Navigational Aids

UNIT 1 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Sextant and its Principle

1.2.1 Types of Sextant
1.2.2 Uses of a Sextant
1.2.3 Parts of the Sextant
1.2.4 Reading a Micrometer Sextant
1.3 Errors of the Sextant
1.4 The Marine Chronometer
1.4.1 Types of Chronometer
1.4.2 Traditional Marine Chronometer
1.4.3 Parts of the Marine Chronometer
1.4.4 Principle of the Chronometer
1.5 Magnetic Compass
1.5.1 Earth as a Magnet
1.5.2 The Magnetic Equator
1.5.3 Variation and Deviation
1.5.4 Ships Compass
1.5.5 Binnacle, Azimuth Circle and Correctors
1.5.6 Use of the Azimuth Circle (Bearing Circle)
1.6 Gyro-Compass
1.6.1 Gyroscopic Inertia
1.6.2 Precession
1.6.3 Tilt and Drift
1.6.4 Directional Gyroscope
1.6.5 North-Seeking Gyroscope (Undamped)
1.6.6 Damped Gyroscope
1.6.7 Typical Sperry Gyro Compass
1.6.8 Gyro Compass Errors
1.6.9 Ballistic Precession and Tilt
1.7 Echo Sounder
1.7.1 Basic Principle
1.7.2 Functional Elements
1.7.3 Transmitters and Receivers
1.7.4 Magneto-stricive Transducer
1.7.5 The Chart Recording Echo Sounder
1.7.6 Echo Sounder Errors
1.7.7 False or Spurious Echoes

1.8 Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A navigator needs to find his position on the surface of the earth by observing sun, stars,
and other heavenly bodies. For this he needs to have a working knowledge of many
navigational aids such as the sextant and chronometer, nautical almanac, nautical tables
and also have a sound knowledge about the use of various basic navigational equipments
such as magnetic and gyro compass, echo sounders etc.
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Bridge Equipment and Objectives
Watch Keeping and
Collision Prevention After learning this unit you will be able to
• demonstrate the use of sextant for observing vertical and horizontal angles,
• demonstrate knowledge of marine chronometer and Quartz crystal
Chronometer, their upkeep and care and
• use, take care of, and maintain magnetic and gyro compass, chronometers
and echo sounding machine.

1.2 SEXTANT AND ITS PRINCIPLE

Marine sextant is a precision optical instrument which is used for measuring altitudes of
heavenly bodies, i.e. height above the horizon of sun, stars, planets etc. and for
measuring vertical or horizontal angles of land objects for navigational purposes.
The “sextant” is so named because it is an instrument which has a graduated arc which is
approximately one sixth of a circle.
Do you remember the principle of double reflection?
When a ray of light is twice reflected by two mirrors in the same plane, the angle
between the incident and the reflected ray is twice the angle between the mirrors.
A sextant has two mirrors, one of them is fixed on the body of the sextant, while the
other is fixed on the index arm which is called the pivot and changes its angle with the
fixed mirror.
As the arc of the sextant is one sixth of circle i.e. 60o, it follows that sextant can measure
angles upto 120o. Actually the manufacturers of sextants increase the length of the arc to
a little more than 1/6th of a circle. Most modern sextants are graduated from 0o to 125o on
the arc. Graduations are also made on the opposite side of zero. This arc is known as the,
Arc of excess, “and angles when read on this part are known as” off the arc.
1.2.1 Types of Sextant
Two types of marine sextant are in use:
(a) Micrometer sextant
(b) Vernier Sextant
The difference between two types lies mainly in the method of graduating and reading
the arc.
Micrometer Sextant
On the micrometer sextant, degrees are read directly from the arc. Minutes of arc
are read on Micrometer drum and tenths of minutes of arc or, in some cases, ten
seconds of arc, are read on the Micrometer Vernier. Reading the micrometer drum
is very easy and can be quickly learnt. Therefore micrometer sextants are more
popular. Nowadays manufacturers produce only the micrometer sextants which
incorporate many other improvements not found in the vernier sextant.
Vernier Sextant
On the arc of the vernier sextant, each degree is divided into six divisions of 10
minutes of arc. A moving vernier is provided which is divided into ten divisions
each of 1 minute of arc. These 1 minute divisions are further subdivided into six
smaller divisions each of 10 seconds for arc.
The divisions are extremely small and a microscope, which is always fitted to the
vernier sextant, is required to read them. Reading the vernier sextant required some
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 skill and considerable practice. Nevertheless, this type of sextant is acceptable for Navigational Aids
modern navigational requirements, and if it is well adjusted and in a good
condition, will give results as good as those obtained on a micrometer sextant.
Student may have already learnt in junior college how to read verniers and
micrometers and they should not have any difficulty in reading the sextant.

Figure 1.1: The Micrometer Sextant

Principle of a Sextant
The figure shows Index mirror ‘I’ and Horizon mirror ‘H’. Student may note that
both these mirrors must be perpendicular to the plane of the instrument.

a I
I’ a H’
h

b
b e
H E

Figure 1.2: Principle of Sextant

If ‘X’ is the body and X I the original ray of light, in a sextant, it is first reflected from the
index mirror I to the horizon mirror H, and then reflected again by the horizon mirror
through the telescope to the observer’s eye ‘E’. In the above figure, if I I′ is the normal to
the index mirror and HH′ is the normal to the horizon mirror, the above stated principle
of the sextant, i.e. “the angle between the incident and reflected ray is twice the angle
between the mirror” can be easily proved.
Angle XEH is the angle between the incident and reflected ray, while I′H′H is the angle
between the mirrors (as it is the angle between their normals).
We are required to prove that –
∠ XEH = 2 × ∠ IH′H i.e. ∠ E = 2 × ∠ H′
Let the normal to the index mirror and the normal to the horizon mirror be extended to
meet at H′.
Proof:
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Bridge Equipment and ∠ X I I′ = ∠ I′IH
Watch Keeping and
Collision Prevention (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
Similarly,
∠ I H H′ = ∠ H′ HE
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
Let these angles be named ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively and let
∠ IH′H and ∠ IEH be named ′h′ and ′e′ respectively.
∠ I′IH =∠ IHH′ + ∠ IH′H (exterior angle)
∴∠ a = ∠ h + ∠ b
2a = 2h+ 2b (multiplying throughout by 2) …(1.1)
Similarly,
In UHIE, 2a = e + 2b (exterior angle)
Substituting 2a as per (1.1) above, we get 2h + 2b = e + 2b
2h = e (cancelling 2b from both sides)
Angle between the incident and the reflected rays is twice the angle between the mirrors.
1.2.2 Uses of a Sextant
The sextant is mainly used for measuring the altitudes of celestial bodies. After
measuring the attitudes, i.e. heights of celestial body above the horizon, a navigator is in
a position to calculate the position of his ship. The sextant also has several other uses. A
full list would interalia include:
(a) Altitudes of the Sun, Stars, Moon and Planets (Ocean Navigation).
(b) Horizontal angles between prominent terrestrial objects to fix position
(coastal navigation).
(c) Vertical angles of suitably high terrestrial objects, to obtain distance off
(coastal navigation and pilotage).
(d) Vertical angles of masts, to obtain distance of other ships when steaming in
convoy (In times of hostility).
(e) Hydrographic surveying.
1.2.3 Parts of the Sextant
01. Frame 11. Index Mirror
02. Handle 12. Index Mirror Clips
03. Telescope or Monocle 13. Index Mirror (First) Adjustment Screw
04. Arc 14. Index Mirror Shades
05. Index Arm 15. Horizon Mirror
06. Clamp 16. Horizon Mirror Clips
07. Worm and Rack 17. Horizon Mirror (Second) Adjustment
Screw
08. Micrometer Drum 18. Horizon Mirror (Third) Adjustment
09. Micrometer Vernier Screw
10. Electric Light 19. Horizon Mirror Shades

