REPORTING A.C.

DUCTS

REPUBLIC OF IRAQ

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

THI QAR UNIVERSITY / COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MECH.ENGINEERING DEPT.

EVENING STUDY

REPORT ABOUT

A.C DUCTS AND FLOW

DONE BY STUDENT / HAIDER KADHIM JABR

YEAR 2019-2020

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 What are air conditioning ducts?
REPORTING A.C. DUCTS

A.C ducts are conduits or passages used in heating, ventilation, and air

conditioning (HVAC) to deliver and remove air. The needed airflows
include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust air. Ducts commonly
also deliver ventilation air as part of the supply air. As such, air ducts are one
method of ensuring acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.
A duct system is also called ductwork. Planning (laying out), sizing,
optimizing, detailing, and finding the pressure losses through a duct system
are called duct design.

fig1: duct shape

 Ducts are made from:

1. Galvanized steel
2. Aluminum (Al)
3. Polyurethane and phenol insulation panels (pre-insulated air ducts)
4. Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork)
5. Flexible ducting
6. Fabric ducting
7. PVC low-profile ducting
8. Waterproofing

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1. Galvanized steel
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Galvanized mild steel is the standard and most common material used in

fabricating ductwork because the zinc coating of this metal prevents rusting and
avoids cost of painting. For insulation purposes, metal ducts are typically lined
with faced fiberglass blankets (duct liner) or wrapped externally with fiberglass
blankets (duct wrap). When necessary, a double walled duct is used. This will
usually have an inner perforated liner, then a 1–2" layer of fiberglass insulation
contained inside an outer solid pipe.
Rectangular ductwork commonly is fabricated to suit by specialized metal shops.
For ease of handling, it most often comes in 4' sections (or joints). Round duct is
made using a continuous spiral forming machine which can make round duct in
nearly any diameter when using the right forming die and to any length to suit,
but the most common stock sizes range evenly from 4" to 24" with 6"-12" being
most commonly used. Stock pipe is usually sold in 10' joints. There are also 5'
joints of the non-spiral type pipe available, which is commonly used in residential
applications.

Fig2: A round galvanized steel duct connecting to a typical diffuser

2. Aluminum (Al)
Aluminum ductwork is lightweight and quick to install. Also, custom or special
shapes of ducts can be easily fabricated in the shop or on site.
The ductwork construction starts with the tracing of the duct outline onto the
aluminum preinsulated panel. The parts are then typically cut at 45°, bent if
required to obtain the different fittings (i.e. elbows, tapers) and finally
assembled with glue. Aluminum tape is applied to all seams where the external
surface of the aluminum foil has been cut. A variety of flanges are available to
suit various installation requirements. All internal joints are sealed with sealant.
3Aluminum is also used to make round spiral duct, but it is much less common
than galvanized steel.
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3. Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-insulated

