to monitor and control downloads via, for example, the Internet.
 Authorisation for certain levels of decision-making (eg, expenditure up to a certain dollar
value), and especially authorisation for the release and distribution of information.
 The actual distribution of documents – who is to get what, at what point of the project,
and what they are expected to do with it. This will be detailed in the Communications
Management Plan and illustrated in the Communications Management Matrix.
If there is going to be a weak link in the chain of effective project management and coordination it
has got to be in the way the communications are handled. If information is not passed, or if it is
passed and not recorded, or if it is recorded but not filed correctly, or if it is filed correctly but
unauthorised people get hold of it, and so on, then all of the good work throughout the project
lifecycle may be lost.

Other forms of communication
One of the critical roles successful project managers play is that of a salesperson – someone who
can ‘sell’ the project to the members of the immediate team and to anybody else who is important
to the project’s success.
You may need to develop, as part of your Communications Management Plan, a number of different
strategies for different audiences, different points or stages in the project, and/or different
messages.
Just like quality, your communications needs must be monitored and kept up to date if you want all
of your people to be with you at every stage of the project. You must also be aware that there is
more than one way in which your message can be passed and understood, and you should consider
the following in your plan:
 Meetings. Whether or not the meeting is only between yourself and one other or it
involves every single person associated with the project, this is one of the most effective
ways of getting your message across. It can also be one of the most ineffective, and in
fact can be quite demotivating, if it is handled wrongly or with less care and efficiency
than goes into other aspects of the project.
 Formal and informal presentations. These can range from a full-blown presentation using
projectors and handouts to a simple presentation of the essential elements of your plan
to a few members of the team. They should be positive and designed to motivate your
audience.
 Written reports. These can be full blown official reports with annexes and appendices or
a few simple lines of update sent via email. Either way they should be clear, to the point,
and contain everything that the receiver needs to know at that point in time.
 Negotiations. Conflict will arise throughout the project, from conflicting needs for
resources to interpersonal conflicts between team members. Each will need a certain
amount of negotiating in order to achieve an outcome that keeps everybody happy.
 Feedback. This includes one-on-one discussions, counselling sessions, performance
appraisal and individual feedback on whatever is important at the time. These ensure
that the right information is passed at the right time, in the right way, to the right person
or people.
All of these forms of communication make up an important part of your communication plan and
should be considered as essential means for getting your message across to, and understood by,
those who need to receive it.
To better help integrate your project, and its objectives and processes into your organisation, there
are a number of strategies you can use:
 Appoint someone to manage communication processes.
 Promote informal contact between levels of management and team members.
 Create a Communications Management Plan.
 Appoint someone to liaise with key stakeholders.
 Create a ‘Task Force’ approach.
 Encourage a ‘team’ approach within the organisation.
 Integrate departments.
 ‘Projectise’ the organisation.
To make any of these happen you will need to have a very good understanding of the processes that
currently exist within your organisation and how, or even whether or not, you can influence them by
adopting any of these strategies.

Communications management
Any project involves routine and special communications, both verbal and written. The project
manager depends upon this to achieve his/her objectives both inside and outside the organisation.
Communications management is about setting-up, and conducting or supervising the exchange of
information.
An important tool in the management of communications is the Communications Network Diagram.
This is a simple diagrammatic representation of all the stakeholders who are part of the
communications chain, showing where their information flows from and to, and quite often the kind
and type of communications that are carried out.
The following is a typical Communications Network Diagram. When drafting such a diagram the
following points should be kept in mind:
 The diagram should be neat, easy to read and simple to use. If there is a fear that it will
look cluttered and difficult to understand, more than one diagram should be used. (In fact
different diagrams can be used for different phases of, or activities within, the project)
 Symbols or ‘short-hand’ can be used to avoid cluttering the diagram but a key should be
included which describes the meaning of symbols or abbreviations using the diagram/s
 Roles and responsibilities can be added to clarify relevance
 Additional notes can be added for clarity, especially for ‘informal’ communications. The
diagram may be supplemented with coloured or dotted lines for this purpose
 The Network Diagram should be issued as a draft as early as possible in the project
lifecycle, preferably as part of the Scope documentation, in order to ensure that all
relevant people or groups are included
 Phases may be shown by a series of diagrams or overlays
The purpose of the diagram is to demonstrate the communications links between the key
stakeholders.

A SIMPLE COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
Communicate to
management
Lateral Communications to peers, Lateral Communications to

functional groups and customers Individual friends and social groups
Communications with co-

workers
A COMPLEX COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
Landscape Plumber Painter

architect
Electrician
Local Council Project Manager
Architect
Builder
Designer Bricklayer
Owner/client Carpenter
Direct Communications
Indirect Communications
ACTIVITY
Using Flip Chart paper, prepare a communications Network Diagram for a project of your choice.
Discuss with the wider group.

Communicating effectively
One of the most important skills for a project manager is the ability to communicate well. Although
effective communication is not a panacea for all problems, it is essential in running a successful
project. When there is conflict or dissatisfaction in the project team, it can often be traced to
difficulties in communication.
Project communication plan

The project manager should develop a communication plan for each project. A communication plan
describes what information is communicated, to whom, how, and how often. You may wish to use a
communication matrix like the one shown below.
Simple communication matrix
Method Client Customer Team member A Team member B

Formal status Monthly Quarterly Weekly Weekly
reports
Phone calls As needed As needed As needed As needed
and e-mail
Minutes As needed Attends weekly Attends weekly
Team meetings
weekly
Status report Daily Daily Daily Daily
of project web
site
NOTES
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Detailed communications management matrix
Project title: Project manager:
Task Resource group Management Project team Support Advisers Other stakeholders
Meetings: EO GM FO AO PR FA CD KH ET SF RR BH LM NO SS RI CW HR UJ N XE
Daily
A P A A M C B B B
(Task/Project)
Weekly (Project) B B P A B B M A A A A A B B
Fortnightly
B B B A P M A A A C B B B A A B B
(Project)
Monthly (Project) A A B A P M A C C C C C C B B B B
Quarterly
A B P A A C C B B
(Program)
Executive Briefings A A P
Others:
Reports:
Daily R P C C C C C R
Weekly R P C C C C R R
Monthly R R R R P C C R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
Quarterly R P R R R
Exception R P R R R
Milestone R R P R
Completion R R R R P R R R R
Others:
P – Prime responsibility for preparation and presentation

A – Attends meeting and receives minutes
M – Prepares minutes of meeting/s
B – Receives minutes of meeting/s
R – Receives report
C – To be consulted prior to meeting or report development

Barriers to communication
The following chart shows common barriers to communication with examples of each. These barriers may
disrupt communication or stop it all together.
Communication may also be complicated by the number of people involved. Each additional individual
involved in communication significantly increases the number of interactions and communications
requirements. It is difficult for a project manager to communicate on a regular basis with more than six
to eight key people.
COMMON BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Category Examples
Logistics  Geography
 Time zones
 Method (face-to-face, telephone, voice mail, memo, e-mail)
 Culture (from country to country or even within the same country)
Language  Terminology (jargon)

 Nonverbal (gestures, tone, body language)
 Mother tongue vs. learned language
 Mistranslations
People
 Background (frame of reference)
 Education
 Values
Organisation  Attitudes
 Social Status
 Organisational culture
 Rumour (grapevine)
 Conflicting priorities
 Departmental relationships
 Territorial issues

Improving your communication skills
You can improve communication by taking the following actions:
 Choose the most appropriate method of transmission for your communication: face-to-
face, telephone conversation, voice mail, e-mail, video conference, memo, letter, etc.
Determine which method is most appropriate considering the urgency and importance
of the message or the need to discuss the issue, make a decision, or negotiate
 Prepare your message in a clear and constructive way. Use appropriate nonverbal
communication. Be aware of the other person’s feelings and show genuine concern
 Listen to the receiver’s message. Really listen. Ask questions until you are sure you
understand the response. Accept the fact that the other person may see things
differently from how you see them
 Verify understanding by summarising or paraphrasing the response to be sure you
understand correctly
Listening
 Listening is a critical part of communication

 Listening is not discussion
 Listening is not problem-solving
The purpose of listening is to understand the message from the point of view of the other person.
The following actions can help you improve your listening skills:
 Listen intently, concentrating on the individual and what is being said. Listen for
content, not just verbiage. Listen to the emotions and needs being expressed. Read
between the lines and try to understand the other person’s point of view
 Seek clarification and confirmation. If a person makes a request or provides
information, clarify what was said so that you both are sure the message has been
conveyed correctly
 Resist the urge to correct errors made by the speaker. When people express strong
feelings, they often exaggerate or overstate the facts – sometimes in anger and with
accusations. As you listen, concentrate on hearing the message rather than correcting
the facts
 Don’t allow biases to interfere. People tend to pay more attention to some people than
to others, and to give certain information more credence because of who delivers it. If
you assume that the information is important, regardless of who delivers it, you are
more likely to remember it
Nonverbal communication
We communicate in many more ways than just talking. We also communicate nonverbally by our body
language, such as eye contact, expressions, gestures, body movements, and body positioning.
Nonverbal communication affects both the speaker and listener. Negative nonverbal feedback can cause
the speaker to lose concentration, drift off the topic, and get discouraged. In such communications, the
listener cannot organise his thoughts or recall important information.