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 Navigational Aids

Figure 1.3: Parts of a Sextant

Frame
The frame is of rigid metal construction and has three legs upon which the sextant
rests when in the horizontal position. The curved, lower, part of the frame is
sometimes referred to as the lower limb of the Sextant, and the upper side is called
the plane of the instrument.
Handle
The handle is fitted with a switch and contains a battery which supplies power to
the electric light on the Index Arm.
Telescope or Prismatic Monocle
The Telescope or Monocle is used to enlarge the observed object. These have
magnifications of ‘4 x’ and ‘6 x’ and have a field of view up to 5o or wider. When
the observer is trying to locate stars which are less bright, then the wider field of
view is desirable. The Telescope or Monocle is attached to the frame by an
adjustable slide or rising piece. By adjusting the rising Piece the Telescope is
brought closer to, or further from, the Frame.
Arc
The arc is constructed of a thin strip of metal which has a low co-efficient of
expansion and is set flush with the “lower limb” of the sextant. It is graduated from
0-125o “on the arc” and from 0-5o “off the arc”.
Index Arm
Mounted on a circular base plate, the Index Arm is free to rotate on a central axis.
The arrow or zero of the Index Arm is known as the Index Mark.
Clamp
The clamp disengages the Index Arm from the gearing cut into the lower limb of
the sextant. The Index Arm can then be moved to any angle required. Releasing
pressure on the clamp, locks the Index Arm in position.
Worm and Rack
The Worm is an endless tangent screw which engages with the rack or a gear
which is cut into the lower limb of the sextant. Pressing the quick release clamp
disengages the worm from the rack and allows movement of the Index Arm.
Student may note that the rack is visible in Figure 1.1. The Worm is not visible.
Micrometer Drum
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Bridge Equipment and While degrees are read from the arc, the minutes of arc are read off the Micrometer
Watch Keeping and Drum. Turning the Micrometer Drum, screws the Worm along the rack and
Collision Prevention
enables fine adjustments of the observed altitude.
Micrometer Vernier
The Micrometer Vernier has either 5 or 6 graduations which correspond to
10′′ (ten seconds) of arc. Minutes of arc are read of the Micrometer Drum opposite
the Vernier Index Mark. Second, or decimal place is read where one Vernier
graduation lines up perfectly with (any) one of the minute graduations on the
Micrometer Drum.
Electric Light
The Light Bulb is arranged so that the light illuminates the Arc, Micrometer Drum
and the Micrometer Vernier. It is particularly useful when taking star sights early
morning or late evenings. Star sights cannot be taken at night as the horizon is not
visible.
Index Mirror
The Index Mirror reflects the observed object into the Horizon Mirror. It is
rectangular in shape and set in a frame attached to the moveable Index Arm. When
properly adjusted, the Index Mirror is mounted with its centre exactly over the
central axis of the index arm. It is perpendicular to the plane of the instrument and
turns with the index arm.
Index Mirror Clips
The index mirror is held in its frame by clips known as index mirror clips.
Index Mirror (First) Adjustment Screw
An adjustment screw is situated on the centre line of the Index Mirror, so that it
can be adjusted to the perpendicular position.
Index Mirror Shades
These are coloured light filters which are used to reduce the intensity of the sun’s
reflected image and to protect the eyes. They are made of high quality glass
usually four shades of varying intensity are provided, so that the student may use
one that is appropriate.
Horizon Mirror
The function of the Horizon Mirror is to reflect the image received from the index
mirror to the observer through the Telescope. It is a semi-circular mirror held on a
circular frame, it occupies only half the space enclosed by its frame. This enables
the observer to see both the reflected image and the horizon at one and the same
time.
When properly adjusted, the Horizon Mirror should be perpendicular to the plane
of the instrument and parallel to the Index Mirror when the Index Arm is set to
zero.
Horizon Mirror Clips
These are clips which hold the Horizon Mirror in its frame.
Horizon Mirror (Second) Adjustment Screw
This adjustment Screw is located on the centreline of the Horizon Mirror. It may
be at the top or bottom and is used to adjust the Horizon Mirror to the
perpendicular position.
Horizon Mirror (Third) Adjustment Screw
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 This adjustment Screw is located on the edge of the mirror and is used to adjust the Navigational Aids
Horizon Mirror parallel to the Index Mirror when the Index Arm is set at zero.
Horizon Mirror Shades
These shades are used to reduce the intensity of brightness of the horizon, should it
become necessary. Two or three Horizon Mirror Shades are normally fitted.
1.2.4 Reading a Micrometer Sextant
A micrometer sextant has an index arm which moves along the arc, a micrometer and
micrometer vernier which are used to read the sextant.
In this sextant degrees are read off directly from the arc of the sextant (degree mark is in
alignment with the index mark on the index arm).
The minutes are read directly from the micrometer drum (minute mark is in alignment
with the vernier index mark).
Seconds are to be read directly from the vernier scale (vernier graduation lines up with
the graduation on the micrometer drum).

1.3 ERRORS OF THE SEXTANT

These can be categorized into two types
• adjustable errors which can be detected by the observer and corrected, and
• errors which can not be corrected.
Adjustable errors are required to be corrected in order in which they are stated below:
(i) Error of Perpendicularity
Arises when index mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the instrument.
(ii) Side Error
Arises when the horizon glass is not perpendicular to the plane of the instrument.
(iii) Collimation Error
Arises when the axis of telescope is not parallel to the plane of the sextant.
(iv) Index Error
This error is the accumulated error of the sextant as an instrument.
The procedures of adjustment of the sextant errors are discussed in detail in the
unit on ‘Celestial Navigation’.
1.3.1 Care of the Sextant
Sextant is a precision instrument and could be of vital importance if the electronic
instruments which indicate ship’s position fail. It must be kept carefully and maintained
in operational condition.
(a) It must be handled gently.
(b) After use it should be kept back in its case after wiping it with chamois
leather or a soft dry cloth.
(c) Stow the sextant in a place which is free from vibrations.
(d) Do not polish the arc.
(e) If storing for a long time, apply a thin layer of petroleum jelly on the arc and
on the worm.
(f) When lifting the instrument from its box, hold the instrument by its frame
and not by its handle or arc. 11
Bridge Equipment and (g) Before moving the index arm make sure that you have pressed the clamp
Watch Keeping and fully so that the worm is disengaged completely.
Collision Prevention
(h) When placing the sextant inside the box make sure that the index arm is
almost in the centre and all the shades are in a closed position.

