Planning Execution
skeletal muscle
MOTOR SYSTEM
KIDRUNNER
- The SPINAL CORD is directed towards DISTAL
MUSCLES
- The HYPOTHALAMUS and PARTS OF THE LIMBIC
SYSTEM (Hippocampal and Parahippocampal
regions) have a MINIMAL EFFECT ON THE SKELETAL
MUSCLES; They affect mostly VISCERAL TISSUES,
Especially the hypothalamus
- The thalamus is another important part; this area of
the NS acts a relay station; THEY DO NOT MODIFY
MOTOR IMPULSES; INTERCOMMUNICATION
BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE CNS
INVOLVED IN MOTOR CONTROL
* Involuntary movement is reserved for
smooth/cardiac muscles; they generate their own
impulses
* Although there are involuntary skeletal muscles, we
do not refer them as involuntary; THE PORPER
TERM IS REFLEX; the impulses are generatedby
neurons, neuronal function
- part of the nervous system controlling, regulating
Basal
Ganglia - Neurons at the left of the diagram are concerned
with planning/programming of motor activities; we
Cortical Premotor, Spinal Cord see generation of impulses in theses areas before
Idea Association Supplementary
Brainstem
Muscles we see activity of skeletal muscles
Area motor and Motor
cortex - The right of the diagram is concerned with the
execution of motor commands coming from the
Intermediate motor cortices
Lateral
Cerebellum
Cerebellum - The BRAINSTEM is directed towards TRUNCAL
MUSCLES
THREE TYPES OF MOVEMENT GENERATED BY
MOTOR SYSTEM • VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
• REFLEXES - Involve cortical activity/cortical neurons
- Almost nvoluntary - Needs activation of neurons in the cerebral cortex
first; Pre---central gyrus/frontal lobe
- They DO NOT INVOLVE CORTICAL ACTIVITY
- Characterized by two features:
- Mostly Spinal Cord and Brainstem neurons
- Purposeful (Goal Directed)
- Rapid, stereotyped involuntary responses
- Largely learned (improves with practice); also
- Least affected by a stimulus
involves lateral cerebellum (cerebrocerebellum)
- NEEDED FOR POSTURAL ACTIVITY
• RHYTMIC MOTOR PATTERNS • REFLEX ARC
- Initially voluntary movements; When frequently - Basic unit of integrated reflex activity
utilized, muscles will eventually perform - Components:
reflex activities - Sensory organs
- Stereotype, repetitive movements that occur in - Afferentneurons
reflex---like fashion after voluntarily initiated
- Center → Sensation
- E.g. Driving a car
- Efferent neurons
- Also needed for maintenance of posture;
Postural support movements - Effectors → reflex action
• What is needed for us to have activity in the skeletal • When we have reflex activities, do we utilize only
muscles? skeletal muscles to react to the change affecting the
body? THE ANSWER IS NO
- WE MUST HAVE AN INTACT REFLEX ARC
• REFLEX ACTION
- May involve simultaneous contraction of
some muscles and relaxation of other muscles
- That is why we have what we call agonist and
antagonistic muscles for us to have a well
coordinated movement of the body
- Simultaneous with muscle activity, we also
observe visceral activities
- May involve either somatic or visceral responses
which could occur simultaneously
B. AFFERENT NEURONS
- Mostly type A alpha neurons, some could be type
A beta and delta
- When we describe sensory afferent nerves, they
are describe mostly according to size
- GROUP IA, GROUP IB and GROUP II
- Mostly Type Aα, Type Aβ, Type Aδ
C. CENTER
- Spinal Cord/Brainstem
- Cerebral Cortex and others
MAJOR SENSORY RECEPTORS
• Muscle spindle (Intrafusal fibers)
- Stretch---sensitive receptors
- Spindle → Stretch
• Golgi---tendon organs
- Tesnsion---sensitive receptors
- Tendon → Tension
- Involves activation of one or several synapses; A. SENSORY ORGANS
Synapses could be somatic for skeletal muscles - Stretch and proprioceptors are mostly used in
or visceral (autonomic neurons) that will control motor activity
visceral tissues - Involves stretch receptors/proprioceptors
- Happens without conscious perception - MUSCLE SPINDLE
- REMEMBER HOWEVER, VOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES - GOLGI TENDON
ALSO INVOLVE AN INTACT REFLEX ARC
- Impulses are modified in various parts of the CNS
- Basal ganglia modify BOTH FAST AND SLOW
movements
- Cerbellar activity modify FAST movements
D. EFFERENT NEURONS E. EFFECTORS
- α motorneurons → Extrafusal muscle fiber - Skeletal muscles
- CAPABLE OF GENERATING TENSION; CAN REALLY - Mostly the extrafusal muscle fibers
CONTRACT
- γ motorneurons → Intrafusal muscle fiber EFFECTORS - Skeletal muscles (Extrafusal Fibers)
- NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR CONTRACTION
- FUNCTIONS AS SENSORY RECEPTORS
- ANOTHER NAME OF MUSCLE SPINDLE FIBERS
* Muscle spindles are the sensory receptors in the
body that contains both sensory and efferent
nerves
* Present in the muscle; involved in muscle activity
* These are the receptors that can communicate
with the CNS, especially the spinal cord
* Intrafusal muscle fibers are in close contact with
the extrafusal muscle fibers; present INSIDE THE
MUSCLE BUNDLE; they run parallel with the
muscle fibers inside the belly of the muscle
 2 TYPES OF MUSCLE SPINDLES
Nuclear Bag
• Nuclear Bag Nuclear Chain