Insert some info on verbally communicating info to groups

Holding effective meetings
Meetings are essential for building teams, solving group problems, making group decisions, and achieving
group consensus.
Preparing for meetings

You must plan and prepare for a meeting to make it an efficient use of time for all who attend.
Purpose and format of the meeting

A meeting is most effective as a forum for discussion, brainstorming, problem-solving, decision-making,
coordinating, and improving communication and relationships between individuals or departments.
Consider the appropriate format (directed discussion, open discussion) to achieve the desired result.
Schedule meetings
Avoid holding meetings at the busiest times. Set time limits. Schedule hour meetings to last no longer than
50 minutes to give the participants time to get to their next appointments.
Determining whom to invite

Carefully consider the list of people to invite to a meeting. If the meeting is too large, it may be impossible
to accomplish the business at hand. On the other hand, if too few are invited, the attendees may lack the
information, experience, or knowledge needed to deal with the issues.
Agenda
A simple agenda – even a handwritten list – may be sufficient for an informal meeting where team
members discuss a handful of uncomplicated items. But as meetings grow in size, involve more individuals
at different levels in the organisation, and focus on more complex issues, an agenda needs to be more
formal and exact.
Conducting meetings
At the beginning of the meeting, state the purpose of the meeting to confirm the understanding with
everyone in attendance. If all agenda items don’t pertain to everyone at the meeting, try to cover the
general topics first and allow people to leave if they are not needed.
Issues list
An issues list can be used to keep a meeting focused. It is used to list issues or ideas that come up in
conversation but that are not the main topic of the discussion. Writing the issues on a list shows the
meeting participants that you care about their issues and have noted them for later discussion, but be
sure that you hold follow-up discussions to cover the issues on the list.

Problem-solving and decision-making
Making team decisions

During the course of a project, many decisions are made each day that ultimately affect the project for
good or ill. Some are small decisions with relatively little impact, whereas others have major impact.
Some decisions are made by the project manager with little or no input from the team. Other decisions
are more important and require that the project manager get more information from the team or the
support of the team. In such cases, the project manager may wish to make a group decision with the
project team.
When to involve others
In most cases, it will be obvious when you need to involve others. When it is less readily apparent, a
good rule of thumb is to include others when:
 You need their commitment

 You don’t have the expertise
When not to involve others

It is usually not a good idea to involve others in a decision in the following conditions:
 The decision is about a trivial issue

 The decision involves a personnel issue
 You are unable or unwilling to negotiate
 You need a quick decision and you have adequate expertise (when the need for speed is
greater than the need for commitment)
Whom to involve
All too often, we surround ourselves with people who think and act like we do. But remember that two
heads are better than one only if they disagree. The following adaptation of a popular saying gives good
advice for providing the needed diversity:
Someone old: One who has been around a long time.
Someone new: One who has new ideas.
Someone borrowed: A person from a user or requestor group or from another department in the
organisation.
Someone blue: A devil’s advocate who asks the tough questions.
Team decision-making
When you determine to make a decision as a team, be prepared to take the time needed and be willing to
respect the decision of the group. Consider the following guidelines:
 The leader sets the agenda

 All team members take an active role
 Each person listens with respect
 Each person expresses his or her point of view

 The team focuses on what is best for the organisation
 The decision is made by the group, and the group agrees on appropriate assignments,
follow-up, and evaluation
Following these guidelines can help the project manager make better decisions that involve the project
team when appropriate.
A problem-solving process
Step 1: Identify and define the problem.

Beware of snap judgements.
Don’t mistake a symptom for the problem.
Sift back through the symptoms to find the cause.
Step 2: Analyse the problem.

Obtain the facts of the problem (who, what, where, how, why).
Seek opinions / attitudes.
Explore any constraints that may exist.
Set an objective to overcome the real problem - be clear about what you want to see.
Step 3: Consider alternatives.

Generate a number of alternative solutions.
Be creative and innovative.
Keep an open mind.
Don’t overlook simple alternatives or the alternative of doing nothing.
Consider involving those who will implement the decision.
Step 4: Evaluate alternatives and select the best.

Weigh up the pros and cons of each alternative discarding any which will not achieve the
objective.
Consider factors such as feasibility, company policy, ethics, needed resources and cost, likely
opposition, level of authority needed for implementation, who else will be affected, what could
go wrong, what problems could be created, staff acceptance.
Step 5: Act on your decision.

Remember that change can be disturbing to staff/clients.
Plan how your decision will be implemented (who, what, how, where and when).
Communicate with all those affected by the decision in advance of the implementation stage -
make sure you give reasons and answer any questions truthfully.
Work at getting active support and participation.
Step 6: Follow up and evaluate.

Don’t let your ego make you blind to unsatisfactory results.
Correct errors and modify the decision if necessary.
Maintain contact with those involved to provide support and to follow through on suggestions,
requests etc.
Ensure that objective is achieved.
Note successful ideas to use again and errors to avoid.

ACTIVITY
Using the 6 step problem solving process, conduct an analysis of a recent problem you have encountered
in a project. Discuss the benefits of using this process.
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Improving problem-solving – decision-making

 Analyse the situation before making a decision
 Identify and address core issues and real causes
 Ensure that staff agree with the identified core issues and real cause
 Consider the “hidden” issues as well as the more obvious information
 Seek opinions from staff before making a decision
 Communicate your decision and your rationale to staff
 Identify all the people affected by a decision
 Identify and consider several alternatives to solving a problem
 Identify the consequences of the decision on each person
 Use a step by step problem-solving method
 Plan how the decision will be implemented
 Work at getting active support and recognition
 Check to ensure the original problem was solved
Discuss:
1. How well do you make decisions individually? How could a team decision-making process lead to
a better decision?
2. Considering your current project, what problems are appropriate for team decisions?
________________________________________________________________________________
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(see Appendix 4 for more information on Decision Making and Problem Solving)

Creating the Communications Management Plan
While it isn’t particularly specified in the Scope Definition, your communications needs should
start to take form as you develop your Broad Strategy. Who is going to be doing what? How will
feedback be gained on whether or not certain things are happening?
Communications can take different directions:
 hierarchical chain of your project or organisation.

 Horizontally – this involves communicating with your peers. Also known as lateral
communications.
 Diagonally – this where the communications paths cross over divisional or project
borders to either senior staff or subordinate groups in other areas. This can also
include downward and diagonal communications with the staff or team members of
your suppliers or contractors or upwards and diagonal to their management.
Supplier’s Program Other manager

manager manager
Other project
Supplier Project managers
manager
Supplier’s staff Team leader Other

staff
Lines of communication
If you have established the lines of communications across, up or down your project hierarchy
before the inevitable conflicts begin to arise then you will find it easier to resolve them using
these channels. Whenever there is a call for swift action to be taken you can often be far more
productive and effective if you can use the links and networks that you’ve had the foresight to put
in place early in the project’s lifecycle. But this takes planning, and especially the development of
a plan for the management of your communications.

The Communications Management Plan
In a project there is only one purpose for a Communications Management Plan, and that is for developing
and maintaining the flow of information into, out of and within the project. As a minimum your plan should
include the following elements:
 Monitoring and Control Procedures: The methodology to be employed to check,

compare and act on variances between what was planned and what actually occurred.
 Control Mechanisms: A summary of the control mechanisms you have put in place for
the project eg, schedule, budget, risk management plan and so on.
 Conduct of Meetings: A schedule of meetings – their types and frequency, details of
standard agenda items, reporting requirements, who will attend, who will Chair and (if
applicable) act as Secretary, who has responsibility for calling and organising the
meeting, venue, etc.
 Standard Project Reporting: the originator, recipients, periodicity, rationale, structure,
contents and summary to be used in these reports. You might even wish to include
examples of templates or standard forms to be used throughout the project.
 Management Information System: If applicable, the type of hardware and/or software
to be used to manage the information systems, responsibilities for management and
maintenance, use of applications, back-up procedures, file structures, networking,
security, etc.
 Project Office Procedures: The types, frequency and authority for correspondence,
filing systems, responsibilities and authorities for signature, limits of authority, project
office library and repositories for current or archived documents.
Monitoring
By itself, a Project Plan, or even the Communication Management Plan, is no guarantee that the
project will be successful or its objectives met. This is only achieved by constant monitoring and
review of the project activities and environment as it progresses towards finalisation.
Monitoring and ultimately the lifecycle of the project through the use of reports and reviews has a
number of benefits:
 The auditing processes of this, and other, projects can be enhanced
 Where mistakes, or even unexpected achievements, occur these can be analysed to
assist in the learning processes during or as a result of the project
 Where reports are prepared on aspects identified while monitoring all or certain parts
of the project, those people who need to be kept informed are kept up to date on what is
occurring.
These benefits can be realised by the use of a reporting system that keeps the Project Manager
or Co-ordinator informed as to progress of the project, the suggested remedies where progress
is not in line with the plan, or simply confirmed that the Project Plan is on schedule.