1.4 THE MARINE CHRONOMETER

Since its invention by John Harrison in 1735 the chronometer has been the navigational
timekeeper aboard ship. The chronometer always records Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT). All other shipboard clocks may indicate zonal time depending on which part of
the world the ship is in. It would not be possible to organize ships routine according to
GMT as clocks are advanced or retarded as ships move east or west of Greenwich.
Navigator, however, needs Greenwich Mean Time to calculate ship’s position and hence
requires an accurate time keeping mechanism.
The Chronometer may be a gaining or losing time daily by one or two seconds. This
would not matter as long as the daily rate, which is the amount by which it gains or loses
time during the course of the day is steady. It is then considered as a reliable. The daily
rate should be reasonably constant.
1.4.1 Types of Chronometer
Types of Chronometers in use are :
• Traditional Marine Chronometer (winding type)
• Electronic Quartz Crystal Chronometer.
1.4.2 Traditional Marine Chronometer
The face of the Chronometer is similar to that of a clock. It is contained in a brass bowl
and can be exposed by unscrewing the covering glass face. On the chronometer dial, you
may find one or two smaller dials. One dial displays a second hand and the second dial
may show number of hours which have elapsed since the time the chronometer was last
wound.
Traditional marine chronometer is generally of the type, which can work after winding
for two days. There is another type, which can work after winding for eight days.

Figure 1.4: Marine Chronometer

Whether “two day type” or “eight day type” the chronometer should be wound every
day, at the same time and preferably by the same person.
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1.4.3 Parts of the Marine Chronometer Navigational Aids

Marine Chronometer consists of the following parts:

(a) Bowl
Brass bowl in which the chronometer clock dial and mechanism is housed.
(b) Bezel
The glass face, which unscrews in an anti-clockwise direction.
(c) Chronometer Box
Chronometer is placed in a wooden box which itself is placed in a padded
compartment inside the chart table.
(d) Compensating Balance
Maintains uniform rate in different temperatures.
(e) Drum
The main spring of the chronometer is fitted inside a drum, which rotates as the
spring uncoils, driving wheel and cone shaped spindle.
(f) Escapement
Mechanism that connects and regulates the movement of the chronometer.
(g) Fusee Chain
Steel chain wound around a brass pulley, which is precisely tapered. When the
Chronometer is wound most of the steel chain is around the fusee and leading from
its narrow part.
(h) Gimbals
Chronometer is slung on gimbals, which enables it to maintain horizontal position.
(i) Locking Washer
Locks the chronometer in its gimbals.
(j) Main Spring
When the Chronometer is wound the main spring is wound.
(k) Winding Key
Key used for winding the chronometer.
(l) Carrying Case
Used when transporting the Chronometer from one place to another.
(m) Cork Wedges
Are used during transportation.
(n) Tweezers
Used for removing the cork wedges.
(o) Rating Certificate
Certificate provided by makers guarantying that faulty performance of the
instrument due to bad material or bad workmanship will be corrected.
The chronometer is fitted in a special glass fronted box and slung on gimbals, which
allow it to maintain a horizontal position.

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Bridge Equipment and 1.4.4 Principle of the Chronometer
Watch Keeping and
Collision Prevention The main spring is fitted inside a drum, which is rotated as the spring uncoils. Several
turns of the fusee chain encircle the drum and then pass on to a cone shaped grooved
brass pulley or a spindle attached to the driving wheel in such a way that the tension on
the main spring is transmitted to the gear through the fusee chain.
The first turns of the fusee chain are coiled around the smaller end of the cone shaped
spindle attached to the driving wheel, i.e. at the point which requires greatest tension to
turn the driving wheel. Every succeeding turn of the chain passes around the cone at a
greater distance from its axis so that gradually diminishing power is required to turn it.
This increasing leverage on the driving wheel is designed to compensate for the
decreasing tension of the uncoiling spring.
The chronometer should be stowed well clear of magnets, electronic equipment and
wiring. Chronometers should not be subjected to any magnetic fields at the chronometer
position.
Chronometers are fitted with a compensation balance, which enables them to maintain a
reasonably uniform rate at various temperatures. Nevertheless, change of temperature
does cause an expansion and contraction of the chronometer’s working parts. This
disturbs the equilibrium of the mechanism and may affect the daily rate.
For these reasons the chronometer is usually housed in a special cabinet where it is
unlikely to be subjected to sudden shocks or temperature changes and any magnetic
influence. The cabinet is normally built into the chart table and has a Perspex window.
Unpacking and starting a new Chronometer
(a) Remove the thin paper wrapping, and clean the wooden box.
(b) Remove the gimbal ring screw nearest to the front of the box.
(c) Remove the Chronometer from the gimbal ring by releasing the locking
washer.
(d) Hold the chronometer, face up.
(e) Unscrew the face glass (bezel).
(f) Turn it upside down.
(g) Lift off the bowl.
(h) If resistance is felt, insert the key in the winding hole and push gently.
(i) Do not touch any of the inner parts with fingers.
(j) Remove the cork wedges inserted to protect the balance wheel with a pair of
tweezers.
(k) Give the balance a slight swing with a brushing action.
(l) If the chronometer starts, stop it. This can be done by gently placing a
matchstick on the balance wheel.
(m) Replace the bezel and fit the chronometer into the gimbal ring.
The chronometer is now ready to be started at the required time. At the required time, all
you have to do is to rotate the chronometer bodily with a gentle twist of the wrists and
the chronometer should start.
Starting the Chronometer against a Time Signal
A Chronometer which has been allowed to run down at sea should be started as
follows:
Swing open the glass face by rotating it anticlockwise. Fit the winding key over
the square-handed nut of the centre spindle. Using the winding key, turn the
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 minute hand, forward only, and set to the hour and minute of the next radio time Navigational Aids
signal.
Never Touch the Second Hand
If the tipsy key does not fit the nut, move the minute hand gently by your finger.
Wind the chronometer gently to avoid accidental starting.
Await the time signal and, at the moment of transmission, start the chronometer by
rotating it bodily with a gentle twist of the wrists. Check the error as soon as
possible after restarting.
Winding the Chronometer
• Chronometer should be wound every day at the same time.
• To wind the chronometer, turn it over gently, face down, in the gimbal ring.
• Hold firmly in position with the left hand.
• Use one finger of the left hand to open the dust cover.
• Insert the winding key and wind gently with right hand and evenly in an
anti-clockwise direction. Count the number of turns.
• A two-day chronometer requires about seven half turns.
It will run for a maximum period of about 54 hours without rewinding.
An eight-day chronometer should be wound every day or every seventh day as per the
maker’s instructions.
Transporting the Chronometer
When transporting by hand, even over short distances, lock the gimbal suspension
to avoid any excess swinging movement of the instrument.
Twisting motion, must be avoided otherwise this could stop the balance wheel and
it will not restart of its own accord.
Keep the instrument in the hand and place in the lap when sitting down. It should
not be kept on the floor.
Chronometer should not be subjected to any jarring motion. This may result in an
irregular rate.
If the chronometer to be transported over a long distance, the instruments should
be packed for transit. The chronometer should be removed from its gimbal ring.
The balance wheel must be wedged. Use the original cork wedges, if available. If
not, you may use stiff paper to wedge the balance wheel.
Wrap it up in a thin paper. The gimbal ring should be detached, well packed and
placed at the bottom of the chronometer box. The chronometer should be kept in
the box in such a way that it does not move about inside the box, secured and
packed with shock absorbent material on all six sides, before it is transported.
The carrying case should then be labeled.