- Larger diameter
- Arranged in clusters

• Nuclear Chain
- Thinner diameter
- Arranged in chains

SENSORY ENDINGS STRETCH REFLEX (MYOTATIC REFLEX)

• SECONDARY ENDINGS (Flower Spray)
• PRIMARY ENDINGS (Annulospiral)
- Group II
- Group Ia
- Innvervate only the nuclear chain fibers
- Innervate both the nuclear bag and nuclear chain
- NOT SENSITIVE TO THE RATE OF CHANGE OF
- Detect amount of muscle stretch but MORE MUSCLE LENGTH
SENSITIVE TO THE RATE OF CHANGE OF THE
- Provides information about THE STATIC LENGTH
MUSCLE LENGTH
OF THE FIBERS
- VELOCITY SENSITIVE FIBERS
- Can only tell the length of the muscle
- IMPORTANCE: Tells the center that the body part
- IMPORTANCE: It will only tell the center that the
is in motion
body part is stationary
- Dynamic position (Kinesthesia) THE FINER THE MOVEMENT OF A MUSCLE, THE GREATER
- Static position
THE NUMBER OF MUSCLE SPINDLES

* Muscles with more muscles spindles → Greater
precision/accurate activity → Mostly in the distal
body parts (Hands, feet, head)
* Once the muscle spindles are activated, the muscles
CONTRACT → MYOTATIC REFLEX
* Major stimulus is STRETCH → Group Ia and Group II
fibers are activated → impulses go to the SPINAL
CORD → Enters the dorsal root/dorsal horn of the
spinal cord
* Take note that they come impulses come from
sensory receptors present in the skeletal muscles,
they will eventually activate skeletal muscles, so
these sensory impulses carried by group Ia and
group II neurons coming from the activated muscle
spindles when they enter the dorsal root/dorsal
horn, they are eventually transmitted to the
anterior portion/ventral horn of the spinal cord
where the anterior motor neurons are present
(alpha and gamma motor neurons). They will
immediately form synapses with the anterior motor
neurons.
The Ia and group II neurons send excitatory
impulses to the anterior motor nerves. These are
then transmitted by the alpha and gamma motor
neurons to the muscle that was stretched. THE
RESULT: CONTRACTION OF THE STRETCHED MUCLES
Muscle stretch → Spindle fibers → group Ia and group
II neurons → dorsal horn of SC → ventral horn of SC
→ alpha and gamma neurons → muscle contraction
 TYPES OF STRETCH REFLEXES
• STATIC RESPONSE
- IMPORTANCE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN STATIC
RESPONSE: For maintenance of posture
- Weak, continuous → for posture/balance
- Involves activity of the nuclear bag and the
nuclear chain, BUT WITH GREATER ACTIVITY OF
THE CHAIN
- Involves activaion of group Ia and group II
neurons, BUT MOSTLY GROUP II
- Activates α motor neurons and static gamma
fibers, BUT THE STATIC GAMMA NEURONS ARE
THE ONES MOSTLYAFFECTED
* Activity of the DYNAMIC GAMMA FIBERS increases
spindle sensitivity to the rate of change of stretch
(Nuclear bag). Increases phasic activity of Ia fibers
* Activity of the STATIC GAMMA FIBERS increases
spindle sensitivity to steady, maintained stretch
(Nuclear chain). Increases tonic activity of Ia fibers
- In the muscles, because of the simultaneous
activation of the gamma motor neurons that will
affect the stretch muscle spindle, the sensitivity of
the muscle spindle to its adequate stimulus is not
decreasing, it is enhanced. The muscle spindle is
made more sensitive when stimulated.
- This is the reason why, when a muscle contracts,