Managing the reporting system
Reports and reviews are important control mechanisms in the management and coordination or
projects because they provide the means to share information on project progress with all
relevant stakeholders. On top of this they formalise the communications processes by:
 Acting as a control mechanism
 Identifying the levels of information required
 Providing a plan for the type, frequency and reporting of meetings
 Standardising formats
 Including periodic briefings in the schedule, and
 Specifying the requirements for a Management Information System (be it computerised
or hard copy)
There a number of different types of reports and reviews, each involving different stakeholders,
with the common element being the project manager or coordinator through whom the
information flows. However a report is more than just information gathered and passed on to
others. To ensure effectiveness, a number of factors must be considered before preparing and
disseminating any reports:
 What should be in the report?
 Who is the report going to?
 How detailed should the report be?
 What format should it take?
 What would be the correct, or most appropriate, medium to use?
 Where can the data for the report be found? Who can provide it – and when?
 Who is responsible for preparing the report?
 How frequently should it be disseminated?
 When should the report be issued to make sure it is of use to the recipients?
 What should recipients do once they’ve received the report?
 What needs to be done to ensure that the report is consistent with the project
requirements?
In a proactive sense, asking these questions also helps you to develop your plan for the
preparation and dissemination of reports. You will know what reports are required, who is to get
them (and when), and what they should contain. And do this every time you plan a project – you
might find that your project doesn’t need as many (or as detailed) reports as you first thought.

Types of reports
Reports will generally fall into one of three categories:
 Routine
 Exception
 Special analysis
Routine
These reports are issued at either key milestones during the project lifecycle or are pre-planned
and disseminated as a result of certain activities or issues arising. Examples:
 Periodic Progress Report
 Milestone Report
 Quarterly (or Monthly/Weekly) Report
 Project/Phase Completion Reports
 Exception Report (when developed as a routine report)
 Corrective actions
 Reviews and recommendations (specifically ‘sign off’ or ‘close out’ reports)
Apart from these, other forms of reporting could include routine reports and reviews between:
 Project Manager and Contractor
 Project Manager and Project Coordinator/team
 Project Manager and Program Manager
 Project Manager and individual team member (especially as a result of such things as
performance reviews)
 Project Manager and Client/Vendor
 Project Steering Committee
 Program Management Committee
Exception
These provide information on issues, situations or activities that are usually unplanned and are
therefore outside the normal communications or project scope. Examples:
 Failure to achieve a milestone
 Significant trends in under or over achievement of expenditure
 Unforeseen changes in project team requirements
 Unresolved conflict
 Significant change in risk assessment

Special analysis
These are reports that provide detailed information about a single aspect or issue central to the
project plan or to assist in the compilation of data on behalf of the organisation.
Format of project reports

What your reports contain will generally be governed by the type of project, the environment in
which the project is being carried out and the personal preferences or requirements of either the
originator or recipient/s of the reports. However, as a minimum, all reports, regardless of their
type or frequency, should cover the following information:
 Summary or overview: a broad overview of the progress of the project, highlighting
significant events or issues.
 Project schedule. A report on work performed, and milestones achieved during the
reporting period, details of non-completion of planned activities with reasons, schedule
forecasting.
 Activities summary. A report on completed and impending activities, rationale for any
management or design initiatives.
 Technical aspects. Design, and test requirements, change proposals.
 Financial aspects. Budget performance, details of payments, outstanding claims and
projected expenditure for the next reporting period.
 Administrative issues. A summary of correspondence and action items between the
project manager and the relevant stakeholder, issues relevant to personnel or HR
planning.
 Problems and issues. Any issues which may impact on the successful completion of the
project or phase, including any changes to the risk analysis.
 Lessons learnt. Periodic assessments of lessons learnt should be summarised and
compiled for the finalisation report.
As a rule of thumb, the following reports, along with a guide to their contents, are those normally
generated during most projects:
Periodic progress report
This is issued periodically and at regular intervals in accordance with the Project Communication
Plan. Contents:
 Summary or overview of the project to date
 Schedule of work to be completed
 Activities summary:
 Progress to date
 Planned progress not completed
 Future activities
 Technical aspects
 Financial aspects
 Administrative aspects
 Problems and issues (may include recommendations)

Milestone report
This is provided by either the team members (eg, the project coordinator or sub-team leaders) or
contractors to the project manager on achievement of planned milestones, and provided by
project manager to stakeholders in accordance with the Communications Management Plan.
Contents:
 Summary or overview of achievements to date
 Schedule of milestones to be completed
 Activities summary
 Technical aspects
 Administrative aspects
Quarterly (or monthly/weekly) report

This report is usually provided by project manager to the program manager and covers all
aspects of the project. Contents:
 Background of the project to date
 Progress of reporting period
 Planned progress for next period
 Human resources aspects
 Problems and issues
 Recommendations
Project/phase completion reports

These reports are usually mandatory and required on completion of each phase of the project and
on completion of the project as a whole. They are usually widely distributed to all stakeholders.
Content:
 Summary or overview of project or phase as a whole

 Contractual performance
 Administrative performance
 Performance against Scope, Schedule, Budget and Quality
 Organisational aspects as they relate to, or influence, the project
 Project management aspects, covering as a minimum all other elements of the project
(eg, Risk, Communications, Human Resources, etc)
 Lessons learned and recommendations for future projects – usually as a separate
annex sent to management only.

A report is only as good as the information it contains and the timeliness by which it is received.
Out of date or incomplete/inaccurate information will render the report both useless and a
liability given the amount of time taken to compile it and read it. Inaccurate reports may even
result in consequences far more serious than simple misunderstandings and delays in work –
such consequences could include legal action, loss of respect within the business community, or
even a loss of customer confidence. A partly completed, but accurate, report provided on time is
better than an inaccurate report or no report at all.
ACTIVITY
Draw up a list of reports that are going to be needed in your projects. Look at other projects of a
similar nature and at the reports issued there. Ask the recipients of these reports if they were
sufficient and, if not, how they could have been improved. Draw up a template for your reports
and check with their intended recipients that what you intend covering is sufficient for their
information needs.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Summary
If there is any single aspect of the Project Plan that will ensure the total success of the project, or its
failure, it will be the Communications Management Plan and the project team’s adherence to it.
Communications within the project cannot be left to chance – they must be planned, even informal
meetings, because of the importance of full and detailed information about the project to the project’s
success.
All aspects, regardless of their size and importance, will follow the same general principles: the
development of a ‘project office’, the formalisation of how documents are handled, the processes used to
monitor and control the progress and direction of the project, and the holding of meetings to ensure
effective formal and informal communications are carried out.

Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Questioning and Listening
Clarifying Questions
Open questions
“What happened?”
“How does the situation look to you?”
“How did you approach the task?”
“Where were you?”
“What changes do you think would improve the situation?”
“What would you like to see happen?”
“What’s the next step?”
“What is working/not working for you?”
“What do you need to be able to…?”
“Why do you think…?”
“Would you like to tell me about it?” or “Tell me all about it.”
Closed questions
“Would that meet your needs?”
“Are you ready to give it a go?”
Probing questions
“What is it that leads you to think that?”
“What would be involved in making it work?”
“Which aspects do you enjoy the most?”
“What are the main points?”
“What did you / they do next / then…?’
“How else might you / could we…?”
“What else could you have done?”
“Give me an example”
“What was most useful?” “What was not so useful?”
“Where are you having the most trouble?”

Effective listening guidelines
1. Find their minds wandering / get bored easily. 1. Make a concentrated effort to focus on the
(While we speak at a rate of 110 – 140 wpm, our speaker’s message, and look for how the
brains process information at the rate of 400 information might be of value to them.
– 600 wpm.
2. Express their opinions before the speaker has 2. Listen to the speaker’s complete message;
finished; finish people’s sentences for them. patiently wait before responding.
3. Body language indicates they are not listening. 3. Look directly at the speaker; smile and nod to
indicate interest.
4. Ignore the speaker’s non-verbal language.

4. Watch for any incongruence between the
speaker’s verbal and non-verbal language,
that may indicate the speaker’s true meaning.
5. Give little or no verbal response.
5. Ask relevant questions and offer affirmative
comments.
6. Pretend to listen, or use the listening time to
plan what they wish to say (selective 6. Work hard at actively listening and giving the
attention). speaker their full attention.
7. Are quick to react to emotional words and

ideas rather than listen to content. 7. Can identify but also control emotional
reactions so that it does not interfere with the
message being given.
8. Give up listening if the message is difficult to
understand (e.g. because of voice, accent or 8. Work hard at understanding the content and
manner of expression). overlook the manner of delivery (ask for
clarification if necessary)
9. Are easily distracted be external factors in the
environment (e.g. uncomfortable chair, 9. Concentrate on what is being said and
extraneous noise). mentally summarise the information given.
10. Take every word and statement literally. 10. Listen to voice inflection and are aware of
facial expressions, and voice tone.
11. Overestimate listeners’ level of background 11. Take care to present information at a level
knowledge (which can put them into a position and in a way that their listeners can relate to.
of admitting a lack of information).
12. Selective expectation (expecting problems; 12. Keeping an open mind and suspending
jumping to conclusions). judgment; weigh what you are hearing.

