Chapter 19
Crude Oil Emulsions
H. Vernon Smith, Meridian Corp.
Kenneth E. Arnold, Paragon Engineermg Scr~icm Inc.
Introduction
Much of the oil produced worldwide is accompanied by
water in an emulsion that requires treating. Even in those
fields where there is essentially no initial water produc-
tion. water cuts may increase in time to the point where
it is necessary to treat the emulsion. Water content of the
untreated oil may vary from a fraction of I % to over 90%.
To prevent increased transportation costs, water treat-
ment and disposal costs, and deterioration of equipment,
purchasers of crude oil limit the basic sediment and water
(BSSCW) content of the oil they purchase. Limits vary de-
pending on local conditions, practices. and contractual
agreements and typically range from 0.2 to 3.0%. BY&W
is usually predominantly water but may contain solids.
The solids contained in the BS&W come from the produc-
ing formation and consist of sand. silt, mud, scale. and
precipitates of dissolved solids. These troublesome solids
vary widely from producing field to field. zone to zone,
and well to well.
Purchasers may also limit the salt content of the oil.
Removing water from the stream decreases the salt con-
tent. Salt content along with BS&W are the two impor-
tsnt crude purchasing requirements.
When water forms a stable emulsion with crude oil and
cannot be removed in conventional storage tanks.
emulsion-treating methods must be used. The methods.
procedures, equipment, and systems generally used in
treating crude oil emulsions are considered in this chap-
ter, Space limitation does not permit the rigorous trcat-
ment of crude oil emulsions. Many topics and sub-topics
exist on which entire chapters can be written. This chap-
tcr contains an abbreviated discussion of only a few of
the most important and pertinent considerations of crude
oil emulsions. More detailed and diversified discussions
on crude oil emulsions can be found in the General Refer-
ences at the end of the chapter.
Theories of Emulsions
Definition of an Emulsion
An emulsion is a heterogeneous liquid system consisting
of two immiscible liquids with one of the liquids intimately
dispersed in the form of droplets in the second liquid. An
emulsion is distinguished from a simple dispersion of one
liquid in another by the fact that, in an emulsion, the prob-
ability of coalescence of droplets on contact with one
another is greatly reduced because of the presence of an
emulsifier, which inhibits coalescence. Such inhibition is
not present in a dispersion.
The stability of the emulsion is controlled by the type
and amount of surface-active agents and/or finely divid-
ed solids. which commonly act as emulsifying agents or
emulsifiers. As shown in Fig. 19.1, these emulsifying
agents form interfacial films around the droplets of the
dispersed phase and create a barrier that slows down or
prevents coalescence of the droplets.
The matrix of an emulsion is called the external or con-
tinuous phase. The portion of the emulsion that is in the
form of small droplets is called the internal, dispersed,
or discontinuous phase. The emulsions considered in this
chapter consist of crude oil and water or brine produced
with it.
In most emulsions of crude oil and water, the water is
finely dispersed in the oil. The spherical form of the water
globules is a result of interfacial tension (IFT). which com-
pels them to present the smallest possible surface area to
the oil. This is a water-in-oil emulsion and is referred to
as a “normal” emulsion. The oil can be dispersed in the
water to form an oil-in-water emulsion, which is referred
to as an “inverse” or “reverse” emulsion. A typical
reverse emulsion is shown in Fig. 19.2.
Emulsions are sometimes interrelated in a more com-
plex form. The emulsion may be either water-in-oil or
oil-in-water to begin with, but additional agitation may

Fig. 19.1—Photomicrograph of water-in-oil emulsion. Observe
the riqid-appearing film or skin that retards
coalescence.
cause it to become multistage. If it is a water-in-oil emul-
sion initially, a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion can be
formed if a small volume of the original water-in-oil emul-
sion is enveloped in a film of water. It is also possible
to form multistage emulsions in an oil continuous phase
as shown in Figs. 19.3 and 19.4. This alternating external-
phase/internal-phase/external-phase arrangement has been
known to exist in eight stages. Multistage emulsions usual-
ly add appreciably to the problem of separating the emul-
sion into oil and water. The more violent the agitation,
the more likely multistage emulsions are to form.
How Crude Oil Emulsions Form
The three conditions necessary for the formation of an
emulsion are (1) the two liquids forming the emulsion
must be immiscible, (2) there must be sufficient agitation
to disperse one liquid as droplets in the other, and (3) there
must be an emulsifying agent present. Crude oil and water
are immiscible. If gently poured into the same container,
they will quickly separate. If the oil and water are vio-
lently agitated, small drops of water will be dispersed in
the continuous oil phase and small drops of oil will be
dispersed in the continuous water phase. If left un-
disturbed, the oil and water will quickly separate into
layers of oil and water. If any emulsion is formed, it will
be between the oil above and the water below.
When considering crude oil emulsions, we are usually
concerned with water-in-oil emulsions because most emul-
sions are this type. Oil-in-water emulsions are encoun-
tered in some heavy oil production, however, such as that
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 19.2—Photomicrograph of reverse emulsion. Uniformly
sized oil particles are about 10 µm in diameter and
are dispersed in the continuous water phase.
found in areas of Canada, California, Venezuela, and
other areas. Oil-in-water emulsions are generally resolved
in the same way as water-in-oil emulsions, except elec-
trostatic treaters cannot be used on oil-in-water emulsions.
The agitation necessary to form an emulsion may re-
sult from any one or a combination of several sources:
(1) the bottomhole pump, (2) flow through the tubing,
wellhead, manifold, or flowlines, (3) the surface trans-
fer pump, or (4) pressure drop through chokes, valves,
or other surface equipment. The greater the amount of
agitation, the smaller the droplets of water dispersed in
the oil. Figs. 19.5 through 19.9 show common crude oil
emulsions that demonstrate the range of droplet sizes
normally encountered. Studies of water-in-oil emulsions
have shown that water droplets are of widely varying
sizes, ranging from less than 1 to about 1,000 µm. Emul-
sions that have smaller droplets of water are usually more
stable and difficult to treat than those that have larger
droplets.
Crude oils vary widely in their emulsifying tendencies.
Some may form very stable emulsions that are difficult
to separate, while others may not emulsify or may form
a loose emulsion that will separate quickly. The presence,
amount, and nature of an emulsifying agent determines
whether an emulsion will be formed and the stability of
that emulsion. If the crude oil and water contain no emul-
sifying agent, the oil and water may form a dispersion
that will separate quickly because of rapid coalescence
of the dispersed droplets. On the other hand, if an emul-
sifying agent is present in the crude oil, a very stable emul-
sion can be formed.
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-3

Fig. 19.3—Photomicrograph of oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion. Oil Fig. 19.4—Photomicrograph of multiple-stage emulsion from
droplets are shown dispersed in water droplets that Rocky Mountain field. The dispersed water phase
are dispersed in the continuous oil phase. contains small oil particles.

If an emulsion is not treated, a certain amount of water

will separate from the oil by natural coalescence and
settling because of the difference in density of oil and
water. Unless some form of treatment is used to accom-
plish complete separation, however, there probably will
be a small percentage of water left in the oil even after
extended settling. The water that remains in the oil will
be in minute droplets that have extremely slow settling
velocities. They will be widely dispersed so that there will
be little chance for them to collide, coalesce into larger
droplets, and settle.
The amount of water that emulsifies with crude oil in
most production systems may vary from less than 1 to
more than 60% in rare cases. The most common range
of emulsified water in light crude oil-i.e., oil above
20° API-is from 5 to 20 vol%. The most common range
of emulsified water in crude oil heavier than 20° API is
from 10. to 35%.