the spindle, which is the receptor for the skeletal
muscle, for it to generate another contraction, does
not become refractory. It is still sensitive to
stimulation. So if you want to contract that muscle
group again, you can still do so, because the muscle
spindle is still sensitive to stimulation.
• DYNAMIC RESPONSE
- WHEN YOU MOVE A BODY PART, IT MEANS YOU
ARE PERFORMAING WORK
- THERE IS GREATER ACTIVITY OF THE SKELETAL
MUSCLES
- Strong, sudden → for carrying load, when doing
work
- Involves activity MOSTLY OF THE NUCLEAR BAG;
same activity of the nuclear chain (no change in
the activity of the nuclear chain)
* The static gamma fibers are mostly connected to the
nuclear chain
* IMPORTANCE OF STATIC GAMMA FIBERS: If the
muscle is contracted in maintaining posture, that
muscle is still sensitive to stimulation.
* Alpha motor neruons are responsible for the
contraction of the stretched muscles
* Gamma motor neurons affect muscle spindles
- Greater activity of the group Ia neurons
- Oppose suddenchangesinmusclelength
- Activates α motor neurons and dynamic gamma
fibers, BUT THE GAMMA FIBERS AFFECTED ARE
MOSTLY THE DYNAMIC GAMMA FIBERS
* Group Ia neurons are involed in dynamic (mostly)
but also involved in static activities
* Static gamma fibers are mostly attached to the
nuclear chain; Dynamic gamma fibers are attached
to the nuclear bag
* What is the importance of the gamma motor
neurons when there is activation of the muscle
spindles when the muscle is stretched? Why is
there an efferent nerve connected to a sensory
receptor (muscle spindle)?
- Importance of the gamma motor neurons is to
maintain sensitivity of the muscle spindle even
when the muscle is stimulated. You don’t make the
muscle spindle undergo hyperpolarization (become
refractory) when a muscle is stimulated. What is
observed in most excitable cells? They depolarize
and repolarize. This causes periods of
refractoriness.
MYOTATIC REFLEX
• Muscle spindle - stretchsensitive receptors
• Group Ia and II sensory neurons
- Transmit impulses to the spinal cord, entering the
dorsal root/dorsal horn and immediately move
towards the ventral horn to send excitatory
impulses to the alpha and gamma motor
nerves
• Stimulates the alpha motor neurons as well as the
gamma motor neurons
• Resulting to muscular contraction
 KNEE JERK REFLEX GOLGI TENDON ORGAN
• But what is really contracting? The ones affected by
* Strike the patellar tendon → Quadriceps muscles • Present in the tendon
the alpha motor neurons, which are the extrafusal
are stretched • An encapsulated receptor
fibers
* The sensory alpha neurons are basically type a • The actual receptors are the noodle---like structures
• Activity of the gamma can even increase sensitivity
alpha --- These are very fast neurons – 120 m/s inside the tendon
of the spindles to stretch when the muscle
impulse transmission • Utilizes group Ib sensory neurons
contracts
* That is why when these neurons are used, the • Stimulus is tension
stimulation and response happens almost
simultaneously • When GTO is stimulated → Ib neurons → Dorsal
horn → INHIBITORY INTERNEURON → inhibitory
* All motor neurons have characteristics similar to impulses go to the anterior motor nerves
type a alpha – large diameter and myelinated
nerves