Do’s Don’ts
Put the focus of attention totally on the speaker and what is Talk about yourself (e.g. ‘a similar thing happened to me last
happening for them. week…’)
Listen – and show you are ‘following’. Use a tentative tone of Introduce your own reactions or well-intentioned comments.
voice and tentative language when you are not sure or need to Change topics. Think about what you will say next. Advise,
clarify what is being said. diagnose, reassure, encourage, or criticise what they are
doing, before first finding out what the real issue is – hold your
fire!
Repeat conversationally back to them in your own words, your Only say ‘mmm’ or ‘ah, hah’ or parrot their words.
understanding of their personal meaning.
Feedback to them their feelings as well as the content, even Ignore their feelings in the situation.
though they may only tell you the content. Appropriate probing
may include ‘How did it make you feel?’ or ‘How did that affect
you?’
Reflect back what you understand from what they said, (so they
know you understand and also so they can hear and understand Pretend that you have understood their meaning when you
themselves!) haven’t, or worse, ignore deep feelings that may indicate a
major issue for them.
Try another approach if your active listening statement is not
well received. Allow the person to drift to a less significant topic for them
because they feel you don’t understand (or because you decide
it’s too hard).
Be as accurate in the summary of their meaning as you can. On the whole don’t fix, change or improve what they have said.
Challenge powerless and hopelessness subtly. Don’t presume that you always have to challenge ‘self-
 Statement: ‘It is hopeless’ defeating’ statements. But don’t leave dangerously distorted
 Reflection: ‘It seems hopeless to you right now’. thinking unchallenged.
 Statement: ‘There is nothing I can do’.
 Reflection: ‘You can’t find anything that could fix it
right now’.
Allow silences in the conversation
Notice body shifts and respond to them by waiting and then Fill in every space with your talk.
asking eg. ‘How does it all seem to you now?’
Ignore the non-verbal content of the conversation.

Appendix 2
Appendix 2
DiSC Behavioural Styles
A leader’s ability to understand and communicate with his or her people is key to organisational
effectiveness. Leaders should learn about communicating and interacting with their team to bring out the
best in them, creating win/win situations.
The DiSC Model is based on observable human behaviour, dealing with how people approach and interact
with problems, people, pace, and procedures. The more leaders know and understand the behavioural
differences in the people they lead, the better they can predict and make decisions for what will and will
not work on their teams and in their organisations. Leaders who learn and apply the DiSC Model are
better able to gain commitment, build effective teams, resolve and prevent conflict, and gain credibility
and influence.
DiSC only measures behaviour. It does not measure intelligence, values, skills, experience, education
levels, or training.
Understanding DiSC
DiSC is designed to help people explore personality and behaviour types so they can better understand
themselves and others. Each person's DiSC profile is based on the combination of these four primary
behavioural dimensions:
Dominance: Direct, driver & decisive - D's are strong-minded, aggressive, strong-willed people who enjoy
challenges, taking action, and immediate results.
o They thrive on power, prestige, authority, and individual accomplishment.

o They fear being taken advantage of through loss of control.
o Their focus tends to be on the bottom line.
o They ask WHAT questions.
A good high D slogan: Just do it! (D’s are good with Results)
Influence: Social, optimistic & outgoing - I's are "people people" who prefer participating, sharing ideas,
entertaining and energising others. They like to gain consensus.
o They thrive on popularity, recognition, expression, and talking.

o They fear loss of social approval.
o They focus on shaping the environment by influencing or persuading others to see
things their way.
o They ask WHO questions.

A good high I slogan: Don't worry, be happy! (I’s are good with People)
Steadiness: Stable, sympathetic & cooperative - S's are helpful team players. They
prefer being behind the scenes, working in consistent and predictable ways. They don't
like rapid change, and they don't like conflict. They are often good listeners.
o They thrive on team work, structure, predictability, and calming excited people.
o They fear loss of stability in the environment and abrupt changes.
o They focus on cooperating with others to carry out the task, being patient and
loyal.
o They ask HOW questions.
A good High S slogan: Don't rock the boat! (S’s are good with Processes)
Conscientiousness: Concerned, cautious & correct - C's usually plan ahead, constantly check for
accuracy, and use systematic approaches.
o They thrive on details, proof, critical thinking, analysis, accuracy, and perfection.
o They fear criticism of their efforts or actions.
o They focus on quality and accuracy.
o They ask WHY questions.
A good high C slogan: Measure twice, cut once! (C’s are good with Details)
Marstens Model: Perception of Environment and Self
D i
C S

How might we perceive each other?
We all know there are people who we like working with. They work exactly the way we operate ourselves.
They are easy to relate to and understand our own way of doing things. And then there are others, who
take a little more time to understand and who don’t always do things the way we would like.
Why is this? Simply because we have different styles.
Looking at D i S C
Respect Reasonable Friendly

Accurate
Positive
Precise
Driven Persuasive Reliable
D
Risk Emotional Boring Cool
Negative
Rival All Talk Dawdling Unreliable
Objective Easy Going Reliable Disciplined

Positive
Dynamic Motivating Patient Accurate
i
Aggressive Impulsive Repetitive Critical
Negative
Defiant Opinionated Easily Led Fault Finding
Leader Energetic Genuine Cautious

Positive
Instigator Innovator Loyal Perfectionist
S
Too Hasty Smooth Too Passive Detached
Negative
Bully Untrustworthy Inactive Pedantic
Leader Organiser Listener Factual

Positive
Director Motivator Reliable Detailed
C
Careless Illogical Sensitive Stubborn
Negative
Rushed Superficial Weak Judgmental

Relating constructively to behaviour
High “D” Behaviour
Someone using “D” may aim for:

o Power and authority
o Prestige and position
o Money and material things
o Challenge and growth opportunities
o Accomplishments – results, results, results!
o To know “bottom line” pay offs
o A wide range of room to operate within
o Direct answers to their concerns
o Efficiency as related to their objectives
o New and varied activities, preferable “the first ever”
With them, “DO”:

o Be clear, specific, brief and to the point
o Stick to business unless they choose to do otherwise
o Present the facts: plan your presentation efficiently
o Ask specific questions (preferably, “What do you..?”)
o Provide facts and figures about probabilities of success and the benefits from these new
results
o If you must disagree, take issue with the facts, not the person
o If you agree, support the results you both “want” to see achieved, not the person
o Be supportive where possible, emphasize that you want to work with him/her
o After completing your business, depart graciously
o Offer choices so they can make quick decisions
With them, “DON’T”:

o Don’t ramble on or waste their time
o Don’t try to build personal relations unless they want to do so
o Don’t leave loopholes or cloudy issues
o Don’t ask rhetorical questions, or useless ones
o Don’t come with a ready-made decision and make it for them

Don’t speculate wildly or offer guarantees and assurance where there is a risk in meeting them
o If you disagree, don’t let it reflect on them personally
o If you agree, don’t reinforce with relationship-oriented comments, e.g. “I’m with you.”
o Don’t direct or order
o Don’t do an “epilogue” bit after finishing business
High “i” Behaviour

Someone using “i” may aim for:
o Popularity – social recognition
o Monetary rewards to cover expensive “living”
o Public recognition of their ability
o Freedom of speech – people to talk to
o Favourable working conditions
o Group activities outside of the job
o Causal, warm “democratic” relationships
o Freedom from control and detail
o Approval and friendliness
o Identification with Company

o Plan interaction that supports their dreams
o Leave time for socialising
o Talk about people, their goals and opinions
o Put details in writing
o Ask for their opinions and ideas regarding people (“Who?” questions)
o Provide specific, clear ways for implementing action
o Be stimulating, fun-loving and fast-moving
o Provide testimonials from people they see as prominent, and identify with
o Offer special, immediate and extra incentives for their willingness to take risks where
possible

o Don’t legislate at them: give them a sense of participation
o Don’t be cold, they need inclusion
o Don’t present too many facts, figures, alternatives, or abstractions
o Don’t leave decisions hanging in the air too long
o Don’t waste time trying to make them task-oriented (versus responsive to “people” needs)
o Don’t “dream” with them when you need to bring them back to reality as the pathway to
heaven
o Don’t “stick to the agenda” too much
o Don’t be dogmatic or overly rigid
High “S” Behaviour

Someone using “S” may aim for:
o Maintenance of Status-Quo
o Security of situation
o Happy home and work life
o Traditional practices and procedures
o Sincerity
o Limited territory
o A long time to adjust to change
o Genuine appreciation
o Identification with Company or “their” group
o Recognition for service
o Opportunity to specialise
o Products that are simple, workable, durable

o Start, however briefly, with a personal comment. Break the ice
o Show sincere interest in them as people; find areas of common involvement
o Patiently draw out their personal goals and work with them to help achieve these goals::
Listen, be responsive
o Present your case softly, non-threateningly
o Ask “how” questions to draw out their opinions
o Watch carefully for possible areas of early disagreement or dissatisfaction
o Move casually, informally, but with increased clarity
o Provide guarantees that their decisions will minimise risks
o Give personal assurances that provide them with benefits
o Provide clear solutions with specific outlines for implementation

o Don’t rush headlong into business or agenda
o Don’t stick coldly to business; don’t lose sight of their desire for friendly, steady and
predictable relationships
o Don’t force them to respond quickly to your objections
o Don’t be domineering or demanding
o Don’t debate about facts and figures
o Don’t manipulate or bully them into agreeing because through they may not fight back,
they may block progress
o Don’t be abrupt and rapid
o Don’t offer assurances and guarantees you can’t fulfil
o Don’t keep deciding for them or they’ll lose initiative
o Don’t leave them without backup support