DELECATE INSTRUMENT HANDLE WITH CARE

Cleaning the Marine Chronometer

The marine chronometer should be cleaned every two years by a competent
technician from a reputed firm specializing in this work. Failing this, for
overhauling, the chronometer may be returned to the makers.
Rating Certificate
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Bridge Equipment and A detailed Rating Certificate is provided by the maker and is supplied with each
Watch Keeping and instrument.
Collision Prevention
The Quartz Crystal Chronometer
The electronic quartz crystal chronometer is fast replacing the winding type
chronometer and has a greater accuracy. The makers claim that the daily rate
stability could be as low as 0.1 seconds per day.
This chronometer is relatively light and can be easily carried.
It is sealed to resist the entry of dust and spray and normally undergoes stringent
tests for shock, vibration and extremes of temperature.

Figure 1.5: A Quartz Chronometer

It usually has luminous hands and dial and can be either console mounted or placed in the
chronometer cabinet. It may be powered by a 1.5 volt, AA alkaline battery which should
be replaced as specified by makers, generally once every year.
Maintenance and Operation of Quartz Crystal Chronometers
For disassembling, starting the chronometer against time signals, or battery
replacement the procedure laid down by the manufactures should be strictly
followed, however, following are general guidelines for these functions:
Disassembling the Chronometer
(a) Remove the quick release catches and open the lid.
(b) Unscrew bolts on the dial plate.
(c) Lift the dial plate.
(d) Holding the dial plate face downwards unscrew the four bolts on the back of
the case.
(e) Remove back plate.
Starting the Quartz Crystal Chronometer against a Time Signal
(a) Disassemble the chronometer.
(b) Press the “Stop” button.
(c) Set the time of the next radio time signal by pulling and gently turning the
knob provided for this purpose.
(d) Await the time signal and, release the stop button.
(e) Reassemble the chronometer.
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 (f) Check the error as soon as possible. Navigational Aids

Battery Replacement
For changing the battery, the chronometer can be disassembled and the spare
batteries removed from the recess in which they are stored.
Remove the battery cover and change the battery, replace the battery cover and
record the date of replacement of batteries.
Reassemble the chronometer and check the error as soon as possible.
SAQ 1
(a) Sketch a sextant and label its parts.
(b) With a sextant you can measure angles upto 120o, but the graduated arc of
the sextant is less than 90o, explain.
(c) Index mirror shades are provided to reduce the intensity of the sun and to
protect your eyes. Why are the horizon glass shades then required? Explain.
(d) What is the purpose of a marine chronometer?
(e) What time does marine chronometer keep?
(f) What makes a chronometer different from a clock?
(g) Describe the traditional marine chronometer.
(h) Describe the quartz crystal chronometer.
(i) List the parts of the traditional marine chronometer and state their uses.

1.5 MAGNETIC COMPASS

In ancient times, navigators estimated the directions at sea from objects in the sky, such
as the Sun, the Pole star, and the moon. A much more reliable guide for finding direction
is a magnetic compass, which works at all times and in most places. When a piece of
magnetized iron is placed on a splinter of wood and floated in a bowl of water, the wood
will swing until the magnet is pointing north and south.
In China and Europe the magnetized iron found in the lodestone, a naturally occurring
magnetic ore, was used to make a floating compass in the 12th century. Soon afterwards it
was discovered that an iron or steel needle touched long enough by a lodestone also had
the tendency to align itself in a north south direction. A small pocket compass works on
the same principle as the first crude compass. Instead of lodestone and a wood splinter, it
has a magnetized needle that swings on a pivot to indicate north. Large compasses have
two or more parallel needles attached to the underside of a disk called a compass card.
1.5.1 Earth as a Magnet
Practically the same features appear on the earth’s surface when a freely suspended
needle is passed from pole to pole . The phenomena are similar to what would be
expected if a huge magnet were situated inside the earth, nearly coincident with its axis
of rotation, and flooding the North hemisphere with blue or South polarity and the South
hemisphere with red or North polarity. Near the geographical equator the needle takes up
a position parallel to the Earth surface. On approaching the poles, the North or red end of
the needle dips downwards in the Northern hemisphere, but points upwards in the South
hemisphere, making an ever-increasing angle with the place of the horizon until
eventually the needle stand upright over an area covering some 50 miles or more of the
earth’s surface. This region is called the magnetic pole, the accepted positions being:
North pole about Lat. 70o N, Long. 97o W; South pole about Lat.72o S, Long. 154o E.

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Bridge Equipment and The compass works because the Earth itself is a magnet. Its magnetic poles are oval areas
Watch Keeping and about 2000 Km from the geographical North and South poles. Irregular lines of force
Collision Prevention
going from South to North connect the magnetic poles, and the compass needle simply
aligns itself with these lines of force.
1.5.2 The Magnetic Equator
A curve passing through places where there is no dip or inclination of the needle is called
the magnetic equator. It is the dividing line between red and blue polarities of the earth.
The magnetic equator crosses the geographical equator from South to North in about 12o
West Longitude and tracing it to the Eastward, it reaches as far as 10o North Latitude
passing near Cape-Guardafui. It then converges slowly with the geographical equator,
which it re-crosses in about 170o West Longitude, and while going south attains its
maximum South Latitude, 14o in Brazil, when it again bends northward and rejoins the
equator in 12o West.
1.5.3 Variation and Deviation
The direction from any position on the earth’s surface to the geographical pole is
represented by a true meridian.
The direction taken up by the longitudinal axis of a compass needle when under the
influence of only the earth’s normal force is called the magnetic meridian. It will then be
pointing towards the magnetic North Pole.
Variation
At any place the angle contained between the true and magnetic meridians is the
variation at that place. It is caused by the geographical and magnetic pole not
coinciding.
The amount of variation depends on the parallactic angle subtended by the
magnetic and geographical poles. In a few places where the lines of force happen
to lie along meridians, that is where the magnetic north and true geographical north
coincide, the compass may point to true north.
The variation, in addition to being different at different places, is subject to a
gradual change. This change is probably due to the magnetic poles changing their
position relatively to the geographical poles.
The British Admiralty issues a special chart which shows curves drawn through
places having the same variation. These are irregular curves and are known as
isogonic lines.
Deviation
Deviation is due to the magnetism in the ship and its value changes with every new
direction given to the ship’s head. It is angular deflection of the compass needle to
one side or the other of magnetic meridian. The deviation can only be ascertained
by practical experiment, and a Table of Deviation is compiled by steadying the
ship’s head on each point, or on every alternate point of the compass, the operation
being known as “swinging” ship, and noting the difference between the bearing of
a distant object by the compass and its magnetic bearing which, of course, must be
determined independently.
A csompass card usually has direction pointer consisting of 32 points. The principal, or
cardinal, points are North, East, South and West. They are marked N, E, S, and W.
Between these lie the inter-cardinal points – NE, SE, SW, and NW. Further division
gives such points as north-northeast (NNE). A final division is by points, such as north
by east (N by E). Naming all the points of a compass their order is called boxing the
compass.