Emulsifying Agents
Emulsifying agents are surface-active compounds that at-
tach to the water-drop surface and lower the oil/water IFT.
When energy is added to the mixture by agitation, the Fig. 19.5—Photomicrograph of loose emulsion from western
dispersed-phase droplets are broken into smaller droplets. Kansas containing about 30% emulsified water in the
The lower the IFT, the smaller the energy input required form of droplets ranging in diameter from about 60
for emulsification-i.e., with a given amount of agitation, µm downward.
smaller droplets will form.
There are many theories on the nature of emulsifying
agents in crude oil emulsions. Some emulsifiers are
thought to be asphaltic in nature. They are barely soluble
19-4
Fig. 19.6—Photomicrograph of water-in-oil emulsion with dis-
persed particles of water ranging in size from about
250 to about 1 µm.
Fig. 19.8—Photomicrograph of tight emulsion with the dispersed
water particles varying in size from 1 to 20 µm.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 19.7—Photomicrograph of relatively tight water-in-oil emul-
sion. Largest water droplets are about 60 µm,
medium droplets are about 40 µm, and the smallest
ones are about 1 to 20 µm.
in oil and are strongly attracted to the water. They come
out of solution and attach themselves to the droplets of
water as these droplets are dispersed in the oil. They form
thick films that surround the water droplets and prevent
the surfaces of the water droplets from contacting, thus
preventing coalescence when the droplets collide.
Oil-wet solids-such as sand, silt, shale particles, crys-
tallized paraffin, iron, zinc, aluminum sulfate, calcium
carbonate, iron sulfide, and similar materials-that col-
lect at the oil/water interface can act as emulsifiers. Fig.
19.10 shows some of these solids removed from a crude
oil emulsion. These substances usually originate in the
oil formation but can be formed as the result of an in-
effective corrosion-inhibition program.
Many emulsions are prepared for commercial use. An
emulsion of kerosene and water is used for spraying fruit
trees; soap is used as the emulsifying agent. Eggs supply
the emulsifying agent used in the preparation of mayon-
naise from vegetable oil and vinegar: These are very stable
emulsions.
Most but not all crude oil emulsions are dynamic and
transitory. The interfacial energy per unit of area in pe-
troleum emulsions is rather high compared with familiar
industrial emulsions. They are therefore thermodynami-
cally unstable in the sense that if the dispersed water
coalesced and separated, the total free energy would
decrease. Only the presence of an emulsifier film in-
troduces an energy barrier that prevents the “breaking”
or separation process from proceeding.
The characteristics of an emulsion change continually
from the time of formation to the instant of complete reso-
lution. This occurs because there are numerous types of
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
Fig. 19.9—Photomicrograph of tight emulsion from Huntington
Beach, CA; water content 20%, with the average
water droplet diameter less than 5 µm.
adsorbable materials in a given oil. Also, the adsorption
rate of the emulsion and permanence of location at the
interface may vary as the fluid flows through the proc-
ess. Furthermore, the emulsion characteristics are changed
as the liquid is subjected to changes in temperature, pres-
sure, and degree of agitation.
Prevention of Emulsions
If all water can be excluded from the oil as it is produced
and/or if all agitation of well fluids can be prevented, no
emulsion will form. Exclusion of water in some wells is
difficult or impossible, and the prevention of agitation is
almost impossible. Therefore, production of emulsion
from many wells must be expected. In some instances,
however, emulsification is increased by poor operating
practices.
Operating practices that include the production of ex-
cess water as a result of poor cementing or reservoir
management can increase emulsion-treating problems. In
addition, a process design that subjects the oil/water mix-
ture to excess turbulence can result in greater treating
problems. Unnecessary turbulence can be caused by over-
pumping and poor maintenance of plunger and valves in
rod-pumped wells, use of more gas-lift gas than is needed,
and pumping the fluid where gravity flow could be used.
Some operators use progressive cavity pumps as opposed
to reciprocating, gear, or centrifugal pumps to minimize
turbulence. Others have found that some centrifugal
pumps can actually cause coalescence if they are installed
Fig. 19.10—Photomicrograph showing a collection of inorganic
solids removed from an emulsion by filtering and
washing. These solids include calcite, silica, iron
compounds, obsidian, and black carbonaceous ma-
terials.
in the process without a downstream throttling valve.
Wherever possible, pressure drop through chokes and
control valves should be minimized before oil/water sepa-
ration.
Color of Emulsions
The color of a crude oil emulsion can vary widely, de-
pending on the oil and water content of the emulsion and
the characteristics of the oil and water. The most com-
mon color of emulsions is a dark reddish brown. How-
ever, any color from light green or yellow to grey or black
may be found. “Brightness” is an indicator of the pres-
ence of an emulsion. Oil-free water and water-free oil are
clear and bright. Emulsions are murky and opaque be-
cause of reflection and scattering/of light at the oil/water
interfaces of the dispersed phase. The greater the total
interfacial area between the oil and water, the lighter the
color of the emulsion. That is, an emulsion containing
many small droplets of water will tend to be lighter than
one containing an equal volume of water in larger droplets
because the latter has less total interfacial surface area.
Stability of Emulsions
Generally, crude oils with low API gravity (high density)
will form a more stable and higher-percentage volume of
emulsion than will oils of high API gravity (low density).
Asphaltic-based oils have a tendency to emulsify more
readily than paraffin-based oils. High-viscosity crude oil
19-6
will usually form a more stable emulsion than low-
viscosity oil. Emulsions of high-viscosity crude oil usually
are very stable and difficult to treat because the viscosity
of the oil hinders or prevents movement of the dispersed
water droplets and thus retards their coalescence. In ad-
dition, high-viscosity/high-density oils usually contain
more emulsifiers than lighter oils.
Effect of Emulsion on Viscosity of Fluids
Emulsions are always more viscous than the clean oil con-
tained in the emulsion. The ratio of the viscosity of an
emulsion to the viscosity of the clean crude oil in oilfield
emulsions depends on the shear rate to which it has been
subjected. The authors have found that for many emul-
sions and the shear rates normally encountered in piping
systems, this shear rate can be approximated by the fol-
lowing equation if no other data are available.
~,/~~~=1+2.5f+l4.lJ”, . ..... . . . (1)
where
cce = viscosity of emulsion.
PO = viscosity of clean oil, and
f = fraction of the dispersed phase.
Sampling and Analyzing Crude
Oil Emulsions
Purchasers of crude oil have established certain specifi-
cations that must be met before they will accept oil from
a producer. These specifications limit the amount of
BS&W in the oil. The limitations are usually strict, and
if the amount of ES&W in the oil exceeds the specified
limit. the oil may not be accepted by the purchaser. The
seller and buyer must agree on the procedure for sam-
pling and analyzing the oil to provide consistent and mutu-
ally acceptable data.
The performance of emulsion-treating units or systems
can be observed and studied by the practice of regularly
and periodically withdrawing and analyzing samples of
the contents at multiple levels in the vessels or multiple
points in the systems. This is particularly beneficial in
treating emulsions involving viscous oils. Samples of
emulsions should be representative of the liquid from
which they are taken. Emulsification should not occur
when the sample is extracted. Samples obtained at the
wellhead. manifold, or oil and gas separator may show
a high percentage of emulsion, but the oil and water in
the system may actually not be emulsified. This indicates
that emulsification occurred because of the turbulence
created as the sample was removed from the pressure zone
to the sample container.
It is possible to take a sample from a pressure zone
without further emulsification of the liquids if the veloci-
ty of the discharging liquid is controlled. One method is
to use a piece of small-diameter tubing approximately 10
to 15 ft.long. One end of the tubing is connected to a
bleeder valve on the line or vessel from which the sam-
ple is to be extracted, and the other end is connected to
the sample container. The bleeder valve should be opened
fully and the sample allowed to flow through the small-
diameter tubing into the container. The pressure drop from
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
the line to the container is absorbed by flow through the
tubing. Flow through the tubing, however, can cause
either coalescence or additional emulsification.
Another method of withdrawing a representative sam-
ple of emulsion is to use a sample container initially filled
with water. The sample container is equipped with valves
at the top and bottom with the top valve connected to the
point from which the sample is to be extracted. The top
valve of the container is opened first and the container
pressured from the line. The valve at the bottom of the
container is then opened and the water discharged into
the atmosphere as the sample enters the container. There
will be no emulsification in the container because there
is no pressure drop between the source and sample con-
tainer to cause turbulence. Once the sample is taken, pres-
sure can be bled off through a third valve with little effect
on the sample.
Small centrifuges are used to determine BS&W con-
tent of crude oil. The centrifuges may be driven by hand
or electric motor. A small measured volume of sample
is diluted with solvent and placed in graduated glass con-
tainers. These are then inserted into the centrifuge and
rotated at high speed for a few minutes. Separation of the
oil, water, and solids is accomplished by centrifugal force.
The percentages of each constituent can be read directly
from the graduated containers in which the sample is cen-
trifuged. The speed used in these small centrifuges var-
ies from 2,000 to 4,000 revimin.
Methods of taking and analyzing samples of crude oil
for custody transfer are included in the API Mur~uul of
Petroleum Measurement Standards. Also see Chap. 17.
Methods Used in Treating
Crude Oil Emulsions
Three basic steps usually are required to separate a crude-
oil/water emulsion into bulk phases of oil and water.
Step l-Destabilization. An emulsion is destabilized by
counteracting the stabilizing effect of the emulsifier. The
tough skin or film surrounding the dispersed water
droplets must be weakened and broken. This is usually
accomplished by adding heat and/or a properly selected,
interfacially active chemical compound to the emulsion.
Step 2-Coalescence. After the films encasing the dis-
persed droplets are broken, the dispersed droplets must
coalesce into drops large enough to settle out of the con-
tinuous phase of oil. Fig. 19.11 shows a small droplet
of water breaking through a destabilized emulsion film
to coalesce with the bigger drop. This usually is accom-
plished by imposing a period of moderate agitation or by
subjecting the destabilized emulsion to an alternating elec-
tric field. This will increase the dispersed droplets con-
tacting rate. Thus coalescence will increase, resulting in
larger droplets.
Step 3-Gravity Separation. A quiet period of settling
must be provided to allow the coalesced drops to settle
out of the oil because of the difference in density between
the water and oil. This is accomplished by providing a
sufficient residence time and a favorable flow pattern in
a tank or vessel that will allow the coalesced drops of
water to separate from the oil.
Another way of stating the general emulsion-treating
procedure is that to resolve a crude-oil/water emulsion
into bulk oil and water three things must be done:
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
Fig. 19.11 -A waler-in-oil emulsion with the film or skin surround-
ing the water droplet in the process 01 rupturing.
(I) increase the probability of coalescence of dispersed
water droplets on contact, (2) make the rate of contact
of dispersed water droplets high without creating high
shear forces, and then (3) allow the liquids to settle quietly
so that they can separate into bulk phases of oil and water.
All the incidental variables, such as selection of proper
chemical, rate of chemical injection, treating temperature
and pressure, oil and emulsion viscosity, flow rate, ves-
sel design, vessel size, and fluid levels, are controlled to
execute these three steps in the quickest and most eco-
nomical manner.
An emulsion-treating unit or system will use one or
more of the methods in Table 19. I to aid in destabiliz-
ing, coalescence, and/or settling. Each of these treating
methods that can be used to resolve an emulsion is dis-
cussed separately.
Heating
The use of heat in treating crude oil emulsions has four
basic benefits.
I. Heat reduces the viscosity of the oil, resulting in a
greater force during collision of the water droplets. Also,
the reduced oil viscosity allows the water droplets to settle
more rapidly through the less viscous oil, Fig. 19.12 can
be used to estimate crude oil viscosity/temperature rela-
tionships. Viscosities vary widely from one crude to
another. The curves should be used only in the absence
of specific data. If the viscosity of the crude is known
at two temperatures, the viscosity at other temperatures
can be approximated by a straight line. If the viscosity
is known at one temperature, it can be approximated at
19-7
TABLE 19.1-METHODS TO AID DESTABILIZATION,
COALESCENCE, AND/OR SETTLING
Destabilization
Chemical
Heating
Coalescence
Agitation
Coalescing plates
Electric field
Water washing
Filtering
Fibrous packing
Heating
Retention time
Centrifugation
Gravity Separation
Gravity settling
Heating
Centrifugation
other temperatures by drawing a straight line parallel to
the others. If the viscosity is unknown at any tempera-
ture, the lines on the chart may be used. API Spec. l2L
recommends that crude be heated so that its viscosity is
below 150 SSV (about 50 cSt) for treating.
2. Heat increases the droplets’ molecular movement.
This aids in coalescence through increased collision fre-
quency of the dispersed-phase droplets.
3. Heat may deactivate the emulsifier (e.g., dissolving
paraffin crystals) or it can enhance the action of treating
chemicals, causing the chemical to work faster and more
thoroughly to break the film surrounding the droplets of
the dispersed phase of the emulsion.
4. Heat may also increase the difference in density be-
tween the oil and the water, thus accelerating settling. In
general, at temperatures below 180”F, the addition of heat
will increase the difference in density. Most light oils are
treated below 180°F; thus the effect of heat on gravity
is beneficial. For heavy crudes (below 20”API). which
normally are treated above 180”F, heat may have a nega-
tive effect on difference in density. In special cases, in-
creased heat may cause the density of water to be less
than that of oil. This effect is shown in Fig. 19.13.
Heating well fluids is expensive. Adding heat can cause
a significant loss of the lower-boiling-point hydrocarbons
(light ends). This results in “shrinkage” of the oil, or
loss of volume. Because the light ends are boiled off, the
remaining liquid has a lower API gravity and thus may
have a lower value. Figs. 19. I4 and 19.15 illustrate typi-
cal gravity and volume losses for 33”API crude vs. tem-
perature. The molecules leaving the oil phase may be
vented or compressed and sold with the gas. Even if they
are sold with the gas, there probably will be a net loss
in income.
The gas liberated when crude oil is treated may also
create a problem in the treating equipment if the equip-
ment is not properly designed. In vertical emulsion treat-
ers and gun barrels, some gas may rise through the
coalescing section. The liberated gas can create enough
turbulence and disturbance to inhibit coalescence. Perhaps
more important, the small gas bubbles have an attraction
for surface-active material and hence for the water
droplets; thus they have a tendency to keep the water
droplets from settling and even may cause them to be dis-
charged with the oil.
19-8

Fig. 19.12-Approximate viscosity/temperature relationships for crude oil

Fuel is required to provide heat, and the cost of fuel

must be considered. If the oil is much above ambient tem-
perature when discharged from the treating unit, it can
be flowed through a heat exchanger with the incoming
well fluid to transfer the heat to the cooler incoming well
fluid. This will minimize evaporation losses and reduce
1
0 *oo 200 300
fuel cost. It will also increase the vapor pressure of the
Temperature.DF crude, however, which may be limited by contract.
If properly applied, heating an emulsion can have great
Water beneficial effect on water separation. The most econom-
ical emulsion treating may be obtained by use of less heat
and a little more chemical, agitation, and/or settling space.
In some geographic areas, emulsion heating require-
ments vary in accordance with daily and/or seasonal at-
mospheric temperatures. Emulsions are usually more
difficult to treat when it is cool-at night, during a rain,
or in winter months when the atmospheric temperatures
are lowest. Treatment, especially heating, may not be re-
quired in warmer summer months. Where the treating
Crude C problem is seasonal, some emulsions can be resolved suc-
cesstilly by addition of more chemical demulsifiers during
winter months. Study is required to determine the proper
0 100 200 300
Temperature. DF economic balance of heat and chemicals.
Crude oil emulsions with similar viscosity ranges do
Fig. 19.13--Relationship of specific gravity with temperature for not always require the same type of treating equipment
three crude oils. or the same treating temperature. Emulsions produced
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-9

TYPICAL 33’ API

GRAVITY LOSS

50 70 80 110 130 150

TEMPERATURE, ‘F TEMPERATURE, lF

Fig. 19.14-API gravity loss vs. temperature for crude oil. Fig. 19.15-Percent loss by volume vs. temperature for crude oil.