High “C” Behaviour
Someone using “C” may aim for:
o Known performance standards and operating procedures
o Limited exposure
o Security (protection) in their own environment
o References for quality control concerns
o Enough time to achieve excellence
o Personal autonomy and privacy for them
o Personal attention to their desired goals (once discovered)
o Little responsibility for negative consequences involved in risky new actions
o Door-openers that unlock the way to their goals
o Approach them in a straightforward, direct way; stick to business on their terms
o Prepare your “case” in advance to answer their “Why” questions
o Support their decision-making principles; use a thoughtful approach
o Build your credibility by listing pros and cons to any suggestion you make
o Make an organised contribution to their efforts: present specifics and do what you say
you’ll do
o Take your time, but be persistent
o Draw up a scheduled approach to implementing action with a step-by-step timetable
o Assure them that there wont be surprises
o Give them time to verify the reliability of your actions and consider their options
o Devise together a timetable of critical components in the plan and their significance for
desired results
o Be accurate and realistic
o Provide solid, tangible, practical evidence
o Don’t be disorganised or messy
o Don’t be giddy, too casual, informal, loud or abrasive
o Don’t rush their decision-making process unless they prefer
o Don’t be vague about what’s expected of either of you
o Don’t fail to follow through
o Don’t leave things to chance or luck
o Don’t depend on the testimonies of others or on unreliable sources
o Don’t use opinions as evidence; focus on performance and logic
o Don’t push too hard or be unrealistic with deadlines

Step 1: Define the project or task to be completed
Step 2: Consider the person in light of this task or project.

Which dimension or behaviour did you determine best described him of her?
Which Management Approach did you decide would be most effective?
Step 3: Review page XX, “Building Effective Management Strategies”, to identify possible approaches.
List two or three specific actions you plan to take with this person.
Step 4: Clarify the specific actions and responsibilities for yourself and this person.
What do you expect this person to do?
What will you do?
When will this be accomplished?
Step 5: Implement your plans and then consider the results.

What did you learn about this person?
How can you be more effective with him or her in the future?
Step 6: Follow-up
How and when will you check on this person’s progress with this project?
What further actions might you take and on what date?

People Reading Guide
□ Active
□ Reserved

 Faster Pace
 Slower Pace
 More telling
 More asking
 Louder speech
 Softer speech
 More inflection
 More monotone
◄ OR ►
OR OR
□ Assessing □ Accepting □ Accepting □ Assessing

 Closed posture  Open posture  Open posture
 Closed posture
 Unexpressive/cool face  Animated/warm face  Relaxed/warm face
 Unexpressive/cool face
 Feelings unexpressed  Feelings expressed  Feelings expressed
 Feelings unexpressed
 Formal  Casual  Casual
 Formal
 Focuses on “What?”  Focuses on “Who?”  Focuses on “How?”
 Focuses on “Why?”
Straight with them Open with there thoughts/feelings Acceptance of them Reliability
D i S C

People Reading Your Team
Name PRC Classical Pattern

GRAPH III
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 28 S
E
27
26
D i S C G
M
E
Strengths: .............................................................................................................................................................. 25 N
26 21 20 17 T
24
23
12 13 13 11
22
21
11 12 12 10 7
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 20
19 10
11
10
11
9
18 6
9 9 10
17
8 8
Areas of Improvement: ..........................................................................................................................................
16 8
15 7 7 9 7 5
14 6
13 8
6
12 5 7 6 4
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
10 5 5
9 4 4 6 4
8
3
5
..............................................................................................................................................................................
7 3
6 3
5
3 4
2
2
4 2 3
2
3 2 1
..............................................................................................................................................................................
1
2 1
0 0
1 0 1
1 0
0 SEGMENT
0 NUMBERS
.............................................................................................................................................................................. CLASSICAL
PATTERN
How I can communicate more effectively with this person:
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Results of my change in communication:
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Improving My Interpersonal Skills
Identify a person at work that you have had difficulty dealing with
Name of person: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................
1. What are the differences between you that contribute to the difficulty in relating to this person?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. In terms of knowledge, is there any information about their style that would help you understand them better, or a stereotype
about that style that may be hindering your ability to understand and accept them? If yes, why?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. What could you do to increase your understanding of this person?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4. What are the feeling you have had in dealing with this person in the past, which have prevented you from accepting them, and
establishing a better relationship?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5. Write down any concerns you have about being more understanding and accepting of this person.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
6. Is you DiSC Behavioural Style a factor that is influencing these feelings and concerns? If so, why?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
7. How will you create an opportunity to interact with this person, and how will you handle that interaction so that you start building
a bridge to better understanding?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
NOTE: This process of using knowledge, understanding, acceptance and behavioural skills to manage
differences effectively, is taken from the Discovering Diversity Profile®.

Appendix 3
Appendix 3
Introduction to Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®) is based on the work of Swiss psychologist Carl Jung and his theory of psychological
type. He believed that predictable differences in individuals result from innate preferences in how people relate to others and the
outside world, perceive and process information, make decisions and organise their lives.
The MBTI® is a psychometric instrument based on Jung’s work. It is name after its original designers Katherine Briggs and her
daughter Isabel Myers. Briggs and Myers made Jung’s work accessible to a wider audience by applying his ideas to the area of
human interaction and communication.
Reasons for Using the MBTI Instrument

The MBTI instrument:
 Is a well researched, widely-used self-report instrument
 Is intended to be non-judgemental
 Deals with behavioural preferences of psychologically normal people
 Indicates preferences
It helps to clarify your own preferences, understand the preferences of others and appreciate the diversity of strengths people
offer each other. It shows why we may ‘miss’ each other’s meaning or intention, and provides a basis for people with different
work preferences to work better together.
How Relevant is ‘Type Theory’?

Type theory helps to explain why different types of people:
1. Focus on different things
2. Enjoy different kinds of activities
3. Are good at different types of work
4. Often find if difficult to see ‘eye-to-eye’ when approaching problems
It helps us learn about and work constructively with these differences to improve relationships and work outcomes.
Key Type Assumptions
 Types are innate – our ‘real me’
 Type is observable in people’s behaviour and can be influences
 We each use some aspect of all styles at least some of the time
 We have clear preferences based on our overall way of operating
 Environment may enhance or impede the expression of our innate preferences
 All types are equally valuable
 Type indicates preferences, not skills
 Type is not an absolute definition of who you are!
 Type is not about ‘wrong’ and ‘right’ or ‘better’ and ‘worse’ types!
 Type is not an ‘intelligence’, ‘maturity’ or ‘niceness’ test!

 Type is not intendeds to ‘label’, ‘box’ or ‘stereotype’ you!
 Type is NOT an excuse!!!
 Understanding type will help you understand yourself and others better.
MBTI is as Easy As 4…8…16!

The MBTI is based on:
Four ‘dichotomous’ scales

(Describing the degree to which you prefer one of two paired choices on a scale)
Eight paired preferences

(Reflecting the way you relate to the world, process information, make decisions and organise your life)
Sixteen Key Personality Types

(Derived from different combinations of the eight preferences)
What the ‘Paired Preferences’ Represent
Energy
Extraversion Introversion
Being energised through contact with other people or Being energised through ideas, quiet times or solitude
through engaging in activities
(the inner world)
(the outer world)
Information
Sensing Intuition
Paying attention to what you perceive through the five Paying attention to what might be described as the
senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting sixth sense – the unseen world of meanings,
inferences, hunches, insights and connections
Decisions
Thinking Feeling
Making decisions based on impartial criteria-cause- Making decisions based on values-based, person-
effect reasoning, constant principles or truths and centred criteria, seeking harmony
logic
Approach to Life / Life-style

Judging Perceiving
Want to live an ordered life, with goals and structure, Want to live a spontaneous life with flexibility, staying
making decisions so you can move on open to new information and possibilities
Using the MBTI® Tool in Organisations , 3rd editions. © 2001 by Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Permission is hereby granted
to reproduce this overhead master for workshop use. Duplication for any other use, including resale, is a violation of copyright
law. MBTI is a registered trademark of Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

How Are You Energised?
ACTIVITY
E – I ‘Scale’
Put people into ‘E’ and ‘I’ groups 9 this is really interesting – immediately gives you a sense of the ‘mix’ in the
group!).
Ask groups to discuss the following task and question and record their comments on a flip chart.
Extraversion Introversion
External/exterior Internal/interior
Outside thrust Inside pull
Talk thoughts out Keep thoughts in
Breadth Depth
Involved with people, things Work with ideas, thoughts
Interaction Concentration
Action Reflection
Do-think-do Think-do- think