18
Navigators today need more exact directions therefore they used degrees. The compass Navigational Aids
card has 360 degrees marked on it. North is 000o (or 360o); East, 090o; South 180o; and
West 270o.

Figure 1.6: Magnetic Compass

A magnetic compass is fitted on all ships for setting the ship’s course when starting the
Gyro-compass and for use as a reliable reserve compass in case the Gyro-compass fails.
The compass bowl (Figure 1.6) is mounted in gimbals in a binnacle (Figure 1.7) and sited
on the ship’s fore and aft centre line above the Wheel House. This compass is referred to
as the Standard Compass and can be used to take compass bearings. A second magnetic
compass, may be provided the helmsman at the Steering Position. This is known as the
‘Steering Compass’. Most ships nowadays do not have a steering compass, but instead
provide a reflector unit at the steering position.

Figure 1.7: Magnetic Compass Binnacle

The reflector unit consists of a telescopic Reflector Tube which is fitted with a focusing
lens, an adjustable moisture sealed mirror and a detachable Anti-Glare Shield. A “D” 19
Bridge Equipment and shaped lens (located below the compass) magnifies the forward part of the compass card
Watch Keeping and which lies 30-40o either side of the lubber line. The image is then focused by the focusing
Collision Prevention
lens and reflected via the mirror to the helmsman. This is a cost effective and a space
saving alternative.
A third magnetic compass, mounted on a pedestal, may be fitted at the Emergency
Steering Position aft.
The sensitive part of a compass is the glass melamine card graduated from 0o to 360o,
fitted with a circular ring magnet and mounted on a pivot in the liquid filled bowl. The
card is to remain horizontal and the direction of the ship’s fore and aft line.
1.5.4 Ships Compass
On ships the magnetic compass is usually carried in a stand called a ‘binnacle’ located on
the ‘monkey island’, also known as ‘Flying Bridge’. This place has minimum
interference with radio and electronic instruments inside the bridge and is still accessible
to the navigating officers. It holds a bowl containing the compass card with its needles
mounted on a pivot and has a provision for illuminating the compass face from below.
The bowl is filled with a nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to reduce the
vibrations. A vertical line on the forward inside edge of the bowl is an indicator of the
ship’s head and is known as ‘lubber line’. As discussed earlier, a periscope arrangement
enables the helmsman to see the compass readings and the lubber line from the steering
position inside the wheel-house. And to make sure that the ship is following the correct
course, which is displayed opposite the lubber line.
1.5.5 Binnacle, Azimuth Circle and Correctors
The hardwood or fiberglass binnacle supports the compass about one meter above the
deck and a removable brass or perspex hood is fitted to protect it from the weather. An
Azimuth Circle is fitted on the top of the bowl to enable bearings to be taken. The North-
South line of the card takes up the direction of the resultant of the Earth’s magnetic field
at the ship’s position and the magnetic field of the ship’s structure for the ship’s heading.
Correctors required to reduce the magnetic effect of the ship’s structure at the compass
position are attached to the binnacle. Provision is made for soft iron Flinders Bar to be
fitted on the fore side with a bracket each side to support the soft iron Quadrantal
Corrector Spheres. Doors can be opened on the after side to allow access to the row of
parallel holes which lie fore and aft and athwart ships to take the horizontal permanent
corrector magnets and also to the vertical heeling error corrector, magnets in their
movable “bucket”.

Figure 1.8: Azimuth Circle

20
1.5.6 Use of the Azimuth Circle (Bearing Circle) Navigational Aids

The Azimuth or a bearing circle is fitted with an Azimuth Mirror which is a total internal
reflecting prism and which can be rotated on its horizontal axis by means of a milled
knob marked with an arrow. By directing the mirror towards a celestial object, looking
down the tube at the compass card, and by turning the prism in the arrow up position, the
reflected image of the body is brought down to the card. The bearing can then be read
off. A magnifying lens is fitted at the bottom of the tube. So that the compass card can be
easily read. When taking bearing of the sun shades can be used.
The bearing of an object on the horizon is taken by looking directly at the object across
the top of the prism with the arrow in down position. The bearing is to be read off where
the reflected image of the compass card in the prism is seen in line with the object.
Students may note from Figure 1.8 that the milled knob is in the arrow down position, i.e.
for taking bearings of objects on the horizon.

1.6 GYRO-COMPASS
A gyro is a perfectly balanced mass suspended in a frame in such a way that when it is
electrically driven and made to spin at a high speed, it will have three degrees of
freedom. These, are:
(a) freedom to spin about the spin axis,
(b) freedom to turn about the horizontal axis
(c) freedom to drift about the vertical axis.
How can such freedom be given to a mass rotating at a high speed?

Figure 1.9: The Free Gyroscope

This is possible by suspending the spinner in a balanced gimbal system. Students have
seen the gimbal system in which a magnetic compass is suspended so that it stays
horizontal even when the ship rolls or pitches. In case of a gyroscope, the outer gimbal is
designed to pivot about the vertical axis and the inner gimbal about the horizontal axis.
We need not emphasize that the pivots and the bearings in this system have to be very
efficient, and there is no restriction of its movement which may cause transmission of a
torque.
1.6.1 Gyroscopic Inertia
Gyro works on the principle that once a free gyroscope is spinning it will maintain a
fixed direction in space provided no forces act upon it to alter the direction of the spin
axis.
21
Bridge Equipment and As long as the spinner is spinning at a high speed, it displays rigidity. This property of
Watch Keeping and the gyroscope to remain fixed in space is known as the ‘gyroscopic inertia’.
Collision Prevention
1.6.2 Precession
If a Force is applied to one of the ends of the spin axis so as to produce a torque it will
not move in the direction of the applied Force. It will move at right angles to the applied
force as well as the spin axis, and in the direction of the spin of the wheel.

Figure 1.10: Precession

The resultant motion described above is called precession. The ability of the gyro to
precess is its second property. The property of the precession is used to control the
movement of a gyroscope and is induced by applied forces only.

For Example, imagine a gyroscope which is supported by its spin axis in N-S direction
and horizontal. Although due to rotation of the earth the spin axis will appear to tilt
and/or drift. By applying force due to gravity the axis can be made to precess towards the
true meridian. We will see how this is achieved a little later in this chapter.

1.6.3 Tilt and Drift

We have seen that a freely spinning gyroscope will maintain its axis of spin in the same
direction in space regardless of the direction in which its supporting base is turned.