from different wells on the same lease or from the same
formation in the same field may require different treat-
ing temperatures. For this reason, it is recommended that
low treating temperatures be tested so that the lowest prac-
tical treating temperature for each emulsion and treating
unit or system can be determined by trial.
The heat input and thus the fuel required for treating
depends on the temperature rise, amount of water in the
oil, and the flow rate. It requires about twice as much
energy to heat a given volume of water as it does to heat
the same volume of oil. For this reason, it is beneficial
to separate free water from the emulsion to be treated.
Often this is accomplished in a separate free-water knock-
out vessel upstream of the point where heat is added.
Sometimes it is accomplished in a separate section of the
same vessel.
The required heat input for an insulated vessel (heat loss
is assumed to be 10% of heat input) can be approximated
from
Q= 16AT(OSy,y, +q,,,yb,,), (2)
where
Q = heat input, Btu/hr.
AT = increase in temperature, “F,
90 = oil flow rate, B/D,
9 1, = water flow rate, B/D,
Yo = specific gravity of oil, and
Yn = specific gravity of water.
Chemical Demulsifiers
Certain chemical compounds are widely used to destabi-
lize and to assist in coalescence of crude oil emulsions.
These are referred to as dehydration chemicals or demul-
sifiers. This treatment method is popular because the
chemicals are easily applied to the emulsion, usually are
reasonable in cost, and usually minimize the amount of
heat and settling time required.
The chemical counteracts the emulsifying agent, allow-
ing the dispersed droplets of the emulsion to coalesce into
larger drops and settle out of the matrix. For demulsifi-
ers to work, they must (1) be injected into the emulsion,
(2) intimately mix with the emulsion and migrate to all
of the protective films surrounding all of the dispersed
droplets, and (3) displace or nullify the effect of the emul-
sifying agent at the interface. A period of continued
moderate agitation of the treated emulsion to produce con-
tact between and coalescence of the dispersed droplets and
a quiet settling period must exist to allow separation of
the oil and water.
Four actions are required of a chemical demulsifier.
Strong attraction to the oil/warer interjace. The demul-
sifier must have ability to migrate rapidly through the oil
phase to reach the droplet interface where it must coun-
teract the emulsifying agent.
Flocculation. The demulsifier must have an attraction
for water droplets with a similar charge and bring them
together. In this way, large clusters of water droplets
gather, which look like bunches of fish eggs under a
microscope.
Coalescence. After flocculation, the emulsifier film is
still continuous. If the emulsifier is weak, the floccula-
tion force may be enough to cause coalescence. This is
not true in most cases, and the demulsifier must there-
fore neutralize the emulsifier and promote rupture of the
droplet interface film. This allows coalescence to occur.
With the emulsion in a flocculated condition, the film rup-
ture results in growth of water drop size.
Solids Wetting. Iron sulfides, clays, and drilling muds
can be made water-wet, causing them to leave the inter-
face and be diffused into the water droplets. Paraffins and
19-10
asphaltenes can be dissolved or altered by the demulsitier
to make their films less viscous, or they can be made oil-
wet so that they will be dispersed in the oil.
The demulsifier selection should be made with all func-
tions of the treating system in mind. If the process is a
settling tank, a relatively slow-acting demulsifier can be
applied with good results. On the other hand, if the sys-
tem is an electrostatic process, where some of the floc-
culation and coalescing action is accomplished by the
electric field, there is need for a quick-acting demulsifi-
er. Time for demulsifier action in a vertical emulsion treat-
er normally will be somewhere between that of a settling
tank and that of an electrostatic treater.
As field conditions change and/or the treating process
is modified, the chemical requirements may change.
Seasonal changes may cause paraffin-induced emulsion
problems. Well workovers may change solids content,
which may alter emulsion stability. So no matter how
satisfactory a demulsifier is, it cannot be assumed that it
will always be satisfactory over the life of the field.
While the first commercial emulsion-treating chemical
was a solution of soap, present-day chemicals are based
on highly sophisticated materials. Chemical emulsion
breakers are complex organic compounds with surface-
active characteristics. The active properties may be de-
rived from any one or a combination of nonionic, cation-
ic, and anionic materials. Within each of these types,
compositions are used that will confer various degrees of
hydrophobeihydrophile balance to the chemical as desired.
The active components are highly viscous and sometimes
even solids. It is necessary to use a carrier that will make
handling easier: this carrier is almost without exception
an organic solvent. Solvent systems are designed to make
emulsion breakers compatible with the crude oil system
in which they are used. It is also necessary to omit mate-
rials that will interfere with refining processes, such as
those that will poison catalysts. Therefore, no organic
chlorides, bromides, iodides, fluorides, or compounds of
arsenic or lead are used in the manufacture of most
emulsion-treating chemicals.
There is no simple designation of specific chemicals to
treat specific emulsions. There are, however, certain com-
mon demulsifier types that tend to produce a consistent
reaction in many water-in-oil emulsions. Some of the
demulsifier types are as follows.
Pol~~lvcc~lesters are characterized by quick brightening
of emulsjons. but frequently tend toward slow water drop
and sludging; they are subject to overtreating problems.
Lo~r,-lnolrculrrr-~~‘~~i~~~tresin derivatives tend toward
rapid water drop and fair to good overall demulsification
properties; they show some tendency toward overtreat-
ment in high-API-gravity emulsions.
High-molecular-weight resin derivatives generally have
a strong wetting tendency and fair brightening and water-
drop characteristics; they are always used in combination
with other materials.
Sulfonates exhibit fair to good wetting and water-drop
performance, some ability to brighten oil, and very little
tendency to overtreat, particularly in high-gravity
emulsions.
Polymerized oils and esters produce specific character-
istics on particular emulsions; they are generally poor for
widespread application and are always used in combina-
tion with other materials.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Alkanolamine condensates promote water drop in some
emulsions and may produce some brightening; they are
blended with other materials for overall good per-
formance.
Oxyalkylatedphenols are predominantly wetting agents
with fair to poor demulsification properties; they are used
in blending to improve demulsifier performance.
Polyamine derivatives produce good brightening char-
acteristics and are good blending agents; they are rela-
tively poor in other respects.
There are many specific variations within each of these
broad categories. Most demulsifiers used in breaking
crude oil emulsions are blends of the above and other com-
pounds. The components selected for a given demulsifier
are chosen to provide the necessary actions to achieve
complete emulsion treatment. The number of different
surface-active materials that can act as emulsifiers in crude
oil is large. The possible combinations of these emulsify-
ing agents is almost infinite. Therefore, the number of
demulsifiers and their combinations must likewise be
numerous to treat the emulsions. The type and composi-
tion of the crude oil in the emulsion being treated has more
influence on how a certain chemical demulsifier will per-
form than does the specific category of components in-
cluded in the treating chemical. For example, a
low-molecular-weight resin used in treating an emulsion
of 35”API oil may exhibit rapid water drop, but that same
chemical, when used in treating an emulsion of I5”API
oil, may not cause rapid water drop. This illustrates that
demulsifying chemicals must be compounded for each par-
ticular emulsion.
Each treating system must be tested and checked to en-
sure that the chemicals used for treating the water for dis-
posal do not conflict with chemicals used for treating the
oil emulsion. One chemical must not react with the other
to cause problems, such as stabilizing the oil in the water.
Compatibility of the two chemicals must be tested by bottle
tests and then by field tests in the actual treating system.
Also, compatibility tests should be performed for any
other chemicals added to the produced fluids.
Selection of the optimum chemical to use usually starts
with bottle tests. A representative sample of fluid is taken
and transferred into several test bottles. Several demul-
sifying chemicals are added to the test bottles in various
amounts to determine which chemical will best break the
emulsion. Additional tests are made to determine the op-
timum ratio of chemical to fluid. Several series of tests
may be necessary at various ratios and temperatures before
a selection can be made. Many factors-such as the color
and appearance of the oil, clarity of the water, interface
quality, required operating temperature, settling time, and
BS&W content-are observed during these bottle tests.
Bottle tests can be made with the samples of emulsion
taken at the wellhead. anywhere in the flowline, at the
manifold, or at the entrance to the treating system or tank.
Well-equipped mobile laboratories are available, so this
type of work can be done in the field. These mobile units
should be operated by trained technicians who can
minimize testing and optimize selection of chemical
demulsifiers.
After the bottle tests are made and the best two or three
chemicals have been selected, they should be field tested
in the treating system to verify that the best chemicals have
been selected. Tests should be made in the treating sys-
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
CHEMICAL
%-IN. COUPLING
HOLE A TO BE DRILLED
8 HOLES FOR CHEMICAL
DRILLED ON UPSTREAM
FACE OF DOUGHNUT
Fig. 19.16-Chemical distributor for flowlines 10 in. and larger
tern at various concentrations, operating temperatures,
settling times, degrees of mixing, etc., before the final
selection is made on the basis of performance and cost.
The optimum chemical is one that will provide the
clearest, cleanest separation of water from oil at the lowest
temperature in the shortest time at the lowest cost per bar-
rel treated and that will not interfere with subsequent deoil-
ing of the water.
The required concentration of demulsifying chemical
may be as high as 8 gal/l,000 bbl (about 200 ppm) or
as low as 1 ga1/5,000 bbl (about 5 .O ppm). This is a range
of 40 to 1. The most common range of chemical injec-
tion is between 10 and 60 ppm.
Application of heat to an emulsion after a demulsifier
has been mixed with it increases effectiveness of the chem-
ical by reducing the viscosity of the emulsion and facilitat-
ing more intimate mixing of chemical with emulsion.
Chemical reaction at the oil/water interface takes place
at a more rapid rate at higher temperatures.
The point of injection of demulsifier chemical into the
emulsion is important. The chemical should be injected
into the emulsion and mixed with it so that it is evenly
and intimately distributed throughout the emulsion when
it is heated, coalesced, and settled in the treating system.
The demulsifying chemical should be injected in a con-
tinuous stream, with the chemical volume directly propor-
tional to the emulsion volume. Certain demulsifiers should
not be present in the emulsion during excessively pro-
longed agitation because the beneficial effect of the demul-
sifier may be spent or counteracted by the agitation and
re-emulsification may occur.
Turbulence accelerates the diffusion of the demulsifier
throughout the emulsion and increases the number and
intensity of impacts between water droplets. Turbulence
must be prolonged for a sufficient time to permit the chem-
ical to reach the interface between the oil and all the dis-
persed water droplets, but the intensity and duration of
the turbulence must be controlled so that it will not cause
further emulsification. Turbulence is the dynamic factor
that disperses the water in the oil and is a prerequisite
19-11
DOUGHNUTMADEOF
DOUGHNUT. AREA OF
6 HOLES TO BE LESS
THAN CSA OF %-IN. PIPE
AREA %-IN. PIPE=O.19635 SQ IN
D=0.177 IN.
USE %-IN. HOLE (0.156)
HOLES ON FAR SIDE
to emulsion formation. A moderate level of controlled tur-
bulence, however, causes the dispersed droplets to col-
lide and coalesce. Usually, this turbulence is provided by
normal flow in surface lines, manifolds, and separators
and by flow through the emulsion-treating unit or system.
One way of assisting in dispersing the chemical through-
out the entire volume of emulsion is to mix a small volume
of chemical with a diluenr and then to inject and mix the
diluted chemical with the emulsion. The larger volume
of the mixture may make it possible for the chemical to
be more uniformly and intimately mixed with the
emulsion.
When flow rates are low (less than 3 ft/sec) or when
laminar flow is encountered, the injection of chemical into
a coupling welded in the side of the pipe is not recom-
mended. In such cases, an injection quill (which injects
the chemical in the stream at a location removed from
the wall), a chemical distributor (Fig. 19.16), and/or a
kinetic mixer (Fig. 19.17) is recommended. The kinetic
mixer consists of a series of staggered, helically convolut-
ed vanes that use the velocity of the fluid to accomplish
mixing.
When a tank of wet oil (oil containing more than the
permissible amount of water) accumulates, the tank con-
tents can be treated by adding a small proportion of demul-
sifier, agitating or circulating the tank contents, and then
allowing time for the water to settle in the tank. Trailer-
mounted units that include a heater, circulating pump, and
chemical injector are sometimes used for this method of
tank treating. This batch-treatment method normally is
used as an emergency measure.
Excessive amounts of treating chemical can result in
increased stability of the water-in-oil emulsion or of the
oil-in-water emulsion in the produced water, increase the
stability or the volume of the interfacial emulsion and/or
sludge, or waste money equal to the cost of the excessive
volume of chemical over the optimum volume. Also, the
cost of handling and injecting the excessive amount of
chemical must be considered along with the purchase cost
of the chemical. Insufficient treating chemical can fail to

Fig. 19.17—Kinetic (static) mixer for mixing chemical demulsifi-
er with emulsion.
break the emulsion; allow a quick buildup of excessive
amounts of emulsion and/or sludge; and result in a need
for excessive heat to break the emulsion, a need for ex-
cessive settling time to resolve the emulsion, reduced ca-
pacity of the treating equipment, excessive water
remaining in the crude oil causing accumulation of un-
salable oil and the resultant cost of retreating the crude,
or more difficulty in removing oil from the produced
water.
Agitation
Agitation or turbulence is necessary to form a crude oil
emulsion. When turbulence is controlled, however, it can
assist in resolving the emulsion. Agitation causes in-
creased collisions of dispersed particles of water and in-
creases the probability that they will coalesce and settle
from the emulsion. Caution should be exercised to pre-
vent excessive agitation that will result in further emul-
sification instead of resolving the emulsion. If the
turbulence is kept to moderate Reynolds numbers of
50,000 to 100,000, good coalescing conditions usually
should be achieved.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
A T M O S . VENT
OIL OUT
4
WATER IN
I:=
13
WATER OUT
S.P.PACK TANK
INSTALLATION
FREE-FLOW COALESCENCE
Fig. 19.18—The S. P. Pack’” grows a larger drop size on the
inlet separator of a gravity settler.
The flow of emulsions at moderate Reynolds numbers
through long pipelines has been shown to cause coales-
cence and develop droplets that exceed 1,000 µm in di-
ameter. The length of the pipeline required to obtain
coalescence can be dramatically decreased by using a de-
fined flow path as in the special flow coalescing device
shown in Fig. 19.18.
The demulsification process may be assisted by the use
of baffle plates placed inside the treating vessel. Properly
designed and located baffle plates can evenly distribute
emulsion in a vessel and cause gentle agitation that may
bring about collisions of dispersed water particles to aid
in coalescing the droplets. Excessive baffling should be
avoided because it can cause excessive turbulence, which
may result in increased emulsification and impede water-
droplet settling. Special baffling in the form of perforat-
ed plates properly placed inside treating vessels affords
surfaces upon which water droplets in the emulsion may
coalesce. As the emulsion flows through the perforations,
slight agitation in the form of eddy currents is created,
causing coalescence. If the perforations are too small,
however, shearing of the water droplets can occur, re-
sulting in a tighter emulsion.
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS

Other designs of baffle plates provide coalescing sur-

faces for the water droplets, as shown in Fig. 19.19. Flow
through the plates is laminar, but directional changes en-
able the water droplets to contact the plates and coalesce.
Such a device may plug easily and become inoperable
quickly.
Electrostatic Coalescing
The small water drops dispersed in the crude oil can be
coalesced by subjecting the water-in-oil emulsion to a
high-voltage electrical field. When a nonconductive liq-
uid (oil) containing a dispersed conductive liquid (water)
is subjected to an electrostatic field, the conductive parti-
cles or droplets are caused to combine by one of three
physical phenomena.
1. The water droplets become polarized and tend to
align themselves with the lines of electric force. In so
doing, the positive and negative poles of the droplets are
brought adjacent to each other. Electrical attraction brings
the droplets together and causes them to coalesce.
2. The water droplets are attracted to an electrode be-
cause of an induced electric charge. In an AC field, be-
‘cause of inertia, small droplets vibrate a greater distance
than larger droplets, promoting coalescence. In a DC
field, the droplets tend to collect on the electrodes, form-
ing larger and larger droplets until eventually they settle
by gravity.
3. The electric field tends to distort and thus to weaken
the film of emulsifier surrounding the water droplets.
Water droplets dispersed in oil subjected to a sinusoidal Fig. 19.19—Performax TM plate pack, a special coalescing
alternating-current field will be elongated along the lines medium for crude oil emulsions.
of force as voltage rises during the first half-cycle. As
they are relaxed during the low-voltage portion, the sur-
face tension pulls the droplets back toward spherical
shape. The same effect is obtained in the next half of the
alternating cycle. The weakened film is thus more easily
broken when droplets collide. and vapors takes place in the inlet diverter, flume, or gas
Whatever the actual mechanism, the electrical field boot located at the top of the vessel. The liquid flows by
causes the droplets to move about rapidly in random direc- gravity to the bottom of the vessel through a large con-
tions, which increases the chances of collision with other ductor pipe or conduit. A spreader plate on the lower end
droplets. When droplets collide with the proper velocity, of the conduit spreads the emulsion into many small
coalescence occurs. The greater the voltage gradient, the streams or rivulets that move upward through the water,
greater the forces causing coalescence. Experimental data accomplishing a water-wash. After the emulsion has
show, however, that at some voltage gradient, the water passed through the water-wash, it flows to the upper por-
droplet can be pulled apart and a tighter emulsion can re- tion of the vessel, where the coalesced water droplets settle
sult. For this reason, electrostatic treaters normally are out of the oil by gravity separation.
equipped with a mechanism for adjusting the voltage gra-
If an emulsion is flowed through an excess of the inter-
dient in the field.
nal phase of the emulsion, the droplets of the internal
If the quantity of water in the oil is large there is a ten-
phase will tend to coalesce with the excess of the internal
dency for the formation of a chain of charged water par-
phase and thus be removed from the continuous phase.
ticles, which may form links between the two electrodes,
This is the principle on which a water-wash operates. The
causing short-circuiting. This is referred to as “chaining”
water-wash is more beneficial if the emulsion has been
and has been observed in emulsions containing 4% or less
destabilized by addition of a demulsifier and if the water
water. The short-circuit releases a burst of electrical ener-
is heated. The effectiveness of a water-wash greatly de-
gy that immediately causes this chain of water particles
pends on the ability of the spreader plate or distributor
to become steam. The resulting explosions sound like pop-
to divide the emulsion into small streams or rivulets and
ping popcorn. If chaining occurs, the voltage gradient is
to cause the emulsion to be in maximum intimate contact
too large (i.e., the electrical grids of the electrostatic treat-
with the water bath so that the small drops of water can
er are too close together or the voltage is too high) for
coalesce with the water.
the amount of water being handled. Small amounts of gas
If an-emulsion-treating system or unit uses a water-
breaking out of solution may also create sufficient turbu-
wash, it can be charged with water to facilitate initial op-
lence and impede the coalescing process.
eration. Water from the emulsion to be treated should be
Water-Washing used if available. If it is not available, extraneous water
In some emulsion-treating vessels, separation of liquids may be used.
19-14
Filtering
A filtering material with the proper size of pore spaces
and the proper ratio of pore spaces to total area can be
used to filter out the dispersed water droplets of a crude
oil emulsion by preferentially wetting the filtering mate-
rial with oil and keeping it submerged in oil. When used
in this manner, the pack is correctly called a “filter” be-
cause it filters out the liquid that it prevents from passing
through.
When excelsior is used as a filter in an emulsion treat-
er, it is immersed in oil above the oil/water interface lev-
el, Excelsior is preferentially wetted by water because of
the high affinity the cellulose fibers have for water. If the
excelsior is initially wetted by oil, however. the dispersed
water droplets in the oil will not normally take posses-
sion of the excelsior fibers because the fibers are saturated
with oil. If the water droplets do take possession of the
excelsior fibers, possession will occur at a slow rate and
penetration of the pack by the water will be only partially
complete.
Excelsior is wood that is cut into small shreds or fibers.
Observed under a microscope, the surfaces of each strand
of excelsior bristle with tiny sharp barbs. When emul-
sion flows through an excelsior pack, these rough sur-
faces cause distortion of the film surrounding the water
droplets, thereby encouraging adherence of the droplets
to the strands of excelsior. This results in coalescence of
the water droplets into drops large enough to settle out
of the oil. Excelsior should be made from pitch-free
woods. such as aspen, cottonwood, or poplar. Pine ex-
celsior is not recommended for crude oil emulsion-treating
purposes. Excelsior should be used at less than 180°F
treating temperature. Higher temperature will delignify
and deteriorate the excelsior. It will also make it difficult
to remove from the vessel.
Glass wool and other porous materials have been used
as filtering material. Glass wool. when the fibers are prop-
erly sized and compacted, can serve as a filtering materi-
al for filtering water droplets out of a crude oil emulsion.
If the glass wool is coated with silicone, its filtering ef-
fect will be enhanced because the silicone-coated fibers
will be more wettable by oil than untreated glass wool
fibers. Glass wool is not widely used for filtering because
of its initial expense and its fouling problems.
Porous materials, both plastics and metals, are availa-
ble that will filter dispersed water droplets from a crude
oil emulsion. These porous materials are not widely used
because of the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining the
proper size pores and because they easily foul and be-
come inoperable.
Treating crude oil emulsions by filtering is not widely
used because of the difficulty in obtaining and maintain-
ing the desired filtering effect and because the filtering
material is easily plugged by foreign material.
Fibrous Packing
Fibrous coalescing packs are not commonly used in oil
treating. They are mentioned for completeness and to
differentiate between filtering and coalescence. A coales-
cing pack is a section or compartment in an emulsion-
treating tank or vessel that is packed with a material that
is wetted by the water, causing the water to coalesce into
larger drops. Separation of two emulsified liquids by use
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
of a coalescing pack operates on the principle that two
immiscible liquids with different surface tensions cannot
simultaneously take possession of a given surface. The
coalescing pack is wetted with or submerged in water.
When the dispersed droplets of water come in contact with
the water-wet coalescing material. the water droplets
coalesce and adhere to the coalescing surfaces. Oil will
pass through the pore spaces of the coalescing material.
Separation of the two liquids in a coalescing pack is not
caused by filtering but by the greater affinity of the water-
wet coalescing material for the water droplets.
The film of oil containing the emulsifying agent sur-
rounding the dispersed water particles must be broken be-
fore these droplets will adhere to a coalescing medium.
The film is broken with the aid of demulsifying chemicals
and/or heat and by repeated contact between the water
particles and the surface of the coalescing materials as
the emulsion flows through the pack. When this film has
been broken, the water particles adhere to the surface of
the coalescing material until they combine into drops large
enough to settle out of the oil.
Glass wool can be used as coalescing material in
emulsion-treating vessels. It will not deteriorate like wood
excelsior and will prolong the service life of the coales-
cing pack. Glass wool fouls rather easily and may cause
channeling. Woven wire mesh can also be used but tends
to be more expensive than glass wool.
Gravity Settling
Gravity settling is the oldest, simplest, and most widely
used method of treating crude oil emulsions. The differ-
ence in density of the oil and water causes the water to
settle through and out of the oil. Because the water
droplets are heavier than the volume of oil they displace,
they have a downward gravitational force exerted on them.
This force is resisted by a drag force caused by their down-
ward movement through the oil. When the two forces are
equal, a constant velocity is reached that can be comput-
ed from Stokes’ law as
I .78 x 10 -6(A~CIM.)d2
)>= ) ... .... .. (3)
PL,
where
v= downward velocity of the water droplet
relative to the oil, ft/sec,
d= diameter of the water droplet, pm.
AY o,,‘ = difference in specific gravity between the
oil and water, and
CL, - dynamic viscosity of the oil, cp.
Several conclusions can be drawn from this equation.
1. The larger the size of a water droplet, the greater
its downward velocity-i.e., the bigger the droplet size,
the less time it takes for the droplet to settle to the bottom
of the vessel, and thus the easier it is to treat the oil.
2. The greater the difference in density between the
water droplet and the oil, the greater the downward
velocity-i.e., the lighter the oil, the easier it is to treat
the oil. If the oil gravity were lO”AP1 and the water fresh,
the settling velocity would be zero because there is no
gravity difference.
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
3. The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity
of the oil, and thus the greater the downward velocity of
the water droplets-i .e., it is easier to treat the oil at high
temperatures than at low temperatures (assuming a small
effect on gravity difference because of increased tem-
perature).
Gravity settling alone can be used to treat only loose,
unstable emulsions. When other treating methods destabi-
lize the emulsion and create coalescence, which increases
water droplet size, however, gravity settling provides
separation of water from oil.
Retention Time
In a gravity settler, such as an oil-treating tank or the
coalescing section of an oil-treating vessel, coalescence
will occur. Because of the small forces at work, however,
the rate of contact between water droplets is small and
coalescence seldom occurs immediately when two droplets
collide. Thus the process of coalescence, although it will
occur with time, follows a steep exponential curve where
successive doubling of retention time results in small in-
cremental increases in droplet size.
The addition of retention time alone, after some small
amount necessary for initial coalescence. may not signif-
icantly affect the size of the water droplet that must be
separated by gravity to meet the desired oil quality. A
taller tank will increase the retention time but will not
decrease the upward velocity of the oil or may not signif-
icantly increase the size of the water drop that must be
separated from the oil. Thus the additional retention time
gained by the taller tank may not materially affect the
water content of the outlet oil.
A larger-diameter tank will increase the retention time.
More important, it will slow the upward velocity of the
oil and thus allow smaller droplets of water to settle out
by gravity. In this case, it may not have been the increase
in retention time that improved the oil quality but rather
the reduction in flow velocity, which decreased the size
of the water droplets that can be separated from the oil
by gravity.
Centrifugation
Because of the difference in density between oil and water.
centrifugal force can be used to break an emulsion and
separate it into oil and water. Small centrifuges are used
to determine the BS&W content of crude oil emulsion
samples. A few centrifuges have been installed in the oil
field to process emulsions. They have not been widely
used for treating emulsions, however, because of high in-
itial cost, high operating cost. low capacity, and a ten-
dency to foul.
Distillation
Distillation can be used to remove water from crude oil
emulsions. The water, along with lighter oil fractions, can
be distilled by heating and then separated by appropriate
means. The lighter oil fractions are usually returned to
the crude oil.
The only current use of distillation is in the “flash sys-
tem” used in 15”API and lower oil. These systems use
the excess heat in the oil received from the treater or treat-
ing system and convert this sensible heat to latent heat
at or near atmospheric pressure. The flashed steam is con-
densed in a surface condenser in the incoming cooler
19-15
stream of raw crude. thus scavenging the excess heat that
would ordinarily be wasted. Fig. 19.20 shows a typical
flash distillation system for dehydrating emulsions of
heavy viscous crude oils.
The disadvantage of distillation is that it is expensive
and that all the dissolved and suspended solids contained
in the water are left in the oil when the water is removed
by evaporation.
Emulsion-Treating Equipment and Systems
The design of equipment or a system for treating crude
oil emulsions and the sizing of each piece of equipment
for a specific application requires experience and engi-
neering judgment. It would be ideal if a procedure existed
that would permit the engineer to infer from measured
properties of the emulsion the most economical treating
process, taking into account treating temperature, chem-
ical usage, and physical size of treating equipment. Un-
fortunately, such a procedure is not available and the
engineer must rely on experience and empirical data from
other wells or fields in the area and on laboratory ex-
periments.
For example, the economic balance between the amount
of chemical and heat to use to destabilize the emulsion
and aid in coalescence is difficult to predict. Almost all
emulsion-treating systems use demulsifying chemicals. In
most instances, the lower the treating temperature, the
greater the amount of chemical required to treat the emul-
sion. In many areas of west Texas and the Gulf of Mexico,
some operators do not add heat to treat the relatively light
crudes that are produced. Other operators under the same
conditions add heat when treating similar crudes to
minimize chemical cost and the size of the emulsion-
treating equipment.
Another example is the economic balance that must be
considered between those factors that promote coalescence
(chemicals, water wash, heat, coalescing plates, etc.) and
the size of the treating vessels. The larger the size of the
treating vessel, the smaller the size of water droplets that
can be separated from the emulsion. Thus the use of
coalescing aids may reduce the size of the equipment by
increasing the size of the water droplet that must be sepa-
rated from the oil to meet the required quality. The sav-
ings in vessel costs must be balanced against the increased
capital and operating cost (e.g., fuel and increased main-
tenance because of plugging) of the coalescing aids.
Bottle tests in the laboratory provide a means for es-
timating ranges of treating temperature and retention time
for design purposes. Unfortunately, these tests are static
in nature and do not model closely the dynamic effects
of water droplet dispersion and coalescence that occur in
the actual equipment because of flow through control
valves, pipes, inlet diverters, baffles, and water-wash
sections. Bottle tests, however, can be useful in estimat-
ing treating parameters such as temperature, demulsifier
volume, settling time, etc.
When evaluating empirical data from similar wells or
fields, the designer should recognize that the temperature
at which an emulsion is treated may not be as critical as
the viscosity of the crude at that temperature. The design
of an oil-treating system can be assisted by observing an
existing system, knowing the viscosity of the crude at
treating temperature, and calculating from the flow gem
ometry and Stokes’ law the minimum size water droplet
19-16
150 to 18OOF
Production Inlet
15 to 30% cut TEMPERATURE OF SHELL SIDE
APPROXIMATELY 20°F
;c ‘FLASH
TOWER
Ll
1 CONDENSATE
220°F
STORAGE
+
TREATED CRUDE
Fig. 19.20-Typical flash distillation system for dehydrating
that can be settled from the crude. A treating system can
then be designed that will heat the emulsion to the tem-
perature required to obtain the same viscosity that exists
in the sample field, and then any one of the pieces of
equipment or combinations thereof described in the next
section can be selected and sized so that all water droplets
larger than the calculated minimum diameter can be sepa-
rated from the oil.
Because of the uncertainties in attempting to scale up
from laboratory data or to infer designs from empirical
data from similar wells or fields, a new treating system
should be designed with either larger equipment or more
heat input capacity than the engineer calculates to be nec-
essary. The amount of “overdesign” to be built into the
treating system depends on an assessment of the cost of
the extra capacity balanced against the risk of not being
able to treat the design throughput.
Description of Equipment Used in
Treating Crude Oil Emulsions
The characteristics of the emulsion to be treated should
be understood before a treating system is selected. Several
different types of equipment or systems may satisfactorily
resolve an emulsion, but one particular type of equipment
or system may be superior to others because of basic con-
siderations in design, operation, initial cost, maintenance
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TREATER AT 280°F
1
1
I
AT 2% CUT
-I
j-+ WATER
emulsions of heavy viscous crude oils
cost, operating cost, and performance. Effort should be
made to select the minimum number of pieces of equip-
ment or the simplest design for each treating system to
optimize initial and operating costs.
The combination of the various emulsion-treating
methods that will provide the lowest use of chemical,
lowest treating temperature, lowest loss of light hydrocar-
bons, lowest overall treating cost, and the best perform-
ance should be used. Experience and empirical data may
guide the buyer to the optimum combination of treating
methods, but field testing will be required to confirm the
selection.
The following discussion describes various emulsion-
treating equipment and systems. Each piece of treating
equipment and each treating system affords a wide selec-
tion of the type, configuration, size, component selection,
component design, and usage. Additional treating equip-
ment can usually be added to each unit or system until
the desired treating results are obtained. The design and
selection of all the components of the treating system
should be made at the time of initial purchase and instal-
lation. Because of the modular design of most systems,
however, if the selected equipment does not perform as
desired or if operating conditions change, additional fea-
tures can usually be added or operating procedures altered
to obtain the desired results.
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
Fig. 19.21-Typical
Free Water Knockouts
Where large quantities of water are produced, it usually
is desirable to separate the free water before attempting
to treat the emulsion. When oil and water are agitated with
moderate intensity and then allowed to settle for a period
of time, three distinct phases normally will form: a layer
of essentially clean oil at the top with a small amount of
water dispersed in the oil in very small droplets, relatively
clean water (free water) at the bottom with a small amount
of dispersed oil in very small droplets, and an emulsion
phase in between. With time, the amount of emulsion will
approach zero as coalescence occurs.
The free water is the water that separates in 3 to 10
minutes. It may contain small droplets of dispersed oil
that may require treament before disposal. Equipment to
do this is discussed in Chap. 15.
Free-water knockouts (FWKO’s) are designed as either
horizontal or vertical pressure vessels. Fig. 19.21 is a
schematic of a vertical FWKO. and Fig. 19.22 shows a
horizontal FWKO. The fluid enters the vessel and flows
against an inlet diverter. This sudden change in momen-
tum causes an initial separation of liquid and gas, which
will prevent the gas from disturbing the settling section
of the vessel. In some designs, the separating section con-
tains a downcomer that directs the liquid flow below the
oil/water interface to aid in water-washing the emulsion.
19-17
WE13 NIPPLE TO MAINTAIN
GAS “CUSHION” IR VESSEL
vertical FWKO
The liquid-collecting section of the vessel provides suffi-
cient time for the oil and emulsion to form a layer of oil
at the top, while the free water settles to the bottom. When
there is appreciable gas in the inlet stream, a three-phase
separator can be used as an FWKO. See Chap. 12 for
a description of both vertical and horizontal three-phase
separators.
Sometimes a cone-bottom vertical three-phase separa-
tor is used. This design is used if sand production is an-
ticipated to be a major problem. The cone is normally
at an angle to the horizontal of between 45 and 60”. If
a cone is used. it can be the bottom head of the vessel,
or for structural reasons, it can be installed internally in
the vessel. In such a case. a gas-equalizing line must be
installed to ensure that the vapor behind the cone is al-
ways in pressure equilibrium with the interior of the ves-
sel. Water jets can be used to dislodge and flush the sand
from the vessel.
Oil and water are usually separated more quickly and
completely in an FWKO when the liquid travels through
the vessel in a horizontal rather than a vertical direction.
Horizontal flow permits a less restricted downward move-
ment of the water droplets. If the emulsion flows verti-
cally upward, the water must move downward through
an upward-moving stream; therefore, the downward
movement of water is retarded by upward movement of
the oil and emulsion.
19-18
L.L.C. ;VITHWEIGHTED FLOAT TO
SIP II:L?ILAND EMJLSION AND
FLOAT ONLY I:;FREE VJATZR.
'wEIf?
NIPPLE TO MAINTAIN
OIL AND GAS GAS "CUSHION" IN VESSF3.a
PERFORATED WAVE
BREAKER OUTLET
Fig. 19.22-Typical
It is possible to add a heating tube to an FWKO, as
shown in Fig. 19.23, or to add heat upstream of the
FWKO. In such cases, even though the vessel may be
called an FWKO, it is performing the function of an emul-
sion treater.
Many configurations are possible for providing baffles
and maintaining levels in an FWKO. A good design will
provide the functions described previously, i.e., degass-
ing, water-washing, and providing sufficient retention
time and correct flow pattern so that free water will be
removed from the emulsion.
When the free water is removed, it may or may not be
necessary to treat the oil further. In many fields producing
light oil, a well-designed FWKO with ample settling time
and with a reasonable chemical-treating program can pro-
vide pipeline-quality oil. Most often, however, further
emulsion treating is required downstream of the FWKO.
Storage Tanks
Oil generally should be water-free before it is flowed into
lease storage tanks. If there is only a small percentage
of water in the oil and/or if the water and oil are loosely
emulsified, however, it may be practical to allow the water
to settle to the bottom of the oil storage tank and to draw
off the water before oil shipment. This practice is not
generally recommended or followed. but for small
volumes of free or loosely emulsified water on small leases
or for low-volume marginal wells, it may be a practical
and economical procedure.
When a storage tank is used for dehydration, the oil
is flowed into the tank and allowed to settle. When the
tank is full of liquid, flow into the tank is stopped or
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
I~PINGENENT
FLUID IMLST
horizontal FWKO.
switched to another tank and the tank is allowed to re-
main idle while water settles out of the oil. After the water
has been separated from the oil by settling, water is
drained from the bottom of the tank and the oil is gauged,
sampled, and pumped or drained to a truck or pipeline.
No water-wash is used in conjunction with the standard
storage tank. If there is a water-wash, its shallowness and
the absence of a proper spreader causes it to be of little
or no benefit.
Settling Tanks
Various names are given to settling tanks used to treat
oil. Some of the most common are gunbarrels, wash tanks,
and dehydration tanks. The design of these tanks differs
in detail from field to field and company to company. All
contain all or most of the basic elements shown in Fig.
19.24.
The emulsion enters a gas separation chamber or gas
boot where a momentum change causes separation of gas.
Gas boots can be as simple as the piece of pipe shown
in Fig. 19.24, or they can contain more elaborate nozzles,
packing, or baffles to help separate the gas. If there is
much gas in the well stream, it is usually preferable to
use a two- or three-phase separator upstream of the settling
tank. In this case, the gas boot must separate only the gas
that is liberated as the pressure decreases during flow from
the separator to the settling tank.
A downcomer directs the emulsion below the oil/water
interface to the water-wash section. On most large tanks,
a spreader is used to distribute the flow over the entire
cross section of the tank. This minimizes short-circuiting.
The more the upward-flowing emulsion spreads out and
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-19