air ducts
Traditionally, air ductwork is made of sheet metal which was installed first and
then lagged with insulation. Today, a sheet metal fabrication shop would
commonly fabricate the galvanized steel duct and insulate with duct wrap prior
to installation. However, ductwork manufactured from rigid insulation panels
does not need any further insulation and can be installed in a single step.
Both polyurethane and phenolic foam panels are manufactured with factory
applied aluminum facings on both sides. The thickness of the aluminum foil
can vary from 25 micrometers for indoor use to 200 micrometers for external
use or for higher mechanical characteristics. There are various types of rigid
polyurethane foam panels available, including a water formulated panel for
which the foaming process is obtained through the use of water and
CO2 instead of CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC gasses. Most manufacturers of rigid
polyurethane or phenolic foam panels use pentane as foaming agent instead of
the aforementioned gasses.
A rigid phenolic insulation ductwork system is listed as a class air duct to UL
181 Standard for Safety.
4. Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork)
Fiberglass duct board panels provide built-in thermal insulation and the interior
surface absorbs [sound], helping to provide quiet operation of the HVAC
system.
The duct board is formed by sliding a specially-designed knife along the board
using a straightedge as a guide. The knife automatically trims out a groove
with 45° sides which does not quite penetrate the entire depth of the duct
board, thus providing a thin section acting as a hinge. The duct board can then
be folded along the groove to produce 90° folds, making the rectangular duct
shape in the fabricator's desired size. The duct is then closed with outward-
clinching staples and special aluminum or similar metal-backed tape.
5. Flexible ducting
Flexible ducts (also known as flex) are typically made of flexible plastic over a
metal wire coil to shape a tube. They have a variety of configurations. In the
United States, the insulation is usually glass wool, but other markets such as
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Australia, use both polyester fiber and glass wool for thermal insulation. A
protective layer surrounds the insulation, and is usually composed
of polyethylene or metalized PET. It is commonly sold as boxes containing 25'
of duct compressed into a 5' length. It is available in diameters ranging from as
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small as 4" to as big as 18", but the most commonly used are even sizes
ranging from 6" to 12".
Flexible duct is very convenient for attaching supply air outlets to the rigid
ductwork. It is commonly attached with long zip ties or metal band claps.
However, the pressure loss is higher than for most other types of ducts. As
such, designers and installers attempt to keep their installed lengths (runs)
short, e.g. less than 15 feet or so, and try to minimize turns. Kinks in flexible
ducting must be avoided. Some flexible duct markets prefer to avoid using
flexible duct on the return air portions of HVAC systems; however flexible
duct can tolerate moderate negative pressures. The UL181 test requires a
negative pressure of 200 Pa.
6. Fabric ducting
This is actually an air distribution device and is not intended as a conduit for
conditioned air. The term fabric duct is therefore somewhat misleading; fabric
air dispersion system would be the more definitive name. However, as it often
replaces hard ductwork, it is easy to perceive it simply as a duct. Usually made
of polyester material, fabric ducts can provide a more even distribution and
blending of the conditioned air in a given space than a conventional duct
system. They may also be manufactured with vents or orifices.
Fabric ducts are available in various colors, with options for silk screening or
other forms of decoration, or in porous (air-permeable) and non-porous fabric.
The determination which fabric is appropriate (i.e. air-permeable or not) can be
made by considering if the application would require an insulated metal duct. If
so, an air-permeable fabric is recommended because it will not commonly
create condensation on its surface and can therefore be used where air is
supplied below the dew point. Material that eliminates moisture may be
healthier for the occupants. It can also be treated with an anti-microbial agent
to inhibit bacterial growth. Porous material also tends to require less
maintenance as it repels dust and other airborne contaminants.
Fabric made of more than 50% recycled material is also available, allowing it
to be certified as green product. The material can also be fire retardant, which
means that the fabric can still burn, but will extinguish when the heat source is
removed.

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Fabric ducts are not rated for use in ceilings or concealed attic spaces.
However, products for use in raised floor applications are available. Fabric
ducting usually weighs less than other conventional ducting and will therefore
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put less stress on the building's structure. The lower weight allows for easier
installation.
Fabric ducts require a minimum of certain range of airflow and static pressure in
order for it to work.

7. PVC low-profile ducting

PVC low-profile ducting has been developed as a cost-effective alternative to
steel low-profile ducting. Low-profile ducting has been used extensively in
apartment and hotel ventilation since 2005. The growth of low-profile ducting
has grown significantly due to the reduction of available space in ceiling
cavities in an effort to reduce cost. Since the Grenfell Tower fire in 2017 there
has been a rise in the discovery of noncompliant building materials; many PVC
low-profile ducting manufacturers have struggled to gain or maintain
compliance, and some building projects have had to resort back to using the
more expensive steel option.

Fig3: Low profile PVC ducting

8. Waterproofing
The finish for external ductwork exposed to the weather can be sheet steel
6coated with aluminum or an aluminum/zinc alloy, a multilayer laminate, a fiber
reinforced polymer or other waterproof coating.
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 Duct system components:

1. Vibration isolators
A duct system often begins at an air handler. The blowers in the air
handler can create substantial vibration, and the large area of the duct
system would transmit this noise and vibration to the inhabitants of the
building. To avoid this, vibration isolators (flexible sections) are
normally inserted into the duct immediately before and after the air
handler. The rubberized canvas-like material of these sections allows the
air handler to vibrate without transmitting much vibration to the attached
ducts. The same flexible section can reduce the noise that can occur when
the blower engages and positive air pressure is introduced to the
ductwork.

Fig4: An air handling unit with vibration isolator

2. Take-offs
Downstream of the air handler, the supply air trunk duct will commonly
fork, providing air to many individual air outlets such as diffusers, grilles,
and registers. When the system is designed with a main duct branching
into many subsidiary branch ducts, fittings called take-offs allow a small
portion of the flow in the main duct to be diverted into each branch duct.
Take-offs may be fitted into round or rectangular openings cut into the
wall of the main duct. The take-off commonly has many small metal tabs
that are then bent to attach the take-off to the main duct. Round versions
are called spin-in fittings. Other take-off designs use a snap-in attachment
7 method, sometimes coupled with an adhesive foam gasket for improved
sealing. The outlet of the take-off then connects to the rectangular, oval,
or round branch duct.
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3. Stack boots and heads

Ducts, especially in homes, must often allow air to travel vertically
within relatively thin walls. These vertical ducts are called stacks and are
formed with either very wide and relatively thin rectangular sections or
oval sections. At the bottom of the stack, a stack boot provides a
transition from an ordinary large round or rectangular duct to the thin
wall-mounted duct. At the top, a stack head can provide a transition back
to ordinary ducting while a register head allows the transition to a wall-
mounted air register.