• Unlike the group Ia and group II that go straight to

the dorsal horn (single synapse), group Ib activates • Compared to stretch reflex, the inverse myotatic
inhibitory interneurons. The alpha motor neurons reflex is described as a disynaptic of polysynaptic
receiving inhibitory impulses from an inhibitory reflex. Because it is disynaptic, normally the
interneuron activated by group Ib will now transmit duration of relaxation if greater than duration of
inhibitory impulses to the muscle that is developing contraction because relaxation involves two
tension. The muscle will then RELAX. synapses, therefore the transmission of impulses is
• The reflex involving the GTO is called INVERSE slower.
STRETCH / INVERSE MYOTATIC REFLEX/
LENGTHENING RESPONSE / AUTOGENIC INHIBITORY
REFLEX – Because the tension developed by
contraction of the muscles is its own stimulus for
relaxation

INVERSE MYOTATIC REFLEX NEURAL AREAS THAT CONTROL MOTOR REXED’S LAMINAE
• GTO – Tension sensitive receptor FUNCTION • LAMINA 8 & 9 – Motor neurons in the medial and
A. CEREBRAL CORTEX lateral regions
• Group Ib sensory neurons
B. BASAL GANGLIA - Medial – Controls axial muscles
• Stimulates an inhibitory interneuron (Spinal cord)
C. CEREBELLUM - Lateral – Controls distal muscles
• Inhibiting alpha motorneurons
D. BRAINSTEM
• RESULTING TO MUSCULAR RELAXATION
E. SPINAL CORD

* Except for the limbic system and hypothalamus

* In the spinal cord, Laminae 8-9 of the ventral horn
are important
 COMPLETE TRANSECTION OF THE SPINAL SPINAL CORD INJURIES
CORD • Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis
• Permanent paraplegia
• Syringomyelia
- Initially flaccid → spastic paraplegia
• Brown-Sequard syndrome
• Loss of sensations
• Tabes Dorsalis
• Spinal shock (loss of spinal reflexes)
- Lasts for a minimum of 2 weeks
• Observed below the level of injury
• Recovery is possible for some somatic and
autonomic reflexes like knee jerk, flexor
(withdrawal) reflexes, micturition, erection

BRAINSTEM BRAINSTEM FUNCTION

• Mostly for control of muscles involved in • Provides background contraction
maintaining posture; mostly axial or truncal - Trunk
• Collectively known as anti-gravity muscles - Neck
- Proximal portions of the limbs
• Supports the body against gravity
• Majority are EXTENSORS, except for extensors of
the upper extremities
• Also includes the muscles elevating the jaw

INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (IN MAINTAINING POSTURE)

MOTOR CORTEX
CEREBELLUM BRAINSTEM VESTIBULAR NUCLEI
* Pons is the most active in promoting continuous
BASAL GANGLIA activity of the muscles to maintain posture
involuntarily
CEREBELLUM
PONTINE RETICULAR NUCLEI * Even without cortical activity, we can maintain
MIDBRAIN posture, as long as the brainstem is active, where
PONS BRAINSTEM MEDIAL RETICULAR TRACT we have the reticular activating system
MEDULLA
ANTERIOR MOTORNEURONS