BAFFLE

, BAFFLE (SOLID?

BAFFLE
(SIDE PERFORATED~

LEVEL CONTROLLER

Fig. 19.23--Schematic view of FWKO with heating element in each end

approaches plug (or uniform) flow, the slower its aver- GAS
OUTLET
age upward velocity and the smaller the water droplets G&S ECUALIZING
GAS SEPARATING
that will settle out of the emulsion.
There are many types of spreader designs. Spreaders WELL PRODuCTtON

can be made by cutting slots in plate, use of angle iron,

or holes in pipe. By causing the emulsion stream to
separate into many small streams, the spreader causes a
more intimate contact with the water to help promote
coalescence in the water-wash section. This is shown in ADJUSTABLE
IN:fPRPF”CE
Figs. 19.25 and 19.26. Most spreaders contain small holes
or slots to divide the oil and emulsion into small streams.
Large holes (3 to 4 in. in diameter) will not be nearly as OIL SETTLING

effective in dividing the stream as small holes (‘/8to 1 in.

in diameter). In designing a spreader, however, it is im-
portant that the fluid is not agitated to the point where
shearing of the water droplets in the emulsion takes place,
causing the emulsion to become harder to separate. In ad-
dition, small holes can be more easily plugged with solids
and are difficult to clean. Free-flow coalescing devices,
such as S.P. Packs TM (Fig. 19.18), can be installed on
the downcomer/spreader to promote coalescence and to
minimize shearing of the water droplets by the spreader.
Fig. 19.24-Typical settling tank with internal downcomer and
As the emulsion rises above the oil/water interface, emulsion spreader.
water droplets settle from the oil countercurrent to the
flow of the oil by gravity. Because there may be very lit-
tle coalescence above the oil/water interface, increasing
the height of the oil-settling section above some minimum
to aid in spreading out the flow may not materially affect
the oil outlet quality.
1Q-20
NOTE VELOCITY OF WELL FLUID THRU
-THE HOLES IN THE DISTRIBUTOR
INTO THE WATER WASH SHOULD NOT
EXCEED I 0 FT PER SECOND (!I
Fig. 19.25-Proper design of well fluid inlet distributor for wash
or gunbarrel tank showing use of small holes in dls-
tributor.
Sometimes oil collectors similar in design to oil spread-
ers are used to aid in establishing plug flow. The oil col-
lector must not allow vortexing and should collect oil from
the top of the tank in such a way that horizontal move-
ment of the oil will be minimized.
Some tanks discharge the water through a water col-
lector designed to cause the flow of water to approach
plug flow conditions more nearly. The water outlet col-
lector must prevent vortexing of the water and must
minimize horizontal movement of the water. The water
outlet collector should be located near the tank bottom.
There must be enough vertical distance between it and
the inlet spreader to allow sufficient clarification of the
water, and it should be at least 6 to 12 in. above the tank
bottom to allow for accumulation of sand.
Some tanks have elaborate sand-jetting and drain sys-
tems that may or may not be part of the water-collector
system. It may be difficult to make these drains operate
satisfactorily because the water flow to each drain must
be on the order of 3 ft/sec to suspend the sand. Sand drains
may lengthen the amount of time between tank cleanings,
but the additional cost of sand drains in tanks may not
be warranted.
In Fig. 19.24, the oil/water interface is established by
an external adjustable weir sometimes called a water leg.
The height of the interface is determined by the differ-
ence in height of the oil outlet and weir and the fluid prop-
erties. It may be calculated from
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
rOtL SETTLING SECTION
Fig. 19.26~Improper design of well fluid inlet for wash or gun-
barrel tank.
where
hM.d = height of water-draw-off overflow nipple in
weir box above tank bottom, ft,
h 01, = height of clean oil outlet above tank
bottom, ft,
h M'W= desired height of water-wash in tank above
tank bottom, ft,
Yo = specific gravity of oil, and
Y II = specific gravity of water.
Water legs are used successfully for emulsions where
the gravity is above 20”API and there is sufficient differ-
ence in gravity between the oil and water. Marginal per-
formance is obtained on oil between 15 and 20”API.
Below lS”API, water legs normally are not used.
It is also common to control the oil/water interface with
internal weirs or with an interface liquid-level controller
and a water-dump valve. In heavy oils, electronic probes
are most often used to sense the interface and operate a
water-dump valve. In lighter oils, floats that sink in the
oil and float in the water are more common.
Not all settling tanks contain all the sections and de-
sign details described previously. The choice depends on
the overall process selected for the facility, emulsion prop-
erties, flow rates, and desired effluent qualities. While
Fig. 19.24 is representative of the majority of settling
tanks currently in use, other tanks have a different flow
pattern. A series of parallel vertical baffles from the bot-
tom of the vertical tank to above the oil level, as shown
in Fig. 19.27, cause the flow of the emulsion to be
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
horizontal rather than vertical. With this type of flow path,
the water droplets fall at right angles to the oil flow, rather
than countercurrent to the oil flow. Some settling tank
designs employ a vortex or swirling motion at the inlet
of the tank to aid in coalescence and settling and to
minimize short-circuiting. Many settling tanks employ
heat to aid in the treatment process. Heat can be added
to the liquid by an indirect heater, a direct heater, or any
type of heat exchanger.
A direct fired heater, sometimes referred to as a “jug*’
heater, is one in which the fluid to be heated comes in
direct contact with the immersion-type heating tube or ele-
ment of the heater. Direct fired heaters are generally used
to heat low-pressure noncorrosive liquids. These units
normally are constructed so that the heating tube can be
removed for cleaning, repair, or replacement.
An indirect fired heater is one in which the fluid passes
through pipe coils or tubes immersed in a bath of water,
oil, salt, or other heat-transfer medium that, in turn, is
heated by an immersion-type heating tube similar to the
one used in the direct fired heater. The contents of the
bath of an indirect fired heater are caused to circulate by
thermosiphonic currents. The immersion-type heating tube
heats the bath, which heats the fluid flowing through coils
immersed in the bath. When water is used as the bath,
water free of impurities will prolong the life of the heater
and prevent fouling of the surface of the heating tube and
coils.
Indirect fired heaters are less likely to catch on fire than
direct fired heaters and generally are used to heat corro-
sive or high-pressure fluids. They usually are construct-
ed so that the heating tube and pipe coil are individually
removable for cleaning and replacement. They tend to be
more expensive than direct fired heaters.
Heat exchangers normally are used where waste heat
is recovered from an engine, turbine, or other process
stream or where fired heaters are prohibited. In complex
facilities, especially offshore, a central heat-transfer
system recovering waste heat and supplying it through heat
exchangers to all process heat demands is sometimes more
economical and may be the only way to meet established
safety regulations.
Advantages of heating the entire stream of emulsion be-
fore it enters the settling tank are as follows.
1. After the fluid is heated, it flows through piping and
into the flume pipe or gas boot of the gunbarrel tank. This
moderate agitation of the heated fluid can assist in coales-
cence of water droplets.
2. The emulsion is heated before it reaches the gunbar-
rel. which aids in removing gas from the oil in the gas
boot. This helps maintain quiescence in the settling por-
tion of the gunbarrel.
3. The heater and gunbarrel can be sized independently,
which allows flexibility in sizing the system.
4. Water-wash volume in the gunbarrel can be adjusted
over a wide range, providing additional flexibility.
5. Continuous flow of fresh fluids through the heater
tends to prevent coking and scaling and helps keep the
heating surface clean, which will prolong the heater life.
Heat can also be supplied to the system by circulating
the water in the water-wash section to a heater and back
to the tank. The hot-water-wash section warms the incom-
ing emulsion. A thermosiphon caused by density differ-
ences of the hot and the cold water can be used as the
19-21
WATER OUTLET
[BELOW)
Fig. 19.27-Plan view of vertical tank with horizontal flow settling
pattern.
driving force for the circulation if the heat source is not
far from the tank. The water also may be pumped to the
heater and circulated back through the flume, as shown
in Fig. 19.28. In this system, the settling space in the gun-
barrel may be disturbed by gas released from the oil when
it comes in contact with the hot water. It has two advan-
tages. First, oil will not be overheated because it never
comes in contact with the heating element in the heater
but is heated by the water bath in the gunbarrel. This
minimizes vapor losses from the oil and tends to maintain
maximum oil gravity. It also minimizes coking and scal-
ing. Second, this system is as safe from fire hazards as
a system involving a fired vessel can be because only
water flows through the heater. There is no oil or gas in
the fired vessel.
Settling or gunbarrel tanks can also be heated directly
with a fire tube, as shown in Fig. 19.29, or with internal
heat exchangers, using steam or other heat media. Heat
exchangers can be either pipe coils or plate-type heating
elements.
Plate-type heating elements are usually 18 to 32 in. by
about 5 to 8 ft. These usually are preferred over pipe coils
because the heat-transfer coefficient is 10 to 20% higher
for the plate-type heating elements when immersed in oil
than for a corresponding area of pipe. Further, the gentle
agitation brought about by the convection flow of the oil
up the surface of the plate-type element assists in coales-
cence. Plate-type heating elements are available with a
wide range of pressure ratings. They can be purchased
for steam service or hot-water service, but the same unit
should not be used for both because the construction of
the cells is different for the two types of heating media.
Pipe coils are popular because of the local availability
of materials. The cost is normally slighter higher than for
plate-type exchangers, however, especially in larger in-
stallations.
When settling tanks are heated directly, they operate
in much the same manner as vertical or horizontal emul-
sion treaters.
19-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

GAS

WELL FLUID INLET

- a-

WA+ER LEVEL
-AAA--
I I
I I
I I

WATER
OUTLET

1
GUN BARREL

AUXILIARY WELL INLET

Fig. 19.29-Heater and gunbarrel in forced circulation method of heating.