How Do You Take In Information?
ACTIVITY
S – N ‘Scale’
Put people into their ‘S’ and ‘N’ groups. Either:
1. get people in their groups to describe how to get here from the airport and record answers on a flip-
chart
2. As participants to describe where they live
In debriefing this example, ask “What did you notice (focus on) and what did you miss? What does this
suggest about what you pay attention to at work/in your team?”
Sensing Intuition
Present orientation Future possibilities
What is real What could be
Practical Theoretical
Facts Inspirations
Perfecting established skills Learning new skills
Utility Novelty
Step-by-Step Insight-by-insight
The five senses The sixth sense, a hunch
Source: Introduction to Type® in Organisations (3rd ed.) by Sandra Krebs Hirsh and Jean M.Kummerow. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press, Inc., 1998. Reprinted with permission.
Using MBTI® Tool in Organisations, 3rd edition. © 2001 by Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce
this master for workshop use. Duplication for any other use, including resale, is a violation of copyright law. MBTI and Introduction to Type
are registered trademarks Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

How Do I Make Decisions?
ACTIVITY
T – F ‘Scale’
Put people into their ‘T’ and ‘F’ groups.
Their task is to discuss the following scenario and record their comments on a flip-chart.
“You have just been told that the staffing budget has been cut and that you have to reduce team numbers by
two people.
How would you approach this situation?
What issues would you consider?
Representative from each group presents.
Thinking Feeling
Logical system Values
Head Heart
Objective Subjective
Justice Mercy
Critique Compliment
Principles Harmony
Reason Empathy
Firm but fair Compassionate

How Do You Approach Life?
ACTIVITY
J – P ‘Scale’
Put people into their ‘J’ and ‘P’ groups.
On separate sheets of A4 paper, write in big bold lettering the following phrases:
“1 week or more ahead”

“2 – 3 days ahead”
“1 day ahead”
“2 to 3 hours”
“1 hour”
“At the meeting”
“Who needs an agenda?”
Tell the group “You have to give your report on an important issue at a team meeting. You have a reasonable understanding of the
issue. How far ahead do you prefer notification?”
Lay the signs out on the floor in a continuum. Ask participants to stand at a point that fits them best: “a week ahead” or “who
needs an agenda?”
Explain that the point they have selected often can highlight differences between the Judging and Perceiving functions. Mentions
that ‘P’s often get energised and very creative by last minute work, and can usually ‘pull a rabbit out of the hat’. As a supervisor,
you could try interim deadlines – to pace the effort and capitalise on the energy!
Typical questions from Perceiving types to Judging types are:

“What if you miss the latest information when you prepare too far in advance?”
“How do you know if you’re ready? Isn’t there always more to do or find out?”
“Don’t you ever worry that you’re missing out on life?”
Judging Percieving
Decide about information Attend to, gather information
Regulate Flow
Control Adapt
Settled Tentative
Run one’s life Let life happen
Set goals Seek options
Closing off Opening up
Organised Flexible
Source: Introduction to Type® in Organisations (3rd ed.) by Sandra Krebs Hirsh and Jean M.Kummerow. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1998. Reprinted with
permission.
Using MBTI® Tool in Organisations, 3 rd edition. © 2001 by Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce this master for workshop use. Duplication
for any other use, including resale, is a violation of copyright law. MBTI and Introduction to Type are registered trademarks Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

My Notes on the Four Exercises
E-I S-N
T-F J - PI

Effects of Each Preference in Work Situations
Extraverted Types Introverted Types
Like variety and action Like quiet for concentration
Are often good at greeting people Have trouble remembering names and faces
Are sometimes impatient with long, slow jobs Can work on one project for a long time
without interruption
Are interested in how others do their jobs
Are interested in the idea behind the job
Often enjoy talking on the phone
Dislike telephone interruptions
Often act quickly, sometimes without thinking
Think before they act, sometimes without acting
Like to have people around in the working
environment Work alone contentedly
May prefer to communicate by talking rather than writing May prefer communications to be in writing
Like to learn a new task by talking it through with someone May prefer to learn by reading rather than talking or
experiencing
Sensing Types Intuitive Types
Are aware of the uniqueness of each event Are aware of new challenges and possibilities
Focus on what works now Focus on how things could be improved
Like an established way of doing things Dislike doing the same thing repeatedly
Enjoy applying what they have already learned Enjoy learning new skills
Work steadily with a realistic sense of how long a job will take Work in bursts of energy powered by
enthusiasm with slack periods in between
Usually reach a conclusion step by step
May leap to a conclusion quickly
Are not often inspired and may not trust the
inspiration when they are Follow their inspirations and hunches
Are careful about the facts May get their facts a bit wrong
May be good at precise work Dislike taking time fore precision
Can oversimplify a task Can overcomplicate a task
Accept current reality as a given to work with Ask why things are as they are
Source: Introduction to Type® in Organisations (3rd ed.) by Sandra Krebs Hirsh and Jean M.Kummerow. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Using MBTI® Tool in Organisations, 3 rd edition. © 2001 by Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce

Effects of Each Preference in Work Situations
Thinking Types Feeling Types
Are good at putting things in logical order Like harmony and will work to make it happen
Respond more to people’s ideas than their feelings Respond to people’s values as much as to their thoughts
Anticipate or predict logical outcomes of choices Are good at sensing how choices affect people
Need to be treated fairly Need occasional praise
Tend to be firm and tough minded Tend to be sympathetic
Are able to respond or fire people when necessary Dislike telling people unpleasant things
May hurt people’s feelings without knowing Enjoy pleasing people
Have a talent for analysing a problem or situation Take in interest in the person behind the job or idea
Judging Types Perceiving Types
Work best when they can plan their work and follow the plan Do not mind leaving things open for last minute changes
Like to get things settled and finished Adapt well to changing situations
May decide things too quickly May have trouble making decisions, feeling they never have
enough information
May dislike interrupting the project they are on for a more urgent
one May start too many projects and have difficulty finishing them
Tend to be satisfied once they reach a judgement on a thing, May postpone unpleasant jobs
situation, or person
Want to know all about a new job
Want only the essentials needed to begin their work
Get a lot accomplished at the last minute under deadline
Schedule projects so that each step gets done on time pressure
Use lists as agendas for action Use lists as reminders of all the things they have to do someday
Source: Introduction to Type® in Organisations (3rd ed.) by Sandra Krebs Hirsh and Jean M. Kummerow. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting

Eight Misunderstandings about Personality Type (MBTI)
In talking about personality type, Jung used common German words in rather a specialised way. Myers and Briggs took the
English translations of these words and also used them in a way that is not always the same as their meanings in everyday
English. Some people misunderstand what the MBTI is actually saying, because they think of the terms in their usual sense, not
their ‘special’ sense.
An extravert is not necessarily a back slapping party animal. He or she is a person who draws energy from interacting with the
outer world of people and things.
An introvert is not necessarily a hermit in a cave in the forest. He or she is a person who draws energy from making contact
with the inner world of concepts and ideas.
A sensing type is not necessarily sensible, sensitive or sensual. He or she is a person who enjoys perceiving the world through
five senses.
An intuitive type is not necessarily a prophet, a poet or a woman. He or she is a person who enjoys perceiving the world by
quickly jumping from sensory impressions into possibilities, associations and symbols.
A thinking type is not necessarily unemotional, scholarly or even unusually bright. He or she is a person who prefers making
decisions on the basis of consistent, logical analysis.
A feeling type is not necessarily illogical, irrational or even particularly emotional. He or she is a person who prefers making
decisions on the basis of personal values.
A judging type is not necessarily judgemental. He or she is a goal-oriented person who likes to live in a planned and orderly way.
A perceiving type is not necessarily perceptive. He or she is a process-oriented person who likes to remain open to new
information, insights and experiences.
Source: Unknown.

MBTI – Communication and Team Roles
How your ‘Quadrant’ Prefers to Operate in a Team
ST in a Nutshell
“Let’s be accurate and responsible”
Sensing: Pay attention to facts, what can be verified
Thinking: Base decisions on logical analysis and principles
Value Seek
Efficiency Measurability-charts, statistics
Certainty To control costs, schedules
Thoroughness Proven methods
Consistency Solution to problems at hand
Control Order
Stability
Adept At Frequent Questions
Detail How will it be done?
Practical focus By when?
Allocating resources How much does it cost?
Establishing procedures
Increasing productivity
Enjoy Communication That Is Turn-Offs

Short, crisp, businesslike Vague statements
Impersonal Errors in facts
Factual and credible “Surprises”
Sequential Untried methods
Nonbiased Brainstorming with no practical outcome
Relevant
Keys
Be brief
Be sequential
Be responsible

SF in a Nutshell
“Let’s be practical and service-oriented”
Sensing: Pay attention to facts, what can be verified
Thinking: Base decisions on their impact on people – how the details matter to individuals
Value Seek
Personal loyalty Tried-and-true methods
Being of service To share work equality
Emotional well-being of others Harmony
Respect To be helpful
Clarity of role and function Uses for past experience, skills
Integrity
Solving practical problems Who will be affected?
Building relationships Who will do it?
Determining individual strengths and needs How, when, and where will it be done?
Details
Service with a smile
Personalised Theoretical possibilities
Sequential Criticism of others
Empathetic with their position “Cookie-cutter” mentality
Practical, results-oriented Logic without soul
Complete with examples Future projections
Centred on building the relationship
Keys
Be friendly
Allow for hands-on experience
Value their input