4. Volume control dampers

Ducting systems must often provide a method of adjusting the volume of
air flow to various parts of the system. Volume control dampers (VCDs;
not to be confused with smoke/fire dampers) provide this function.
Besides the regulation provided at the registers or diffusers that spread air
into individual rooms, dampers can be fitted within the ducts themselves.
These dampers may be manual or automatic. Zone dampers provide
automatic control in simple systems while variable air volume (VAV)
allows control in sophisticated systems.

Fig5: An opposed-blade, motor-operated zone damper, shown in the "open" position.

5. Smoke and fire dampers

Smoke and fire dampers are found in ductwork where the duct passes
8 through a firewall or fire curtain.
Smoke dampers are driven by a motor, referred to as an actuator. A probe
connected to the motor is installed in the run of the duct and detects
smoke, either in the air which has been extracted from or is being
REPORTING A.C. DUCTS

supplied to a room, or elsewhere within the run of the duct. Once smoke
is detected, the actuator will automatically close the smoke damper until
it is manually re-opened.
Fire dampers can be found in the same places as smoke dampers,
depending on the application of the area after the firewall. Unlike smoke
dampers, they are not triggered by any electrical system (which is an
advantage in case of an electrical failure where the smoke dampers would
fail to close). Vertically mounted fire dampers are gravity operated, while
horizontal fire dampers are spring powered. A fire damper's most
important feature is a mechanical fusible link which is a piece of metal
that will melt or break at a specified temperature. This allows the damper
to close (either from gravity or spring power), effectively sealing the
duct, containing the fire, and blocking the necessary air to burn.

6. Turning vanes
Turning vanes are installed inside of ductwork at changes of direction
(e.g. at 90° turns) in order to minimize turbulence and resistance to the
air flow. The vanes guide the air so it can follow the change of direction
more easily.

Fig6: Turning vanes inside of large fire-resistance rated Dura steel pressurization ductwork

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Fig7: Turning vane close-up.

7. Plenums
Plenums are the central distribution and collection units for an HVAC
system. The return plenum carries the air from several large
return grilles (vents) or bell mouths to a central air handler. The supply
plenum directs air from the central unit to the rooms which the system is
designed to heat or cool. They must be carefully planned in ventilation
design.

8. Terminal units
While single-zone constant air volume systems typically do not have
these, multi-zone systems often have terminal units in the branch ducts.
Usually there is one terminal unit per thermal zone. Some types of
terminal units are VAV boxes (single or dual duct), fan-powered mixing
boxes (in parallel or series arrangement), and induction terminal units.
Terminal units may also include a heating or cooling coil.

9. Air terminals
Air terminals are the supply air outlets and return or exhaust air inlets.
For supply, diffusers are most common, but grilles, and for very small
HVAC systems (such as in residences) registers are also used widely.
Return or exhaust grilles are used primarily for appearance reasons, but
some also incorporate an air filter and are known as filter returns.

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 Duct cleaning:
The position of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is that "If
no one in your household suffers from allergies or unexplained symptoms or
illnesses and if, after a visual inspection of the inside of the ducts, you see
no indication that your air ducts are contaminated with large deposits of dust
or mold (no musty odor or visible mold growth), having your air ducts
cleaned is probably unnecessary."[4] A thorough duct cleaning done by a
professional duct cleaner will remove dust, cobwebs, debris, pet
hair, rodent hair and droppings, paper clips, calcium deposits,
children's toys, and whatever else might collect inside. Ideally, the interior
surface will be shiny and bright after cleaning. Insulated fiber glass duct
liner and duct board can be cleaned with special non-metallic bristles. Fabric
ducting can be washed or vacuumed using typical household appliances.
Duct cleaning may be personally justifiable for that very reason: occupants
may not want to have their house air circulated through a duct passage that is
not as clean as the rest of the house. However, duct cleaning will not usually
change the quality of the breathing air, nor will it significantly affect
airflows or heating costs.