P AS OUTLET Vertical Emulsion Treaters

,-- DEGASSER BOOT The most commonly used one-well lease emulsion treat-
e-INLET er is the vertical unit. A typical design is shown in Fig.
19.30. Flow enters near the top of the treater into a gas
I separation section. This section must have adequate di-
GAS VAPOR
OIL OUTLET mensions to separate the gas from the liquid. If the treat-
er is located downstream of a separator, this section can
be very small. The gas separation section should have an
inlet diverter and a mist extractor.
The liquid flows through a downcomer to the bottom
portion of the treater, which serves as an FWKO and
water-wash section. If the treater is located downstream
of an FWKO, the bottom section can be very small. If
the total wellstream is to be treated, this section should
be sized for suffkient retention time to allow the free water
to settle out. This will minimize the amount of fuel gas
: needed to heat the liquid rising through the heating section.
WATER OUTLET
The oil and emulsion flows upward around the tire tubes
to a coalescing section, where sufficient retention time
is provided to allow the small water droplets to coalesce
Fig. 19.29-Heated gunbarrel emulsion treater. and to settle to the water section. Treated oil flows out
the oil outlet. Any gas flashed from the oil because of
heating flows through the equalizing line to the gas space
above. The oil level is maintained by pneumatic or lever-
operated dump valves. The oil/water interface level is con-
trolled by an interface controller or an adjustable exter-
nal water leg.
It is necessary to prevent steam from being formed on
the fire tubes. This can be done by employing the “40”
rule”-i.e., the operating pressure is kept equal to the
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-23

pressure of saturated steam at a temperature equal to the

operating temperature plus 40°F. This is desirable because
the normal full-load temperature difference between the
fire tube wall and the surrounding oil is approximately
30°F in most treaters. Allowing 10°F for safety, the 40”
rule will prevent flashing of steam on the wall of the heat-
ing tube.
Baffles and spreader plates may be placed in the coales-
cing section of the treater above the fire tubes. Many treat-
ers were originally equipped with excelsior or “hay”
packs. In most applications these may not be needed, but
a manway may be provided in case one may need to be
added in the field.
Although Fig. 19.30 shows a treater with a fire tube,
it is also possible to use an internal heat exchanger to pro-
vide the required heat or to heat the emulsion before it
enters the treater. For safety reasons, some offshore oper-
ators prefer a heat-transfer fluid and a pipe or plate heat
exchanger inside the treater rather than a fire tube.

Horizontal Emulsion Treaters

For most multiwell leases, horizontal treaters normally
are preferred. Fig. 19.31 shows a typical design of a
horizontal treater. Flow enters the front section of the
treater where gas is flashed. The liquid flows downward
to near the oil/water interface where the liquid is water-
washed and the free water is separated. Oil and emulsion
rises past the fire tubes and flows into an oil surge cham-
ber The oil/water interface in the inlet section of the ves-
sel is controlled by an interface-level controller, which
operates a dump valve for the free water.
The oil and emulsion flows through a spreader into the
back or coalescing section of the vessel, which is fluid-
packed. The spreader distributes the flow evenly through-
out the length of this section. Treated oil is collected at
the top through a collection device used to maintain uni-
form vertical flow of the oil. Coalescing water droplets
fall countercurrent to the rising oil. The oil/water inter-
face level is maintained by a level controller and dump
valve for this section of the vessel.
A level control in the oil surge chamber operates a dump
valve on the oil outlet line regulating the flow of oil out
the top of the vessel and maintaining a liquid-packed con-
dition in the coalescing section. Gas pressure on the oil
in the surge section allows the coalescing section to be
liquid-packed.
The inlet section must be sized to handle separation of
the free water and heating of the oil. The coalescing sec-
tion must be sized to provide adequate retention time for
coalescence to take place and to allow the coalescing water
droplets to settle downward countercurrent to the upward
flow of the oil.
Fig. 19.32 shows another design of a horizontal emul-
sion treater with a different flow pattern that minimizes
vertical flow of the emulsion. Oil, water, and gas enter
the top of the treater at the left side (facing the burners)
and travel toward the front and downward. Gas remains
at the top, and oil and water are heated as required. Some
heat is applied to the water in this section, but because
this section has its own temperature controller, it can be
regulated up or down for optimum performance.
The cross section in Fig. 19.32 shows that the emul-
sion flows under a longitudinal baffle and through a large
slot in the partition plate near the front of the treater at
Fig. 19.30-Schematic view of typical vertical emulsion treater.
the bottom of the fire tube where it is water-washed. In
the right compartment of Section AA, the oil and emulsion
flow longitudinally up across the fire tube at about a 10
to 1.5” incline from horizontal.
The heating and settling section separation baffle blocks
the passage of foam at the top and blocks emulsion at the
bottom. Heated oil travels through a slot in a partition
that is about at the centerline of the top fire tube. Free
water is allowed to travel under the baffle. As emulsion
accumulates at the interface, it rises to touch the tire tube,
which is only 6 in. above the interface. The fire tube then
tends to heat and eliminate the emulsion pad to maintain
a uniform emulsion-pad thickness.
Channeling, skimming, and stratifying are all reduced
by the application of louvered baffles, which are made
of a stainless steel sheet punched with a louvered pattern
that ranges from 15 to 60% open area. The baffles are
solid at the top to prevent foaming or skimming and ex-
tend down near but do not touch the water. All the emul-
sion goes through the louvered openings, which provide
a slight impedance to flow to develop even flow distribu-
tion and aid in coalescence.
Oil level in the treater is maintained by a weir and an
oil box. Water level in the treater is critical; thus a weir
is placed approximately 5 ft from the rear head seam, and
the oil/water interface level upstream of this weir is main-
tained by the weir. Adjustment of the water-level con-
troller, which is located downstream of this weir, has no
effect on the water level in the main treater body upstream
of the weir.
Because the emulsion flow path in this design is essen-
tially horizontal, the water particles are not opposed by
the velocity of upflowing oil as in a treater with a verti-
cal flow pattern. This is especially important in heavy
crudes where the differential specific gravity between oil
and water is small and the settling velocity is low.
19-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

GAS
EQUALIZER

EMULSION MIST EXTRACTOR

INLET

\ GAS OUT

\” f, _- -------
,-a-OIL
----
OUT

- COLLECTOR

--------
~------
_r’
+ WATER ---- WATER - --I

I
FREE WATER
I
FIRETUBE SPREADER WATER
OUT
DEFLECTOR OUT
AROUND FIRETUBE

FRONT SECTION COALESCING SECTION

1

ocLH%

Fig. 19.31-Typical horizontal emulsion treater with vertical flow

GAS DEMISTER
FIRE TUBE
AND COALESCER
OIL WEIR 30
DIFFUSION BAF
/
OIL CONTROLLER

OIL OUTLET

WATER OUTLET

BURNER
EATING AND SETTLING
SECTION SEPARATION BAFFLE DAM CONTROLLER
ELEVATION

HEATING CHAMBER 1 y- HEATING CHAMBER 2

FOR OIL PASSAGE

SETTLING SECTION

CENTER BAFFLE - VESSEL

Fig. 19.32-Horizontal emulsion treater with horizontal flow.

CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
GAS
EQUALIZER
EMULSION MIST
INLET
\ GAS
WATER
t i
FIRETUBE
FREE ‘WATER
OUT
DEFLECTOR
AROUND FIRETUBE
Fig. 19.33-Typical horizontal electrostatic emulsion treater with vertical flow
Other flow patterns are available if different baffle de-
signs are used in horizontal treaters. The two described
previously are examples to show the concepts that are most
generally applied. Other methods of heating the emulsion
can be used if it is desirable to eliminate the fire tubes.
Electrostatic Coalescing Treaters
Electrostatic treating can be used in either vertical or
horizontal emulsion treaters by including electrical grids
in the settling or coalescing sections. Figs. 19.33 and
19.34 show how grids can be installed in the horizontal
treaters shown in Figs. 19.31 and 19.32.
Two grids of electrodes typically are installed in elec-
trostatic emulsion treaters. One is wired to a source of
electric current and the other is grounded. The emulsion
flows between these electrodes, which are charged with
a very high voltage. The electrodes are installed in the
vessel to provide a final stage of coalescence to the emul-
sion after it has already been treated to near pipeline qual-
ity. In the design of Fig. 19.33, the upflowing oil passes
the “hot” electric grid, which is usually steel or stain-
less steel rods or bars spaced 4 to 6 in. apart. This grid
is stationary and hangs from multiple electric insulators.
AC current is wired to this grid from an external single-
phase transformer. The “cold” electric grid is mounted
directly above the hot grid and is adjustable from 2.5 to
12 in. from the hot grid. The normal operating spacing
between the two grids is usually 4 to 6 in.
Coalescing takes place between the oil/water interface
and the hot grid, as well as between and above the grids.
The oil continues vertically to the outlet collector pipe with
19-25
EXTRACTOR
\I
OUT
,--OIL OUT
---------__
c COLLECTOR
Di
e------
-- -,- - WATER - - --I
SPREADER
I WATER
OUT
Leff
.-----
1
small calibrated holes in the top of the pipe to ensure uni-
form distribution. The electric section has no oil/gas in-
terface. All gas must be removed in the heating section.
The electric coalescing function in the treater shown
in Fig. 19.34 is similar to the horizontal grid unit of Fig.
19.33 except that the vertical grids provide the advantage
of the horizontal flow pattern for the emulsion and im-
prove the performance of this unit.
In addition to the safety controls normally found on
emulsion treaters with fireboxes, there are also low-liquid-
level safety switches on the electric treater to avoid the
possibility of the electric power being applied when the
high-voltage grid is surrounded with gas instead of liquid.
The greater the voltage gradient, the greater the forces
causing coalescence. Experimental data show, however,
that at some voltage gradient the water droplets can be
pulled apart and a tighter emulsion can result. For this
reason, electrostatic treaters are normally equipped with
a mechanism for adjusting the voltage gradient in the field
so that the optimum can be obtained.
The voltage gradient can be changed (1) by selecting
optional transformer voltage taps. (2) by adjusting the vol-
tage gradient by raising or lowering the oil/water inter
face in units using horizontal grids-the water level is.
in effect, a grounded electrode against which most of the
coalescing takes place; or (3) by adjusting the hot or cold
grid location to change the voltage gradient.
The transformer is normally an 18.000- to 20,000-V
secondary, single-phase, oil-tilled. 100%reactance-type
transformer. It is mounted on the top, side, or end of the
treater with a short, high-voltage conduit connected to an
19-26
Fig. 19.34-Typical horizontal electrostatic emulsion treater with vertical electric grids for horizontal flow of fluids
appropriate entrance probe assembly. The high-voltage
line is entirely submerged in transformer oil, which is nor-
mally a highly refined hydrocarbon that has been vacuum
dried and contains no moisture.
The application of electrostatic treaters should be limited
to “polishing” of oil to avoid chaining and short-circuiting
of the grids. They are particularly effective in reducing
the water content of oil to very low levels (less than 0.5
to 1 .O%). Electrostatic coalescence may also aid in reduc-
ing heat and/or chemicals required to treat crude oil to
a specific quality.
Desalting Crude Oil
Most produced water contains salts, which may cause
problems in production and refining processes when the
solids precipitate to form scale on heaters, plug ex-
changers, etc. This can cause accelerated corrosion in pip-
ing and equipment.
In almost all cases, the salt content of crude oil con-
sists of salt dissolved in small droplets of water that are
dispersed in the crude. In some instances, the produced
oil can contain crystalline salt, which forms because of
changes in pressure and temperature as the fluid flows
up the wellbore and through the production equipment.
Crystalline salt will flow out with the water and is not
of importance in desalting operations.
The salinity of produced brine varies widely, but most
produced water falls in the range of 15,000 to 130,000
ppm of equivalent NaCl. Crude oil containing only 1.O%
water with a 15,000 ppm salt content will have 55 lbm
salt/l ,000 bbl of water-free crude. The chemical compo-
sition of these salts varies, but the major portion is near-
ly always NaCl with lesser amounts of calcium and
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
magnesium chloride. Because of the operational problems
associated with salts, most refineries buy crude at a salt
content of 10 to 20 lbm/l,OOO bbl, then desalt the oil to
1 to 5 lbm/l,OOO bbl before charging to crude stills.
The purpose of a desalting system is to reduce the salt
content of the treated oil to acceptable levels. In cases
where the salinity of the produced brine is not too great,
salt content can be reduced by merely ensuring a low frac-
tion of water in the oil. In this case, the terms desalting
and emulsion treating are identical, and the concepts and
equipment described previously can be used.
The required maximum concentration of water in oil
to meet a known salt specification can be derived from
c,, =0.35c,,y,“f&., . .... ... .. . . (5)
where
C,, = salt content of the oil, lbm/l,OOO bbl,
c SM’= concentration of salt in produced water,
Pw
Y w = specific gravity of produced water, and
fW = volume fraction of water in crude oil.
If the produced brine has a high salt concentration, it
may not be possible to treat the oil to a low enough water
content (less than 0.2 to 0.25% is difficult to guarantee).
In such a case, desalting implies the mixing of low-salt-
content water with the emulsion before treating, as shown
in Fig. 19.35. This lowers the effective value of C,, in
Eq. 5. If a single-stage desalting system will require too
much dilution water, then a two-stage system, such as that
shown in Fig. 19.36, is used.
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-27

MIXER

OIL OIL TREATER ) CLEAN

STREAM -a OIL

DILUTION WATER
WATER TO DISPOSAL

Fig. 19.35-Single-stagedesalting with dilution water injection.

Although it is possible to desalt with most of the Reverse Emulsions

emulsion-treating equipment discussed previously, most
desalting systems use electrostatic treaters to obtain the
lowest possible water content in the oil and thus minimize
the amount of dilution water needed.
One of the most important parts of desalting systems
is the method and efficiency of the method of mixing the
wash water with the crude. The smaller the diameter of
the wash-water drops dispersed in the oil, the greater the
possibility of their coming in contact and coalescing with
entrained saltwater droplets.
Excessive agitation when mixing the wash water with
the crude oil can result in emulsions that are too tight (sta-
ble) to resolve easily. Therefore, the amount of mixing
provided should be adjustable to zero. This requirement
tends to make pumps and level-control valves poor choices
for mixing. The most commonly used mixing system con-
sists of some type of special mixing tee or static mixer
followed by a globe-type mixing valve.
Mixing efficiency in a desalting system refers to the
fraction of wash water that actually mixes with the pro-
duced water. The remainder of the water, in effect,
bypasses the desalting stage and is disposed of as free
water. A mixing efficiency of 70 to 85% can be consid-
ered a reasonable range of attainment. Part of the energy
for mixing is obtained from the pressure of the wash
water, which should enter the mixer at approximately 25
psi above the pressure in the vessel.
Most emulsions are the water-in-oil type; they occur much
more frequently than the oil-in-water type. Oil-in-water
(reverse) emulsions are most likely to be produced where
the WOR is high, the dissolved solids content of the water
is low, the water is slightly alkaline, and the oil has a
naphthenic base. The oil content of these emulsions may
vary from as low as a few ppm to 40%. They may vary
in consistency from watery thin to a moderately heavy
cream.
The produced water from some leases and ballast water
from some oil tankers contain sufficient oil to be or have
the characteristics of an oil-in-water emulsion Such water
is usually treated with chemicals formulated for water
treating and with equipment described in Chap. 15.
Reverse emulsions may not require much, if any, heat.
Because the external phase is water, the viscosity is quite
low at ambient temperature. The chemicals used to treat
reverse emulsions are usually some type of surface-active
compounds that will neutralize the charges on the oil par-
ticles and allow them to coalesce during the gentle agita-
tion that should follow introduction and mixing of the
chemical with the emulsion. Overtreatment of this type
of emulsion with chemical can result in stabilization rather
than breaking of the emulsion.
Empirical data and experience are required to design
equipment and/or systems for resolving reverse
emulsions.