Let us see what effect the rotation of the earth would have on our spinning mass.

Earth like a gyroscope is pointing to the same spot in space. She rotates about her North-
South axis once every 24 hours (15o per hour). If a gyroscope is set spinning with its spin
axis horizontal to the earth’s surface, the following apparent movements will occur due to
rotation of the earth:

(a) If the gyro spin-axis is fixed related to space, at the north pole the gyro spin
axis will appear, when viewed from above, to drift clockwise in azimuth at a
rate of 15o per hour. There will be no vertical movement (tilt) of the spin
axis. Similarly at the south pole the gyro spin axis will appear when viewed
from above to drift anticlockwise.

(b) At the equator, with the gyro spin axis pointing East-West, the axis will
appear to tilt east-end upwards when viewed from above. The tilt rate will
be 15o per hour. There will be no azimuth drift of the gyro spin axis.
22
Therefore, the spin axis of a free gyroscope which is kept horizontal at the north pole Navigational Aids
would rotate clockwise related to the horizon completing one revolution of 360o in one
day. At the south pole the direction of the movement of the axis will be anticlockwise.
The eastward or westward movement of the north end of the gyro axle is called the
‘drift’.
If the gyroscope was placed on the equator with its axle horizontal, and fixed in space, as
the earth rotates from west to east, the east end of the axle would be seen to rise relative
to the earth and make a complete 360o turn in one day.
The rising and dipping movement of the north end of the axle is called the ‘tilt’.
It follows that at any latitude between the equator and the poles, the movement of the
axle will be a combination of the ‘drift’ and the ‘tilt’. More drift and less tilt in latitudes
closers to the poles, and the reverse in latitudes closer to the equator.
If we find some way by which the gyroscope is set spinning at the equator with its spin
axis horizontal and pointing North-South, there will be no movement in tilt or azimuth
since the earth’s spin axis is parallel to the gyro spin axis. From this it can be deduced
that if the gyro spin axis is parallel to the earth’s spin axis in any Latitude, the gyro will
maintain its direction relative to the earth.

Figure 1.11: Effect of Earth’s Rotation

1.6.4 Directional Gyroscope

A free gyroscope which is made to spin with its axis horizontal to the earth will
experience an apparent drift in azimuth of 15oSin Lat degrees per hour due to rotation of
the earth. We have also learnt that a free gyroscope rotating at a high speed possesses a
unique property called “precession”, and that it can be induced by an applied force or a
torque. If a torque is therefore applied to the gyro spin axis so that it can process at a rate
that is equal and opposite to the azimuth drift rate, then the spin axis will display no
apparent drift and will maintain a fixed bearing relative to the meridian.
Similarly, the spin axis of the gyro may be prevented from tilting by application of a
torque, which will cause it to process at a rate equal and opposite to the tilt rate. The
apparent tilt movement of the free gyroscope would thus be compensated for and the
spine axis will be made to stay horizontal to the earth’s surface. A gyroscope that is
compensated in this manner is referred to as a Directional Gyroscope. It may then be
used to indicate a given reference with accuracy.
Since the recognized compass datum is North, the directional gyroscope must be
improved upon in following ways if it is to be used as a compass:
(a) It should be made to seek the meridian.
(b) It must be aligned with the meridian, and then adjusted from time to time.
23
Bridge Equipment and (c) Inherent frictional torque imposed by the gimbal assembly would cause it to
Watch Keeping and drift out of the meridian.
Collision Prevention
For a free gyroscope to function as a ‘gyros compass’, it must incorporate a means of
seeking north and subsequently be able to maintain this direction irrespective of any
forces that would otherwise cause it to drift.
1.6.5 North-Seeking Gyroscope (Undamped)
If the free gyroscope has to function as a compass, it must be made to precess in such a
manner that compensation provided must be equal and opposite to the drift and tilt rate
caused by the movement of the spin axis due to the rotation of the earth. Let us see how
this can be brought about.
It is clear that we must introduce some external force to control its drift and tilt. Such a
force can be readily provided by the earth’s gravity.
If a weight is hung and supported at the same distance from the end of the gyro axle, as
and when the axle gets tilted due to the west to east rotation of the earth, the weight will
exert a torque and pull down the higher end.
Let us suppose that gyro is on the equator with its axis east-west.
As the earth rotates and the eastern end, i.e. the pointed end in fig 1.12 tilts upwards, the
suspended weight exerts a downward pull on the pointed end and precession will occur
towards north.
Why North? Remember the rule: Precession occurs at right angles to the applied
force in the direction of the spin.
When this reaches north, since it gets lifted as long as it is east of the meridian, the westly
precession continues.

Figure 1.12: Undamped

Once it passes the meridian, the pointed end of the gyro axle becomes the westerly end
and begins to tilt downwards, but it still has a tilt above the horizon.
Westerly precession continues as long as the tilt is above the horizon, but stops when the
axis is horizontal.
When the axis starts tilting downwards the suspended weight exerts pressure on the
higher end, i.e. the end which is not pointed, and the precession is once again resumed,
but in the opposite direction.
When the pointed end once again reaches the meridian it has sufficient downward tilt to
bring the axis east of the meridian.
As soon as the axis is east of the meridian the pointed end begins to rise due to the
rotation of the earth, and the above cycle continuously repeats itself.
24
As may be seen by the students the path traced by the printed end of the axle is an ellipse Navigational Aids
whose centre is the north point of the horizon.
The rotation of the earth, the effect of gravity on the gravity control, and the subsequent
precessional rate afforded by the gravity control are all constant factors, so that the ratio
of the major and minor axes of the ellipse shown in Figure 1.12 is also constant.
Size of the ellipse will vary, depending on how far the gyro spin axis is initially away
from the meridian and from the earth’s horizontal.
The north-seeking gyroscope described above is still not suitable as a compass since it
only wanders around the compass North and therefore cannot be considered north
seeking. It still does not provide true bearing reference.
Because the ratio of the major or minor axes of the elliptical wander is always constant, it
follows that if the length of one axis can be reduced, then the length of the other axis will
automatically get reduced proportionately; the gyro spin axis will eventually settle
horizontally, and in the meridian, when the length of one axis has been reduced to zero.

1.6.6 Damped Gyroscope

We have seen that the ratio of the major and minor axes of the ellipse traced by the
pointed north end of the gravity-controlled gyroscope is always constant. If we have to
use this gyroscope as a compass, it would be necessary to provide some damping
agreement to make the axle point on the meridian and horizontal.
The gravity control described in the preceding paragraphs refers to a torque about the
horizontal axis of the gyro whenever its spin axis is not horizontal to the earth’s surface.
If the gravity control can, at the same time produce a damping torque about the vertical
axis of the gyro to cause the spin axis to precess towards the horizontal, minor axis of the
ellipse can be reduced.

Figure 1.13: Damped

Since the ratio of the major and minor axes is constant, if the minor axis can be reduced
the major axis would also reduce and the combined precessions of the gyro would result
in gyro spin axis to centre at the intersection of the earth’s horizontal and meridian.
This is the principle of the damped gyroscope.