 Commercial inspection
In commercial settings, regular inspection of ductwork is recommended
by several standards. One standard recommends inspecting supply ducts
every 1–2 years, return ducts every 1–2 years, and air handling units
annually. Another recommends visual inspection of internally lined ducts
annually Duct cleaning should be based on the results of those
inspections.
Inspections are typically visual, looking for water damage or biological
growth.  When visual inspection needs to be validated numerically,
a vacuum test (VT) or deposit thickness test (DTT) can be performed. A
duct with less than 0.75 mg/100m2 is considered to be clean, per
the NADCA standard. A Hong Kong standard lists surface deposit limits
of 1g/m2 for supply and returns ducts and 6g/m 2 for exhaust ducts, or a
maximum deposit thickness of 60 µm in supply and return ducts, and
11 180 µm for exhaust ducts. Another UK standard recommends ducts
cleaning if measured bacterial content is more than 29 colony forming
units (CFU) per 10 cm2; contamination is classified as "low" below 10
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CFU/cm2, "medium" at up to 20 CFU/cm2, and "high" when measured

above 20 CFU/cm2

 Duct sealing:
Air pressure combined with air duct leakage can lead to a loss of energy
in a HVAC system. Sealing leaks in air ducts reduces air leakage,
optimizes energy efficiency, and controls the entry of pollutants into the
building. Before sealing ducts it is imperative to ensure the total external
static pressure of the duct work, and if equipment will fall within the
equipment manufacturer's specifications. If not, higher energy usage and
reduced equipment performance may result.
Commonly available duct tape should not be used on air ducts (metal,
fiberglass, or otherwise) that are intended for long-term use. The
adhesive on so called duct tape dries and releases with time. A more
common type of duct sealant is a water-based paste that is brushed or
sometimes sprayed on the seams when the duct is built. Building
codes and UL standards call for special fire-resistant tapes, often with foil
backings and long lasting adhesives.

 Design Principles:
The distribution system must be designed to get the most out of the available
air from the blower power that was selected based on the equipment
manufacturer’s performance data to meet the estimated heating and cooling
loads. The blower capacity of the equipment selected will deliver a specific
amount of air against a specific amount of system pressure. The resistance of
the airflow within the distribution system must match the static pressure
against which the equipment is able to perform. The ducts, fittings, supply
outlets, and other accessories installed in the air stream all add to the
pressure loss between the equipment and the outlets. The return system also
adds to this system pressure loss and must be included in the design.
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Fig8: design of A.C ducting

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 Return Air Design

A well-designed return air strategy is critical for the performance of the
HVAC system in an energy efficient house with lower airflow requirements
to meet the load (see Figure 12). The return air must “see” a clear path from
every room that has a supply outlet, with the exception of bathrooms or
kitchens due to the potential for spreading odors through the house. A direct
return from each room to the equipment is not desirable when trying to
minimize duct lengths and pressure losses in the return system. Rooms
without an adequate return air path will become pressurized, which will
impede supply airflow and could result in comfort complaints. Typical door
undercuts (1/2 to 3/4 inch) do not allow adequate return volume and are not
appropriate for an energy efficient house. Door undercuts are specifically not
approved in ACCA Manual D (Rutkowski 2009).

Fig9: return air duct design

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 Duct Layout
From the early integrated design work and the room-by-room airflows, a
preliminary layout of the ductwork can be completed on the floor plans (see
Figure 25). Figure 26 shows the layout and cubic-feet-per-minute
requirements as well as the outlet locations and types for the Orlando House.
A combination of one-way, two-way, and three-way ceiling supply outlets is
used, along with insulated flexible duct.

 Duct Size
The duct size is selected relative to the amount of air that must pass through
the ductwork (see Figure 29). The variables that define the performance of
the duct airflow are the cubic feet per minute of air into the room based on
the heating and cooling loads, the friction loss in the duct, the cross-sectional
area of the duct, and the average velocity of the air moving in the duct. 30
Figure 29. Size ducts for airflow ACCA Manual D procedures calculate the
friction rate based on the worst case or “critical path” duct run that has the
longest effective length (Rutkowski 2009). The critical path friction rate is
then used for the design of all other duct runs, even though the actual friction
rate may be lower. This method slightly oversizes ducts with shorter runs,
and the ACCA Manual D standard of care requires the use of balancing
dampers in every duct run to adjust the airflow to each room.

References:

15  Alan Burdick /Advanced strategy guide line: Air distribution basics and duct
design
 Designer guide to ceiling-based room air diffusion. Rock and Zu /ASHRE.
 HVAC system- duct design / third edition 1990.