MIXER 1 MIXER 2

OIL CLEAN
STREAM -a OIL TREATER 7 OIL
OIL TREATERT

WATER DILiTION
WATER
D&AL

RECiLE
PUMP

Fig. 19.36-Two-stage desalting using second-stage recycle.

19-28
Treating Emulsions Produced From EOR Projects
Standard emulsion-treating procedures, equipment, and
systems used during primary and secondary oil produc-
tion may not be adequate to treat the emulsions encoun-
tered in EOR projects. EOR methods of oil production-
such as in-situ combustion and steam, COz, caustic.
polymer, and micellar (surfactantipolymer) floods-may
result in the production of emulsions that may not respond
to treatment normally used in primary and secondary oil
production operations.
The treatment of the emulsions from EOR projects is
usually handled independent of the primary and secon-
dary emulsions from the same fields. Emulsion-treating
procedures, equipment, and systems have been and are
continuing to be developed for use in these EOR projects.
Clarification of Water Produced with Emulsions
Even though a normal (water-in-oil) emulsion exists in
the oil production system, when produced water is sepa-
rated from crude oil, the water usually contains small
quantities of oil. The oil has been divided into small par-
ticles and dispersed in the water by agitation and turbu-
lence caused by flow in the formation; into the wellbore;
through the bottomhole pump, standing valve, traveling
valve, and tubing; reciprocation of sucker rods; flow
through the wellhead choke, flowline, manifold, oil and
gas separator, and treating system; and by surface trans-
fer pumps.
These small particles of oil will be suspended in the
water and held there by mechanical. chemical. and elec-
trical forces. The amount of oil contained in the untreated
produced water in most systems will vary from an aver-
age low of about 5.0 ppm to an average high of about
2,000 ppm. In some water systems, oil contents as high
as 20.000 ppm (2.0%) have been observed.
The oil particles in the untreated produced water will
usually vary in size from 1 to about 1,000 pm, with most
of the oil particles ranging between 5 and 50 pm in di-
ameter.
Nine methods can be used to remove oil from the pro-
duced water: chemical, heat, gravity settling (skim tanks,
API separators, etc.), coalescence (plate, pipe/free flow),
tilted plate (corrugated) interceptors, flotation. floccula-
tion. filtering, and combinations of the above. Refer to
Chap. 15 for a discussion of the details of deoiling the
produced water.
Operational Considerations for
Emulsion-Treating Equipment
Burners and Fire Tubes
The design of burners and fire tubes is of importance be-
cause of the high cost of fuel and the operating problems
that can occur when they malfunction. The burner should
be designed to provide a flame that does not impinge on
the walls of the fire tube, but that is almost as long as
and concentric with the fire tube. If the flame touches the
fire-tube wall. hot spots can develop, which can lead to
premature failure.
Burners should not be allowed to cycle off and on frc-
quently because thermal stresses caused by temperature
reversals can damage the firebox. The combustion con-
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
trols should be accessible and designed so that the opera-
tor can easily adjust the air and gas to achieve optimum
tlame pattern and peak combustion efficiency.
A reliable pilot burner is required. Many operators and
some regulatory agencies require burner safety shutdown
valves that will shut off fuel to the burner in case of pilot
failure. Unless specifically requested by the purchaser,
most small emulsion treaters normally will not include
this feature.
API RP 14C, “Analysis, Design, Installation and Test-
ing of Basic Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Produc-
tion Platforms,” contains a basic description of
recommended safety devices needed for fired- and
exhaust-heated units. Consideration should be given to in-
stalling these devices on onshore, as well as offshore, fired
treaters. They include process high-temperature shut-
down. burner exhaust high-temperature shutdown, low-
flow devices and check valves for heat exchangers, high-
and low-pressure shutdown sensors, pressure-relief
valves, flame arresters, fan motor starter interlocks on
forced draft burners, etc.
Every gas-fired crude oil heating unit should be provid-
ed with fuel gas from which liquids have been
“scrubbed.” In large facilities, this can be accomplished
with a central fuel-gas scrubber or filter providing fuel
gas to all fired units. Many small facilities are equipped
with individual fuel-gas scrubber vessels for each fired
unit. These fuel-gas scrubbers are typically 8 to 12 in.
in diameter and 2 to 4 ft tall, and contain a float-operated
shutoff valve. If liquid enters the fuel-gas scrubber. the
float will close a valve and stop gas flow to the burners
of the heating unit. This will prevent oil from entering
the combustion chamber and possibly prevent a fire.
Most fire tubes that transfer heat to crude oil or emul-
sion are sized to transfer 7,500 Btuihr-sq ft. although some
manufacturers use heat-transfer rates as high as 10,000
Btuihr-sq ft. Fire tubes that transfer heat to the water-
wash section of a treater, as in a vertical treater. are sized
for 10,000 Btuihr-sq ft, although some manufacturers use
heat-transfer rates as high as 15,000 Btu/hr-sq ft. These
higher rates are not recommended because they can be
overly optimistic and thus may undersize the required fire
tube area.
The temperature controller. fuel control valve, pilot
burner, main burner, combustion safety controls. and fuel-
gas scrubber for controlling and cleaning the fuel gas for
fired treating vessels should be inspected and cleaned peri-
odically as required. A schedule of preventive main-
tenance is recommended for this equipment.
Deposits of soot, carbon, sulfur, and other solids, if
any, should be removed from the combustion space peri-
odically to prevent reduction in heating capacity and loss
of combustion efficiency. On oil-fired units, the follow-
ing items should be inspected and maintained periodically:
combustion controls, burner nozzles, combustion refrac-
tory, air/fuel control linkages. oil pump, oil preheater,
pressure and temperature gauges, and 02 and/or CO2
analyzers.
Cleaning Vessels
Crude oil emulsions may contain mud, silt, sand, salts,
asphalt. paraffin, and other impurities produced in con-
junction with crude oil and accompanying water. In most
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
instances, these impurities are present in small quantities
and add little to the treating problem. However, the treat-
ing problem may be made difficult and expensive because
of the presence of one or more of these impurities in ap-
preciable quantity. Special equipment and techniques may
be required to handle these materials.
It is good practice to equip all treating vessels with
cleanout openings and/or washout connections so that the
vessels can be drained and cleaned periodically. Larger
vessels should be equipped with manways to facilitate
cleaning them. Steam cleaning may be required periodi-
cally. Acidizing may be required to remove calcium car-
bonate or similar deposits that cannot be removed by hot
water or by steam cleaning.
One of the most likely causes of difficulty in operating
fired emulsion-treating vessels is the deposition of solids
on heating tubes and nearby surfaces. It is desirable to
prevent such deposits, but if they cannot be prevented,
these surfaces should be cleaned periodically. The deposits
insulate the heating tube, reducing heating capacity and
efficiency. Also, these materials may cause accelerated
corrosion.
Of the salts commonly found in oilfield waters, the chlo-
rides, sulfates, and bicarbonates of sodium, calcium, and
magnesium are predominant. The most prevalent of the
chlorides is NaCl. Calcium and magnesium chloride are
next in quantity. These salts can be found in practically
all water associated with crude oil. Salts are seldom found
in the crude oil, but if they are present, they are mechan-
ically suspended and not dissolved in it.
Emulsion-heating equipment is particularly susceptible
to scaling and coking. These processes of deposition are
not distinctly separate but may occur simultaneously.
Also, one may hasten the other.
Calcium and magnesium carbonates and calcium and
strontium sulfates are readily precipitated on heating sur-
faces in emulsion-treating equipment by decomposition
of their bicarbonates and the resultant reduced solubility
in the water carrying them. These materials will be
deposited in pipes, tubes, fittings, and the inside surface
of treating vessels. Maximum deposition will occur at the
hottest surfaces, such as on heating coils and fire tubes.
Scale deposition also may occur when pressure on the
fluid is reduced. This is the result of release of CO* from
the bicarbonates in salt water to form insoluble salts that
tend to adhere to surfaces of equipment containing the
fluid.
Coke is not generally a primary fouling material. When
deposits of salt, scale or any other fouling material build
up, however, coking begins as soon as the insulating effect
of the fouling material causes the skin temperature of the
heating surface (heating tube or element) to reach 600 to
650°F. At this temperature, coke begins to form, which
further aggravates fouling and reduces heat transfer. Once
coking starts, a burnout of the lirebox may follow quickly.
In areas where fluids cause considerable scaling or cok-
ing, the amount of such deposits can be reduced to a mini-
mum by decreasing the treating temperature or by use of
chemical inhibitors, properly designed spreader plates,
and favorable fluid velocities through the equipment. Ar-
ranging the internals of the equipment so that all surfaces
are as smooth and continuous as possible will also reduce
such deposits. The operator should periodically inspect
the equipment internally and clean the surfaces as required
19-29
if trouble-free operation is to be obtained over a long peri-
od of time. It is impossible to eliminate the deposition of
solids entirely in emulsion-treating equipment, but it can
be minimized.
Removing Sand and Other Settled Solids
Sand and silt may be produced with many crude oils. They
may settle out in the vessel and be difficult to remove.
It is common to shut down and drain the vessel periodi-
cally for cleaning. Sand can be removed from the unit
with rakes and shovels or with a vacuum truck. The use
of “sand pans,” automated water jets, and drain systems
can eliminate or minimize the problem of sand and silt
in emulsion-treating vessels, but it is very difficult to elim-
inate sand buildup in large-diameter tanks.
Sand pan is the name given to a special perforated or
slotted box or enclosure located in the bottom portion of
a vessel or tank. Sand pans are designed to cover the area
of the vessel that the flow of discharging water will clean.
Often they are designed to work in conjunction with a set
of water jets. The sand pans for horizontal vessels usually
consist of elongated, inverted V-shaped troughs that are
located parallel with and on the bottom of the vessels and
that straddle the vertical centerline of the vessel. In the
design in Fig. 19.37, the sand pans have sides that make
an angle of 60” with the horizontal. The bottom edges
of the sloping sides are serrated with 2-in. V-shaped slots
and are welded to the interior of the shell of the treater.
Most sand pans used in horizontal vessels are 5 ft long;
a 60-ft-long horizontal vessel will typically have 11 sand
pans and 11 sand-dump valves.
Sand pans, without a water jet system, have satisfac-
torily removed sand from most horizontal vessels up to
6 or 8 ft in diameter. Horizontal vessels larger than 4 ft
in diameter should be equipped with a water jet system
in addition to sand pans to keep sand cleaned from the
vessel. Typical sand pans with a water jet system are il-
lustrated in Fig. 19.37.
In vertical vessels, the sand pan may be a flanged and
dished head approximately one-third the diameter of the
vessel in which it is concentrically located. The sand pan
is usually serrated around the periphery where it is welded
to the bottom head of the vertical vessel concentric with
the water outlet.
Water jets usually are designed to flow approximately
3.0 galimin of water through each jet with a differential
pressure of 30 psi. Standard jets are available for this serv-
ice that have a 60” flat fan jet pattern. The jets are usually
spaced on 12- or 16-in. centers. The water jet header is
U-shaped so that the vessel is cleaned on both sides of
the sand pan simultaneously. The water jets can be pro-
grammed for all the jets to flow at the same time, or they
can be controlled by operation of the water jets and the
sand dump valves in sequential cycles.
One problem in removing sand from vessels is that very
few, if any, water-discharge control valves can withstand
the abuse of sand-cutting during the water-discharge peri-
od for the long term. The partial answer to this problem
is to arrange the instrumentation to open and close the
water-discharge control valve on clean sand-free water
and to use special slurry-type valves.
The most sophisticated sand-removal systems use
programmable logic controllers. This solves the problem
of selection of the proper time intervals between dumps
19-30
Fig. 19.37-Sand pans and water jet system in a horizontal vessel.
and automatically controls the length of the water/sand
discharge. The timing must be coordinated with the water
jet system and the normal water-dump controller. A prop-
erly designed sand-removal system with proper water jet-
ting and water/sand dumping can operate for many years
without the need for a shutdown to clean out the sand or
to repair or replace the dump valve.
Most emulsion-treating systems that handle large
volumes of sand should not rely on hand or non-
programmed operation for removal of the sand. If the
operator fails to activate the dump valve often enough,
the sand will cover the sand pans and plug or partially
plug the water outlet, and the drains will become inoper-
ative. With sand pans in the treater but without a program-
mer, large volumes of sand will usually cause trouble by
plugging or partially plugging the water outlets and/or by
cutting or wearing the drain valve.
Because both the amount and type of sand vary greatly,
the length and frequency of the water-jetting and dump-
ing cycles must vary to suit local conditions. Most of the
coarser sand will settle out in the inlet end of the treater;
the fine sand will settle out near the outlet end of the treat-
er. It may be necessary to cycle the water jets and drain
valves near the inlet end of the treater three to four times
more frequently than those near the outlet end of the unit.
Many timers are set for 30 minutes between jetting and
dumping cycles and for 20- to 60-second jetting and dump-
ing periods.
Interfacial Buildup
Interfacial buildup, sometimes referred to as sludge, is
material that may collect at or near the oil/water inter-
face of emulsion-treating tanks and vessels. Interfacial
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
buildup may contain paraffin, asphaltenes, bitumen,
water, sand, silt, salt, carbonates, oxides, sulfides, and
other impurities mixed with the emulsion. It can be rem
moved from the vessel through a drain installed at the in-
terface. The most common procedure, however, is to
close the water dump valve and float it out to a bad-oil
tank for further processing or disposal. Interfacial build-
up can also be discharged with the water by opening the
water-drain valve.
Corrosion
Emulsion-treating equipment that handles corrosive fluids
should periodically be inspected internally to determine
whether remedial work is required. Extreme cases of cor-
rosion may require a reduction in the working pressure
of the vessel or repair or replacement of vessel and pip-
ing. Periodic ultrasonic tests can measure the wall thick-
ness of vessels and piping to detect the existence and extent
of corrosion.
Corrosion of emulsion-treating equipment is usually
mitigated or controlled by a combination of the following.
Exclusion of Oxygen. Corrosion rates in most oilfield
applications can be kept low if O2 is excluded from the
system. Care must be taken in the process design to in-
stall and maintain gas blankets on all tanks in the process
and to exclude rainwater from the system. Recycled water
from sump systems and storage tanks is a prime source
for 02 entry into the process.
Corrosion Inhibitors. An inhibitor is a material that,
when added in small amounts to an environment poten-
tially corrosive to a metal or alloy, effectively reduces
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
the corrosion rate by diminishing the tendency of the metal
or alloy to react with the solution. Inhibitors, in the form
of liquid solutions or compounds, can be injected into the
flow stream in the flowline, manifold. or production sys-
tern to inhibit corrosion that would occur otherwise.
Cathodic Protection. Sacrificial galvanic anodes are com-
monly used for cathodic protection. They are made of a
metal that will provide sacrificial protection to the steel
vessel because of its relative position in the galvanic ser-
ies. Most galvanic anodes used in emulsion treaters are
about 3 to 6 in. in diameter and about 3 to 4 ft long. Mul-
tiple anodes usually are installed in each vessel. The
anodes usually are sized to last from 10 to 20 years. They
are considered expendable and are always installed in the
vessel through a flange or quick coupling so that they can
be easily replaced when expended.
The galvanic anodes must be installed so that they are
immersed in the water, which serves as an electrolyte.
They will not protect the treater if they are immersed in
the oil. The anodes must “see” all metal surfaces that
are to be protected-i.e., there must be no obstructions
between the anodes and the surface they are to protect.
Each anode should be located as near the center of the
compartment or area they are to protect as practical.
An impressed electric-current cathodic protection sys-
tern can also be used to inhibit corrosion. It is a direct
electric current supplied by a device using a power source
external to the electrode system. The DC current can be
obtained by rectifying AC current. When resistivity ol
the electrolyte ranges from 25 to 300 Q.crn and above.
consideration should be given to the use of an impressed
current system. Impressed current systems are difficult
and costly to maintain. however. and usually require
skilled technicians.
Electrical current density requirements for cathodic pro-
tection of emulsion-treating vessels usually range from
5 to 40 mA/sq ft of bare water-immersed steel.
Internal Coating. Emulsion-treating vessels can be coated
internally for protection from corrosion. It is important
that the internal surfaces and the welds of the vessels be
properly prepared to receive the coating. A coating system
must be selected that will withstand the physical and chem-
ical environment to which it will be exposed. Coating
specifications. application techniques. and final inspcc-
tion are very important considerations. Most coating sys-
tems will contain some holidays (breaks in the coating)
or may be damaged in shipping or installation. Therefore.
coating alone should not be relied on to prevent corrosion.
Steel tanks can be galvanized or lined in the field with
fiberglass or other coatings. Some operators use fiber-
glass tanks in their emulsion-treating process, while others
feel that this represents an unnecessary fire hazard.
Special Metallurgy. In particularly severe environments,
such as where large quantities of CO: are cxpccted and
where O1 cannot be practically eliminated from the sys-
tem. it is possible to minimize corrosion by using stain-
less steel vessels or an internal stainless cladding in carbon
steel vessels. In most low-pressure applications, stainless
vessels are less expensive than clad vessels. It may also
bc cheaper to use a stainless vessel than one that is inter-
nally coated because of the labor required to prepare and
to coat the internal surfaces of the vessel.
19-31
Level Controllers and Gauges
A wide selection of liquid-level controllers is available
for liquid/gas control and for oil/water interface control
in light crude oil (above 20”APl) systems. For interfa-
cial controllers in light crude oils. floats that sink in the
oil but float in the Later normally are used.
For heavy crude oils, electronic interface controIIers
have been very successful. These operate on the princi-
plc of the differences between oil and water electrical con-
ductivity, electrical capacitance, or radio frequency. The
most common type is called “capacitance probes”; they
USC the dielectric strength of the fluid in which they arc
immersed.
Standard gauge glasses (reflex or transparent) are used
on 20”API crude oil and higher. Reflex gauges normally
are used on liquid/g% levels and transparent gauges for
oil/water levels. Armored gauge glasses normally are used
on pressure vcsscls and tubular gauge glasses on tanks.
Some operators use the tubular gauge glasses on low
pressure treating equipment. Tubular gauge glasses nor
mally are furnished on standard low-pressure vessels un-
less armored gauges are specified.
For API gravities below 20”APl, gauge glasses are not
recommended. particularly for interfacial service. because
they are difficult or impossible to read. In lieu of gauge
glasses. a system of sample valves is used with the sam-
ple lines all piped to a single point just above a sample
box. Generally, the lines are insulated to keep them warm.
A nameplate is clamped on each sample valve to dcsig-
nate the elevation it represents in the treater. The sample
box is fitted with a drain line piped to the sump.
Water-in-Oil Detectors (BS&W Monitors)
Several companies manufacture devices for detecting and
measuring the water content of crude oil. They are com-
monly called BS&W monitors. BS&W monitors are typi-
cally analog instruments that measure dielectric strength
and are specifically designed for determination of the
water content of crude oil containing a low percent of
water. They do not operate satisfactorily on streams con-
taining free water. The unit provides a water reading car
responding to the water content of the oil. It can be made
to alarm, record. and control if the detected percentage
exceeds the field-selectable preset limit of BS&W content.
Special Safety Features for Electrostatic Treaters
Because of the high voltage and the associated potential
hazard to personnel that can result from entering a drained
vessel with the grids activated, electrostatic treaters re-
quire a positive shutdown switch for the high-voltage
transformer. This disconnects the transformer if the fluid
lcvcl falls below a predetermined level in the treating ves-
sel. Some manufacturers install an internal grounding
device inside the treater that grounds the hot grid if fluid
is not present.
Changing Excelsior Packs
Excelsior used in treating emulsions may have a service-
able lift ranging from just a few days to several years.
The best grade excelsior should be used because cost of
the excelsior is small compared to the expense of removing
and replacing it. In some fields. the excelsior must be
chopped into blocks with an ax and removed in chunks.
19-32
Serviceable life of the excelsior may be extended by
periodically washing it with hot water. The water level
can be allowed to build up above the top of the excelsior
pack and the water heated to about 2 10°F. The tempera-
ture should be kept this high for about I hour. The water
should be drained quickly from the vessel while it is hot.
The hot water may carry most of the foreign material with
it. If the application of heat only partially cleans the ex-
celsior, a second heating may clean it further. Care should
be taken to use water that will not deposit solids in the
treater while it is being heated.
Economics of Treating
Crude Oil Emulsions
The object of operating oil-producing properties is to
deliver consistently the maximum volume of highest-API-
gravity oil to the pipeline at the lowest possible cost.
Emulsions should be prevented wherever feasible and
treated at the lowest cost where they cannot be prevented.
Implementation of the following directives can minimize
the occurrence of emulsions and the costs of treating.
1. Eliminate production of water with oil where possi-
ble and practical.
2. Minimize the investment in emulsion-treating equip-
ment by studying the treating problem and the selection
and use of appropriate treating methods, equipment, and
procedures. The emulsion treating system should be as
small as possible, yet capable of adequately handling treat-
ing requirements on the lease. Treating systems may be
initially oversized to allow for future development. lease
expansion, or increased water production. Such antici-
pation of future needs should be considered when treating
equipment is purchased; however, needlessly oversized
systems involve unnecessary expense and accomplish
nothing that properly sized systems will not accomplish.
3. Minimize the loss of oil with water and salvage oil
from interfacial sludge and tank bottoms where feasible.
Oil may be discharged with the water as it flows from
FWKO’s, emulsion treaters, gunbarrels, or other treat-
ing vessels. The fraction of oil is low and the oil is usually
dispersed in small droplets. Sometimes this oil is pumped
along with the water to disposal wells or delivered to oper-
ators of water disposal companies without recovery or
without credit being received by the lease. This oil loss
can be minimized by maintaining proper operating vari-
ables with adequately sized and maintained vessels and
controls and by properly designed water treating systems.
4. Minimize chemical treating costs by use of the most
appropriate chemical demulsifier compound(s), the opti-
mum quantity of chemical, the proper location and method
of injection of chemical, the proper means of intimately
mixing chemical with emulsion, and the proper use of
heat. Treating chemicals are not recoverable and consti-
tute a continuing expense. Some crude oil can be adequate-
ly treated by chemical injection used in conjunction with
coalescing and/or settling without heat. However, some
emulsions require an increased temperature during the
coalescing and settling period. A proper balance of chem-
ical and heat aids in providing the most economical and
efficient treating system. The chemicals must be intimately
mixed with emulsion so that a minimum amount of chem-
ical will provide maximum benefit. Chemicals may be
wasted by being injected into the oil in large slugs and
not intimately mixed with the emulsions.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
5. Ensure that chemicals added to the produced fluids
are compatible. Some corrosion inhibitors can cause emul-
sions or affect the action of oil-treating chemicals. Chem-
icals used in produced-water-treating systems may be
recycled to the oil-treating system with the skimmed oil
and cause emulsion-treating problems.
6. Conserve gravity and volume of oil by using opti-
mum treating temperature, cooling oil before discharging
to storage, discharging vent gases from treating vessels
through cooler oil in stock tanks. maintaining slight gas
pressure on treating system and storage tanks, and using
vapor recovery equipment on vessels and tanks. Crude
oil emulsions should be resolved at the lowest effective
temperature. Excessive heat drives condensible vapors
from the oil, and they are discharged with the gas. Loss
of these light ends lowers the API gravity of the oil and
simultaneously reduces the oil volume. A further disad-
vantage of overheating is the increased maintenance rc-
quired on treating systems caused by hot spots. salt
deposition, scaling, and increased rate of corrosion, es-
pecially of the fireboxes.
7. Use all treating equipment to the best advantage. By
careful observations, supervision, and record keeping,
emulsion-treating equipment can be used to maximum ef-
ficiency, Transfer of equipment and alterations or addi-
tions to the treating system may be made to use existing
equipment better. Constant testing and vigilance are re-
quired to obtain maximum results.
8. Practice preventive maintenance to minimize ir-
retrievable loss of oil production because of downtime for
equipment repairs. The more complex the treating system,
the greater will be the possibility of mechanical failure.
Oversized and overly complex systems have a greater
failure frequency than more appropriately designed, sim-
pler, and more compact systems.
9. Exchange information on treating methods and re-
sults among company personnel, with other operators,
engineering firms, vendors, and chemical-treating com-
panies. Experience can be gained and shared by person-
nel responsible for handling treating problems, which will
result in lower treating costs.
Cost records are important in oil emulsion-treating op-
erations. To achieve optimum operation of emulsion-
treating equipment at minimum cost, proper records must
be kept of operating temperatures, pressures, fuel and/or
power consumption, chemical usage, performance, etc.
Such records should be kept on a daily, weekly, or month-
ly basis, reviewed regularly, and kept available for su-
pervisory personnel.
Cost records make it possible to predict whether an ex-
isting system should be modified or replaced. Justifica-
tion for modifying or replacing an existing system will
depend on the efficiency of the system, and this can be
determined best from accurate and reliable cost and per-
formance records. Cost records on existing methods or
systems will assist in determining the type, kind, and size
of treating systems for new leases. Treating cost records
should make it possible to determine current operating
costs, probable installation costs for new systems, and
probable future operating costs of similar systems.
Each operator should determine what is to be charged
to emulsion-treating costs. Listed in Table 19.2 is an out-
line of items that may be considered part of the data base
for a cost-accounting system. Some of these items will
CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS 19-33