1.6.7 Typical Sperry Gyro Compass

The Sperry Gyro Compass has the following main components which constitute the
master compass.
The Sensitive Element
This consists of the gyro rotor within its case. It is made to rotate at 6000 revolutions per
minute.

25
Bridge Equipment and
Watch Keeping and
Collision Prevention
Compass Card

Phantom Ring

Sensitive Element
Mercury Ballistic

Repeater Connection

Follow up System

Figure 1.14: Sperry Gyro Compass

The Phantom Element

This is a very distinctive feature of the Sperry design. The phantom element is
made to follow every relative movement in azimuth of the sensitive element within
it. This is done by a sensing device which consists of an E-shaped transformer
which detects every minor displacement between it and the armature. Signal
voltages after amplification energize an azimuth motor which serves to turn the
whole phantom element into perfect alignment with the vertical ring. This is called
a follow up system. Since the phantom identifies the azimuth orientation of the
sensitive element it is used to support the compass card which is engraved with
degree markings 0 to 360.
The Mercury Ballistic
This is the control element which gives the damping effect. It consists of a square
frame at the four corners of which are located a pot of mercury. The pots are
connected in pairs, i.e. two north and two south. These pots are connected by air
tubes.
Transmission System
Distant reading compass indication is necessary because the master compass is
rarely position for direct navigational use. The transmitter on the master compass
and individual motors in each of the repeaters constitute the transmission system.

Figure 1.15: Compass Repeater

26
1.6.8 Gyro Compass Errors Navigational Aids

Course Latitude and Speed Error

We have so far considered a gyro compass to be in a fixed position on the earth.
But in actual practice this is not so. Gyro on board a ship is always in motion either
in the North-South direction or East-West direction or in some direction in
between.
Therefore, a gyro compass installed in a ship senses an apparent motion that is a
combination of the earth’s movement and the speed movement of the ship over the
earth.
If a ship is proceeding on a northerly course, the north end of the gyro spinner
would appear to tilt upwards related to the surface of the earth which is curving
and hence tilting downwards with respect to the north end of the gyro spinner.
In a ship moving north therefore, due to the relative rotation of the earth, the
relative direction in which the gyro is being carried is slightly to the north of east.
In case of a ship heading south, it will be slightly to the south of east.
In case of a northerly course as per our rule of precession, the gyro would settle a
little to the west of the meridian. If the ship’s course has a southerly component,
the gyro would settle a little bit east of the meridian.
It is the north-south component of the course, which will determine the amount of
this error
Value of the course speed error is obtained approximately from the following
formula:
Ship's speed in knots × Cos. Course
Course and Speed Error in Degree =
5p × Cos. Latitude
In lat. 50o this error amounts to about one degree for a component of 10 knots in
the northerly or southerly direction.
In most compasses, this error can be corrected mechanically by adjusting the
latitude and speed corrector.
Northerly component of the ship’s speed is reduced when the ship’s speed is
decreased or due to alterations made in the course. The speed error, which was
originally westward, will now become less westward. Similarly, the northerly
component of the ship’s speed may be larger when the ship’s speed is increased.
The gravity control moves away from the centre of gravity whenever a ship
accelerates or decelerates and the movement of the gravity control creates torques
about the horizontal and vertical axes of the gyro causing it to precess in azimuth
and tilt.
1.6.9 Ballistic Precession and Tilt
The gravity control which is usually in the form of mercury, brings about north heaviness
when it surges from South (S) pots to North (N) pots and south heaviness when it surges
from N to S pots and results in a precession which is called “Ballistic Precession”.
The precession in azimuth is referred to as Ballistic Deflection and the sense of the
deflection depends on whether the ship is accelerating or decelerating. If the ship is
accelerating, and the course has a northerly component, the inertia of the gravity control
exerts a torque that tilts down the north end of the gyro spinner. Assuming that the gyro
spinner is rotating in a clockwise direction as viewed from the south end, then the north
end of the gyro spinner precesses west wards.
The precession in tilt is referred to the Ballistic Tilt, and in conjunction with the ballistic
deflection, causes the gyro spin axis to assume a false position. The gyro spin will
commence to return to the horizontal and meridian as soon as the acceleration is finished.
Ballistic tilt is an undesirable factor resulting in a small temporary error that will attain a
maximum after approximately 22 minutes but will damp out in the normal manner; the
error is kept as small as possible.
27
Bridge Equipment and SAQ 2
Watch Keeping and
Collision Prevention (a) Do you think there are some places on the earth where the magnetic
compass cannot be used? Give reasons for your answer.
(b) In the event of a failure of gyro compass, how would the helmsman be able
to steer the ship by looking at the standard compass. Explain in detail.
(c) Show by means of a sketch how three degrees of freedom is given to a
rotating Gyroscope.
(d) Explain the principle involved in eliminating the drift and the tilt from the
free gyroscope to make it into a directional gyroscope.
(e) Explain the cause of the course, lat and speed error and state how it is
corrected.

1.7 ECHO SOUNDER

Sound propagation in water is used in marine navigation, as it is the only form of
propagation, which could be, considered as efficient. Other forms, e.g. electromagnetic
radiation tend to attenuate and are not of any significant use.
Performance of a sonar system depends on the accuracy with which the velocity of sound
propagation is measured.
Student should keep in mind the fact that the velocity of propagation is a function of
temperature of water, pressure and salinity. The velocity is usually taken as 1500
meters/second for sea water at 13oC and atmospheric pressure.
Echo sounder, an aid to measure depth of water and Doppler log to measure distance are
two sonar devices used in navigation. In this chapter we will find out how an echo
sounder functions.
1.7.1 Basic Principle
Echo sounder measures the depth of water by measuring the time for a pulse of energy to
travel to the sea bed and back and work on the principle of reflection of acoustic energy.
A short pulse of sound energy is transmitted vertically down from the ship. This pulse
having been reflected from the sea bottom returns to the ship in the form of an echo. The
time (t), taken for its return, depends upon the depth of water (d), and on the velocity of
sound (v) through the water.
Time taken (t) = (2 × d)/v or d = (v × t)/2

The Ship

Tx Rx

Correct
Depth
Sea Bed

Figure 1.16: Basic Principle

1.7.2 Functional Elements

The basic functional elements of the echo sounder are illustrated in Figure 1.17.
28
 (a) A transmitter which initially generates the pulse as an electrical energy. Navigational Aids

(b) Transducer converts the pulse generated as an electrical energy to acoustic

energy and transmits it to the sea bottom.
(c) A receiver which is capable of detecting the much weaker returning echo.
After reflection by sea bed, the returned pulse is converted back to electrical
energy by transducer and then amplified by an amplifier.
(d) A device which is capable of measuring the time interval and displaying this
as a depth.

Recorder

Pulse Generator Amplifier

Transmitter Transducer Receiver

Sea Bed

Figure 1.17: Functional Elements of the Echo Sounder

You may see from the above illustration that the basis of echo sounder operation is
measurement of the total propagation time of the acoustic energy.
The echo sounder is a device which measures the depth of water by measuring time taken
for a pulse of acoustic energy to travel to the sea-bed and back.