NT in a Nutshell
“Let’s be theoretical and entrepreneurial”
Sensing: Pay attention to global picture, theories, insights, and connections

Thinking: Base decisions on logical analysis and principles
Value Seek
Competence Positioning for the future
Competition Models, systems, strategies
Strategic planning Long-term view
Global concepts Challenge
Big-picture focus Cause and effect
Goal setting
Analysing complex problems, systems What is the latest, most relevant theory?
Debate What is the strategy?
Fostering organisational growth and development What is your expertise?
Theorising
Finding flaws
Organised Being told all the answers
Big-picture-oriented, considers future implications Hype
Straightforward Administrative details
Complete with underlying theory, research Repetition
Full of options Short-term outlook
Balanced, with pros and cons
Keys
Be prepared to be challenged
Let them draw their own conclusions
Establish credibility quickly

NF in a Nutshell
“Let’s be theoretical and entrepreneurial”
Sensing: Pay attention to global picture, connections and hunches

Thinking: Base decisions on the implications for the well-being of others
Value Seek
Community Work that allows for personal growth
Enthusiasm Creative communication
Insightful problem solving Innovation, change
Harmony What could be, idealism
Servicing society’s needs – “purpose beyond a pay check” Insights into what matters to others
Creativity

Being aware of others’ strengths How will it be communicated?
Inspiring others Whom will this affect?
Encourage teamwork Will this allow me and others to grow?
Envisioning the future and how to meet people’s needs
Communicating
Full of new insights and perspectives Playing politics
Enjoyable and fun Put-downs
Big-picture-oriented Pushiness
Associative, not sequential Documentation, paperwork
Concerned with harmony Insensitivity
Fuel for brainstorming
Keys
Be idealistic
Focusing on enabling growth in others
Find the fun

Appendix 4
Decision Making and Problem Solving
Some Decision Making Models
1. Optimising Model (Go for the optimal)

1 Ascertain the need for a decision
2 Identify the decision criteria
3 Allocate weights to the criteria
4 Develop alternatives
5 Evaluate alternatives
6 Select the best alternative
Note: This model assumes:
 Rationality and objectivity

 No conflict over the goal
 All relevant criteria and viable alternatives are known and can be ranked
 Criteria are constant and weights assigned are stable over time
 The decision maker will choose the alternative that rates the highest
1 Satisfacing Model (Go with what we know)

The decision maker chooses the first solution that is “good enough”, i.e. satisfactory and sufficient. This model
reduces problems to their most simple level. The decision maker tends to identify the alternatives that are
most obvious and not far from the status quo.
2 Implicit Favourite Model (Go with first choice)

The decision maker implicitly selects a preferred alternative early, which then biases the evaluation of all
other choices. This limits options, and decision making becomes a decision confirmation exercise – regardless
of the relevant facts that may surface later in the decision process.
3 Intuitive Model (Go with the inner flow)

The decision making is an unconscious process created out of distilled experience (”gut feel”). This method of
decision making is most used when:
1 there is a high level of uncertainty

2 there are few precedents to draw on
3 the variables are less scientifically predictable
4 facts are limited or don’t clearly point the way
5 analytical data are of little use
6 there are several plausible alternatives to choose from
7 time is limited and there is increased pressure to make a decision
This method is often combined with rational analysis to develop or evaluate alternatives or to identify and
allocate weights to decision criteria.
Adapted from Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies and Applications, Australia and New Zealand , Robbins, SP,
Waters-Marsh, T. Cacioppe, R. Millett, B. Prentice Hall, 1994

Determining Your Decision- Making Method
Two factors commonly come into play when determining the best group decision-making method:
1 the quality of decision you are looking for, and
2 the dynamics of the group
Variable
Depends on:
 How much time is available to make a decision
 Nature of the decision (routine or complex)
 Who is going to be affected by the decision?
 Who should be involved in making it?
 How important is it to have total agreement or commitment
 Whether all those who need to be consulted are available or have designated a proxy
 Whether the decision is urgent or life-threatening
 Input (knowledge, skills, information) required
The culture of a group can be a big influence on the decision-making style that the leader adopts. For
example, a group which considers it appropriate for the leader or anyone else to make a decision without
consultation would respond differently to such decision-making to a group which considers that decisions
should always be made by consensus.
You may need to make decisions under various degrees of certainty:

1 Certainty (have full knowledge of the situation)
2 Some risk (having some/intermediate knowledge of the situation)
3 Uncertainty (having limited knowledge of the situation)
Improving Your Decision-Making

 To minimise indecision, use ‘programmed decisions’ when you can
 Differentiate between ‘urgent’ and ‘important’ decisions
 Remember that decisions may be overtaken by changed circumstances
 Be prepared to make the wrong decision occasionally
 Check you have followed rational and/or creative processes
 Make sure that those most affected accept the decision
 Check assumptions: is this ‘just like another situation’?
 Avoid blinkers of experience and conditioning
 Be open to innovative solutions or ideas
 Be prepared to step back and try a different angle on the situation
 Know your style, preferences and biases
 Use forecasting tools to help support or clarify decisions
Communicating Your Decision

Plan and communicate your decision based on an agreed action plan.
By consulting and communicating at every stage of decision-making, you ensure ‘ownership’, and increase
commitment to the solution, as well as lessening any obstruction to implementation.
Your action plan should cover the following areas:

 What must be done?
 How must it be done?
 Who is responsible, and who can help?
 When will it be achieved?
 When and how will it be reviewed?
 Who will coordinate it?
 What will indicate successful implementation?
Also ensure that you outline clearly benefits of your decision, and be honest about possible drawbacks. Brief
people orally and follow up in writing, if necessary. Agree approaches for feedback and evaluation with all
concerned.

“Get in Your Helicopter” for an Overview / Review
Try a ‘helicopter review’, by ‘stepping outside’ the problem, and seeing it from an objective overview. Here are
some questions you might ask.
 What would happen to the problem if you left it alone – would it grow or get worse?
 Try looking at it from a different perspective. How does that change things?
 How soon is it important to solve the problem?
 Can you define or describe the problem in clearer terms by using a mind-map, an analogy or
drawing a picture, flowchart or diagram?
 Are the context, circumstances and constraints clear?
 What is most unusual about the problem, and what can you learn from that?
 What are we assuming about the problem?
 Do we have enough balanced information?
 Can you describe the problem in terms of a desirable outcome?
 Can a plan be – 1) devised? 2) applied, and how would you evaluate its effectiveness?
 What is a good time to act or take the first step?
 Did I miss anything earlier about the nature, extent or complexity of the problem?
 What were the early signs of the problem, and does it impact on other areas?
Some Problem-Solving Principles

Where Problems Can Occur
Problems can occur at the level of:
 Work inputs, processes (procedures, methods)

 Results (outputs)
 Resources we use (equipment, machinery)
 Staff and customer relationships
 Computer or specialised systems
 Facilities
 Communication
 Organisation / coordination
 Work design and efficiency
 Productivity, and
 Balance of work distribution
They may be seen in:
 Breakdowns
 Delays in processing
 Illness, absenteeism or low morale
 Lost or damaged goods and work materials
 Problems with quality and level of productivity
 Transition problems (unclear information, complaints), during periods of change (new staff,
policy, systems, procedures, or technology)
 Restructure, relocation, reorganisation or relationship problems at work
 Goals, roles and priorities unclear (individual or team level), and
 Reduced performance at first when people are learning new things
Whatever the problem or challenge, there are useful ways of approaching them. In these notes we will look at
some problem-solving principles that can help you ‘make sense of’ your problem and work towards a solution
(I.e. make better decisions!).

Effective Problem-Solving in a Team
One of the most valuable skills that any team can possess is the skill of problem solving, which can unleash
incredible creativity. A key role of a team leader is to model effective behaviour and train the team in
effective problem solving. The functional and dysfunctional behaviours below may be demonstrated when a
team is problem solving.
Overcoming Dysfunctional Behaviours

The table of functional and dysfunctional behaviours below is not exhaustive, but will point the team leader in
the right direction to identify and respond to a range of behaviours that can disrupt group interaction and
frustrate problem-solving processes.
The focus should not be on blame, but on improvement of behaviour. Remember to reward, commend and
praise good or functional behaviour as well as constructively confronting behaviour that is not helpful.
Functional Behaviour Dysfunctional Behaviours
Using a problem solving methodology Using reactive problem solving or panicking in the face of
problems
Identifying the problem
Trying to come up with solutions before defining the problem
Seeking all the information available on the problem
Not seeking necessary information
Brainstorming possible solutions
Using the first solution that comes up
Testing the feasibility of solutions
Not checking feasibility of solutions
Identifying the best possible solution (making a decision)
Using the first solution suggested
Developing a plan for implementing the solution
Not planning for implementation
Evaluating the implemented solution
Not evaluating
Recording all details of the problem and solution for future
Not keeping records
Some Observations About Problem-Solving at Work

Decision-making and problem solving principles may be applied to:
1 Structured, usually predictable problems (familiar, easily definable, with set procedures), or
2 Unstructured problems (where information is ambiguous or incomplete; these sorts of problems are
not necessarily solved by a standard process).
You may need to dig deep below the surface to uncover the real problem or underlying cause of a surface
problem. A good method to use is just to keep on asking yourself ‘why’ until you work down through the layers
of circumstance to the nugget of truth that lies buried beneath.
Three Typical Types of ‘Problem-Solvers’

1. Problem Avoiders
Think: “If I ignore it, maybe it will go away. I’ll face it when I’m forced to!”
Try to ignore the problem; not facing reality.
2. Problem Reacters

Think: “I’ll wait until something happens before I take any action to fix it!”
Deal with problems as they arrive.
3. Problem Seekers
Think: “I need to be aware of potential problems now so that I can take actions before they become serious!”
Seek out and anticipate problems to minimise rt prevent their effects.
More about Managing Problems in a Team Context

Ask your team or colleagues:
 Is this problem likely to become more serious, or is it transient?