not be applicable to all treating systems, and some oper- TABLE 19.2-COSTS OF EMULSION TREATING
ators may elect to group some of the categories. A com-
Equipment Investment Costs
prehensive general listing is presented for those who wish
to consider all items of cost. Special systems and condi- Material
Treating equipment and facilities
tions may require additional cost items.
Auxiliary equipment, controls, and accessories
It is necessary to consider all factors listed in Table 19.2
Labor to install equipment
if complete and accurate treating cost records are to be
Company labor
compiled. This information should be obtained and Contract labor
recorded on a continuous daily, weekly, or monthly basis, Other expenses
and it must be accurate and concise if cost records are Surface rights
to be of maximum value. Special services
Investment costs must include the initial cost of all Other
equipment used, including the cost of transporting it to Operatmg Costs
the location, of erecting and installing the equipment, and Material
of readying the system for operation. Such items as pipe Chemicals
and pipe fittings, valves, grade work, foundations, and Chemical injection equipment
Diluents and solvents
fencing should be included.
Testing apparatus
The labor cost should include supervisory personnel, Depreciation allowances
cost of company gang and contract gang, and other labor Other
required to obtain, install, and put the treating system into Labor
operation. Operating cost should be kept separate from Supervisory
maintenance cost and should include such items as super- Operator or pumper
Steaming or cleaning crew
visory labor, operating labor, chemicals, fuel, and mis-
Gang
cellaneous supplies. Maintenance cost should include cost Contract
of maintaining and repairing all treating equipment. This Other
should include such items as cleaning. repairing, painting, Other expenses
and other similar items. Equipment rental
The Overall System Performance section should include Fuel (gas or liquid)
Electric current
an accurate record of the volume of oil treated and the
Transportation
volume of water separated, treated, and handled. This part Laboratory expenses
of the record should also include reference to troubles ex- Other
perienced with the system and a commentary on day-to- Maintenance Costs
day performance of the unit or system.
Material
Maintenance
Key Equations in Metric Units Replacements and additions
Repalrs
Labor
Q=53.09aT(0.5y,,y,,+y,,.y,,.), . . (2) Supervisory
Pumper or operator
where Mechanic
Q is in watts. Painting
Gang
ilT is in Kelvin.
Contract
y,, is in m’ld. Other
y,, is dimensionless, Other Expenses
(I,,. is in m j/d. and Equipment rental
yII. is dimensionless. Transportation
Other
Overall System Performance
5.43x 10 -‘o(Ay(,\,)d2
,‘Z . (3) Volume of oil treated
CL
il Water content of treated oil
Volume of water produced
Volume of water treated
where Volume of oil salvaged from water treatment
1’ is in m/s. Remarks or observations
AY l,il is dimensionless.
d is in pm. and
p,, is in Pa.s.

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19-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

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