1.7.3 Transmitters and Receivers

Means by which electrical energy is converted into acoustic energy and then propagated
through water and means by which the returned energy is converted back to electrical
energy for subsequent processing by the electronic circuits of the sonar system.
A device which can convert electrical energy into sound energy or vice versa is called a
transducer. Echo sounder manufacturers use various types of transducer which are used
both as transmitters and receivers. One of the more popular type is described below.

1.7.4 Magneto-strictive Transducer

Magneto-Striction is an effect which occurs in all ferromagnetic materials, but is
particularly pronounced in iron, nickel and cobalt. Nickel and cobalt, when placed in a
magnetic field, change their length. The converse effect can also be observed when such
substances are compressed, a magnetic field is generated around the substance. In one of
the models a column of thin nickel discs is built up and rigidly fixed at one end.
Alternating current is passed through a heavy coil wound around the nickel column so
that the column vibrates.
This movement creates pressure waves in the surrounding water. Waves strike a
parabolic reflector surrounding the column, which directs the sound waves in a narrow
beam vertically down from the ships bottom plating into the sea.
Transducers are usually fitted in a double bottom tank of a ship. Some systems use
separate transducers, one for transmitter and one for receiver while other use the same
one for both the purposes.
Siting of a Transducer 29
Bridge Equipment and Transducer on board a ship for its optimum performance should be located away
Watch Keeping and from noise sources and areas of turbulence. Ship’s propeller is a major noise
Collision Prevention
source and so are the water discharges.
Aeration is another problem which has to be dealt with when siting a transducer.
Air bubbles which may pass close to the face of a transducer can act as large
reflectors of the transmitted energy.
Aeration is caused due to bow wave, which becomes aerated above the waterline
and then forced under the hull of the vessel, and also due to irregularities and
protrusions on the hull surface, e.g. log tubes, discharge orifices.
Due to reasons mentioned above, there are very few locations where the transducer
can be located.
1.7.5 The Chart Recording Echo Sounder
IMO regulations require that the ship must have hard copies of past depth soundings. A
common paper echo-sounding recorder consists of an arm with a stylus on the end
rotating quickly across a slow moving electro-sensitive paper. When the transmitter fires
its pulse, the stylus marks the paper at the zero on a graduated scale. While the pulse
travels to the bottom and returns, the stylus moves a proportional distance across the
paper, and on detection of an echo, again marks the paper thus indicating the depth. As
the paper is also continuously moving a profile of the sea bed can be seen, thereby
satisfying the IMO requirement of maintaining record of past depths.
1.7.6 Echo Sounder Errors
(a) Draught Error
The system measures the depth under the transducers. To convert this to actual
depth of water, the depth of transducers must be added. Most systems have a zero
adjustments, which can be used to allow for this. Many navigators however, prefer
the display to indicate “clearance” rather then “depth”.
(b) Stylus Speed Error
Is the result of the stylus not rotating at the appropriate speed for the range scale in
use.
(c) Transmission of Error
Is the result of the stylus not being at the zero on the scale (or at correct draught)
when the pulse is fired.
(d) Propagation of Velocity Error
Most systems are calibrated using a propagation velocity of 1500 m/s, therefore if
the actual velocity is different from this, an error will be observed in the indicating
reading. Lower velocities give higher reading, (F.W. 1430 m/s). In the red sea,
readings are 5% low due to increased temperature and salinity. Echo sounding
correction tables together with chart 5330 contain appropriated corrections.
(e) Pythagoras Error
When using transducers Tx and Rx separated by a distance d, then the indicated
depth, I, will be half the distance traveled by the pulse. The correct depth will be
cd, where:
cd = √( I2 – ¼ d2 )
This error is usually negligible except in shallow water.

30 Rx
Tx

I
Correct
 Navigational Aids

Figure 1.18: Pythagoras Error

(f) Beam Width

With two transducers and using a narrow beam it is possible that shallow depth
under the Rx side may not be detected. Using a wide beam it is possible that
narrow “deeps” may not show on the echogram.

Tx Rx

Shallow
Deep

Figure 1.19: Beam Width

1.7.7 False or Spurious Echoes

In a navigational echo sounder system the stylus should ideally only record echoes from
our own transmissions return directly from the bottom. In practice however, many other
effect may cause the stylus mark the paper. These are usually divided into two different
types, noise and reverberation.
Noise
This is any output from receiver, which is not an echo from our own transmissions.
There are various sources of “noise” both electrical and mechanical.
Electrical Noise
This may be due to interference from other equipment on board, e.g. from radio
transmitters etc.
Another source of this noise may be electrical components in the sounder itself,
e.g. random electron motion in amplifiers etc.
Mechanical Noise
It could be from propellers, machinery or even animals in the sea. The motion of
the sea or the breaking of the waves, etc. Thermal molecular motion in the sea can
give rise to “noise”.
Reverberation
This is any form of echo from our own transmission.
Bottom Reverberation
This is echo return from anything in the sea other then the bottom or the surface.
Such echoes may be returned from
(a) the deep scattering layer, a layer or micro organism usually found at a
depth of about 200 fathoms by day, at less depth by night.
(b) particles in Suspension
31
Bridge Equipment and (c) aeration – air bubbles under the hull caused by ship movement,
Watch Keeping and usually worse when going astern.
Collision Prevention
(d) shoals of fish etc.
(e) the boundaries of dissimilar layers in the sea.
Multiple Echoes
Echoes return to the Rx after one or more reflections between the bottom and the
surface, or ship itself. These echoes show as weaker tracks at multiple of the actual
depth.
Cross Noise
This is energy received at the Rx by direct transmission from a separate Tx. This
gives rise to a board zero mark on the echogram due to different transmission
velocities through metal, seawater etc.
The Echosounder is basically very easy to operate, usually requiring periodic
adjustment of only two controls range and gain and in case of a chart recording
Echosounder, requires of the paper roll.
SAQ 3
(a) Draw a block diagram of the functional element of the echo sounder, stating
the functions of each element.
(b) What is magnet striction? How is it used for measurement of depth at sea?
(c) Enumerate at least five errors of an echo sounder and show by means of neat
sketches, how they are caused.

1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, different navigational aids such as Sextant, Chronometer, Nautical Almanac,
Nautical Tables, etc. have been explained. From this unit, you have acquired the
knowledge about Marine Chronometer and Quartz Crystal Chronometer. How to
maintain these navigation aids have also been explained. Other Navigational equipment
such as Magnetic and Gyro Compass, Chronometer and Echo Sounding machine have
been described. Sextant is mainly used for measuring the altitudes of celestial bodies.
Sextant must be handled gently and carefully. Chronometer records Greenwich Mean
Time. There are two types of Chronometers. Now-a-days Electronic Quartz Crystal
Chronometer is replacing traditional Marine Chronometer. Echo Sounder measures the
depth of water by measuring the time for a pulse of energy to travel to sea bed and back.
It works on the principle of reflection of acoustic energy. Persons working on ships must
have sound knowledge about all these navigational aids.

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