LABYRINTHS SKIN, MUSCLE AND JOINT RECEPTORS

ANTIGRAVITY MUSCLES
INPUTS TO MOTOR CENTERS OF THE BRAINSTEM
 VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (IN MAINTAINING POSTURE) RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
* Can transmit inhibitory impulses to the pons with - Affects activity of proximal muscles and muscles of
MOTOR CORTEX BRAINSTEM RUBROSPINAL TRACT
the help of rubrospinal tract and the medullary the trunk
neurons - Affects mostly extensors
MEDULLARY RETICULAR NUCLEI * Utilizes the lateral reticular tract PONTINE RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
- Generally STIMULATORY on both extensors and
* REMEMBER: flexors, BUT GREATER EFFECT ON EXTENSORS
LATERAL RETICULAR TRACT
PONS → EXCITATORY → MEDIAL; MEDULLA → MEDULLARY RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
INHIBITORY → LATERAL
- Generally INHIBITORY on both extensors and
ANTERIOR MOTORNEURONS
flexors, BUT GREATER EFFECT ON EXTENSORS
- You are now able to activate flexors and change
ANTIGRAVITY MUSCLES body position; Medullary neurons are used

BRAINSTERM INJURIES
• Injuries are always FATAL
• BRAINSTEM INJURY ABOVE THE PONS
- Decerebrate rigidity
- All muscles stimulated are mostly extensors
- Midbrain and cortex are not capable of exerting
their influence on the body
- Highest center that can control activity becomes
pons – excitatory to extensors; No cerebrum or
medulla to control their effect
• DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY
1. Increases excitability of the extensors
2. Positive tonic labyrinthine reflexes
3. Positive tonic neck reflexes
4. Positive spinal reflexes
5. Negative righting reflexes
- Extension and hyperpronation of the arms
- Extension and internal rotation of the legs
- OPISTHOTONOS (Arching of neck and back) SITE OF INJURY

• Brainstem injury above the pontine reticular
formation removes the inhibitory inputs to the
reticular formation → DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY
• BRAINSTEM INJURY ABOVE THE MIDBRAIN • DECORTICATE RIGIDITY
- Decorticate rigidity - Flexion of arms with extension and internal
- Midbrain function is preserved; there is normal rotation of legs
righting reflex - Common cause of decortication in humans
(Massive stroke; Hunger; Hypoglycemia)
MIDBRAIN ANIMAL (PREPARATION)
1. Positive righting reflexes (midbrain function)
2. Positive tonic labyrinthine reflexes
3. Positive tonic neck reflexes
4. Negative spontaneous movement (automaton)
5. Lacks the decerebraterigidity (decorticate)
 CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Frontal – Motor
• Parietal – Sensory Somatic
• Temporal – Sensory auditory
• Occipital – Sensory visual
• PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX - Judgment, ambitions,
cognitive functions of the brain
SITE OF INJURY
• PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
- Origin of motor commands
- Considered the cortical efferent zone
- Site of the motor homunculus
* Greater number of muscle spindles, greater
representation in the motor homunculus
* Hand (thumb), foot and facial muscles
• POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX AND THE SOMATIC
SENSORY AREAS
- Generate also motor responses
- PPC-Project to the premotor area and the
supplementary motor area(PPC)
- SSA-Project to the primary motor cortex (SSA)
• OTHER SPECIALIZED CORTICAL AREAS THAT
CONTROL MOTOR FUNCTION
- Broca’s area – Muscles of the vocal cords
- Voluntary Eye movement field / frontal eye
movement field
- Head rotation area; Area for hand skills
MOTORCORTEX
- Anterior to the central sulcus; occupies the
posterior 1/3 of the frontal lobe
THREE SUB AREAS
- Primary motor area
- Premotor area
- Supplementary motor area
* Some activities are initiated by impulses coming
from the parietal lobe
* They can affect the neurons of the motor area
because we must have sensations first before we
see movements of the skeletal muscles
• PRE-MOTOR CORTEX
- Responsible for posture at the start of planned
complex motor activity
- Receives major input from the posterior parietal
cortex and its output influences chiefly the
medial descending pathway
• SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA
- Concerned with mental rehearsal of a planned
motor activity
- Causes complex contraction that is usually
bilateral affecting mostly the upper extremities
- Needs a stronger stimulation to cause contraction
DESCENDING PATHWAYS
• Corticobulbar Tract
• Corticospinal Tract
- Most important output pathways from the
cerebral cortex
- Passes through the posterior limb of the internal
capsule
• ORIGIN
- 30% - Primary motor area
- 30% - Premotor area
- 40% - Parietal area
 CORTICOBULBAR TRACT
LEFT CORTICOBULBAR TRACT
• CN 1,2 and 8 are not involved CORTICO-BULBAR CORTICO-BULBAR
- Has greater contralateral control, both upper and TRACT (L) TRACT (R)
• Concerned with the activity of the motor nuclei of lower
several cranial nerves (ALL EXCEPT 1, 2, 8 because
- Ipsilateral, it has only control over the upper
they are sensory)
portion, no control on the lower portion UPPER UPPER
• Can influence motor neurons controlling neck FACE FACE
- Lower portion on the ipsilateral side is controlled
muscles, facial muscles, jaw muscles, extraocular
by the right corticobulbar tract
muscles, and tongue
- Nerves before the motor nucleus – Upper motor LOWER LOWER
• They have ipsilateral and contralateral transmission
neurons FACE FACE
- Nerves after the motor nucleus that will control
the Muscles – Lower motor neurons CRANIAL NERVE 7 – FACIAL NERVE