 Is there an obvious solution, with someone in the team competent and available to solve it quickly?
 Can we tackle the problem in stages – what can we do right now?
 Can we solve the problem by making changes (small or large) in the way we work and relate to each
other?
Also, as project leader, make sure that you
 Encourage your team or colleagues to continue focusing on likely solutions

 Keep them informed and up-to-date on progress, especially if things are changing rapidly
 Remain open to fresh and new angles from others
 Are ready to bring in specialist knowledge or expertise if these is agreement these are needed
 Take time to encourage others as a solution begins to emerge
 Give recognition to all involved
Analysing Causes: Pareto Diagram

 Construct two vertical axes and a horizontal axis
 The left vertical axis indicates the number of items or percentage of the total
 The horizontal axis ranks ‘bars’ from left to right by various categories (frequency, number), in
decreasing order
 The right vertical axis charts the cumulative percentage of the categories.
100% Pareto Diagram
80% (Used here to rank the estimated

Factors contributing to lack of 65% percentage prevalence of possible
information communication problems identified in
the Ishikawa diagram)
40%
Poor access No Manage- Other

to PCs Training ment
Style

Key Questions When Analysing a Problem
 Who is affected?
 How serious or urgent is the problem?
 What are the variables that affect performance (e.g. people available, equipment, policies)?
 What are the conditions and constraints on action?
 What will happen if the problem symptoms are not addressed (are they likely to be self-correcting,
stay the same or get worse?)
 What, if anything, hinders you in solving the problem?
 What support do you have in solving the problem?
 How relevant and useful is the information you already have?
 Where else do you need to go to get more information?
 Who has the power to act?
 Who can help?
Note: Consult, Communicate, Coordinate!

 Consult with all those affected – it is time well invested, not wasted.
 Be careful to distinguish between fact and opinion
Substantiate by gathering facts and corroborating evidence from more than one source. Have you assessed
past records, reports, the Internet? Do you have enough information to identify relevant factors and indicate
possible causes?
Additional Problem-Solving Tools
Analysing Causes: Verbal Clustering

Use this pool to draw on the collective knowledge, experience and ideas of a group on a given topic (e.g.
‘mistakes at work’):
1. List all the problem symptoms

2. Look for similarities and differences, and divide the symptoms into clusters of related ‘causes’.
3. to help, write common ‘identifiers’ (e.g. number, letter, coloured tick) next to related items.
Now give each cluster (you may also have ‘sub-clusters’) a name which reflects their ‘common theme’. For
example, ‘mistakes at work’ may be due to:
 The fact that people do not care; people do note make an effort; people would rather talk about the
football (‘lack of motivation’ – this is a people issue)
 People do not know what they are doing; people miss vital steps in the process (‘lack of training’ – this
is a process issue)
In the text of this chapter, we presented the ‘fishbone diagram’ as a way of identifying possible causes. The
fishbone analysis is useful to follow on with after a ‘clustering’ exercise, in order to ‘dig deeper’. Once you
have drawn your fishbone diagram, it can be useful to use the ‘Pareto Diagram’ (below) to consider the most
likely factors contributing to the problem. The example builds on the ‘fishbone diagram’ example given in the
text.

Analysing Causes: Why? How? What?
A quick verbal variation to the ‘fishbone’ approach is espoused by Dr Karl Albrecht. Begin with one word
questions such as ‘why?’, ‘how?’, or ‘what?’.
For example – “why did the package go astray?”
Answers might be that:
“We lost it”
“The post office lost it”
“They mislaid it”
“We never sent it”
You then ask why again at each point, and keep working backwards to something that starts to look like a
likely cause.
To come up with solutions, start with the question “what?” or “how?” instead! For example, “How can we avoid
this happening again?”, “What can we do … what can we put in place … what can we agree on… ?”
Integrated Problem-Solving / Decision-Making Process

(Simplified Kepner-Tregoe Model)
Situation Appraisal
1. Identify concerns List threats and opportunities (could be one or more of Clarify concerns:
the following): What do we mean by …?
What’s going on? What deviations are occurring? What exactly is …?
What decision(s) deo we need to make? What else concerns us about …?
What plans do we need to implement? What evidence do we have for …?
What changes do we anticipate? What deviations, decisions or plans are
What are the opportunities? part of this concern/this situation?
What bothers us about …?
2. Set priority Which concern should we work on first? How urgent is this in terms of:
How serious is current impact on: Start point / deadlines?
What needs to happen? People / Team? When a resolution will become difficult,
Safety / Cost? expensive or impossible?
Task /productivity? The resolution that will be harder to
Customers? resolve later?
Reputation?
What is the growth impact:
Potential to get worse?
Which will get worse quicker?
3. Identify concerns Determine analysis needed

Situation appraisal
Where should we start? Do we need further clarification?
Problem analysis
Do we have a deviation? Is the cause unknown?
Do we need to determine the cause of a deviation to take effective action?
Decision analysis
Do we need to make a choice?
Potential problem (opportunity) analysis
Do we have an action or plan to protect (enhance?) our situation?
How much of the process is needed to resolve the problem?

4. Identify concerns Determine help needed
What’s the right thinking process? What do we need to do and when?

Who needs to be involved for information? Approval? Analysis? Implementation? Creativity? Development?
Commitment to action?
Who will document the process and results?
Problem Analysis
5. Describe problem What is the evidence of a deviation (what happens)?
What are the facts? When was it first observed? How often does it occur? Where and how else does it occur?
What other objects/factors could be affected in the same way, at the same time or in the same place, but are
not?
6. Identify possible Look for causes
causes
From experience, observation or measurement, what could have caused the deviation?
What could cause it? What is different or unique about what is affected / what happens compared to objects / factors that are
unaffected / what does not happen?
What has changed in or around the object / factor that could have caused a deviation? How could this change
have affected the object / factor?
7. Evaluate possible Look for the best explanation
causes
Which cause best explains the information available (is / is not)?
Which makes sense? Which cause has the fewest, simplest and most reasonable assumptions?
8. Confirm true How can we verify our assumptions?
cause(s)
How can we show there is a cause-and-effect relationship?
How to confirm it? When corrective action is taken, how will results be checked?
Decision Analysis
9. Clarify purpose State the decision objective
What are the objectives? What do we need to decide / do?

What short and long-term results do we want?
What resources should we use or save?
What restrictions influenced the choice? (e.g. management, policy, people, legal, cost, research, time, resources)
Do we need to be more specific?
Is this objective mandatory, measurable and realistic (=MUST)?
All other objectives are WANT’s (what is their relative importance)?
10. Evaluate Generate alternatives
alternatives
What are the choices available?
What are the options? How do they match the MUST and WANT definitions?
11. Assess risks Identify any adverse consequences
What are the risks? Where might information about the alternative be invalid – implications?
What could go wrong – short and long-term, if this alternative were chosen?
12. Make decision Make the balanced choice
What’s the decision? Are we willing to accept the risks to gain the benefit of this choice?

Project Communications

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Project Communications

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Project communications

Communications play a significant role in leadership and the ability to communicate is an

 interpersonal communication (communicating with others), and the particular

 effectively plan the communications needs of the projects (communications planning)

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 being able to express oneself simply and objectively

Planning the flow of information

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Office records will usually include:

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Lateral Communications to peers, Lateral Communications to

Communications with co-

A COMPLEX COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK

Landscape Plumber Painter

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Project communication plan

Simple communication matrix

Method Client Customer Team member A Team member B

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Project title: Project manager:

P – Prime responsibility for preparation and presentation

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COMMON BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Language  Terminology (jargon)

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 Listening is a critical part of communication

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Preparing for meetings

Purpose and format of the meeting

Determining whom to invite

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Making team decisions

 You need their commitment

When not to involve others

 The decision is about a trivial issue

 The leader sets the agenda

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Step 1: Identify and define the problem.

Step 2: Analyse the problem.

Step 3: Consider alternatives.

Step 4: Evaluate alternatives and select the best.

Step 5: Act on your decision.

Step 6: Follow up and evaluate.

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Improving problem-solving – decision-making

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Communications can take different directions:

 hierarchical chain of your project or organisation.

Supplier’s Program Other manager

Supplier’s staff Team leader Other

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 Monitoring and Control Procedures: The methodology to be employed to check,

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Format of project reports

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Quarterly (or monthly/weekly) report

Project/phase completion reports