EXAMPLE: CRANIAL NERVE 7 – FACIAL NERVE

* If there is an injury to the left corticobulbar tract CORTICO-BULBAR CORTICO-BULBAR
BEFORE the CNVII nucleus (upper motor neurons), TRACT (L) TRACT (R)
there will be problems in the lower right side of the
face, the area that is controlled by the left
corticobulbar tract only. UPPER UPPER
* If the injury is the neurons after the nucleus, there FACE FACE
will be paralysis on the same side (ipsilateral) LESION
* REMEMBER: LOWER LOWER
UPPER MOTOR NEURONS → CONTRALATERAL, FACE FACE
LOWER PORTION
If the injury is after the facial nerve nucleus, problem is seen
LOWER MOTOR NEURONS → IPSILATERAL, BOTH in the upper and lower parts of the face (IPSILATERAL)
CONTRALATERAL
UPPER AND LOWER PORTIONS

PATIENT CAN ELEVATE

PATIENT CAN ELEVATE CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT
BOTH EYEBROWS BOTH EYEBROWS
• CONCERNED WITH ALL PARTS OF THE BODY FROM
THE NECK DOWNWARD

• LATERAL CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT

• VENTRAL / ANTERIOR / MEDIAL CORTICO-SPINAL
TRACT
LATERAL CORTICO-SPINAL TRACT
- Decussates at the level of the of the medulla (lower
pons/upper medulla)
- Controls contra-lateral muscles
- Constitute 80% of the fibers
- Projection fibers are mostly coming from the
primary motor cortex
- Fibers cross at the midline of the medullary pyramid
- Concerned with control of distal musculature
(hands, fingers, lower legs and feet)
- Generally facilitates activity of the flexor muscles
and inhibits extensors
- Mediates fine and skilled movements
- Includes rubrospinal tract
VENTRAL / ANTERIOR / MEDIAL CORTICO-SPINAL
TRACT
- Decussates at the level of the spinal cord
- There are fibers decussating at the other side, there
are fibers that stay on the same side
- There is ipsilateral and contralateral muscle control
- Constitutes 20% of the fibers
- Projection fibers are mostly coming from the
premotor cortex

- Fibers do not cross at the midline of the medullary

pyramid
- Fibers cross the level of the spinal cord
- Concerned with the control of axial muscles (trunk
and proximal limbs)
- Mediates postural adjustments and gross
movements
- Includes reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and
tectospinal tracts