Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2004) 66: 1–9
DOI 10.1007/s00253-004-1714-3
MINI-REVIEW
Johann Plank
Applications of biopolymers and other biotechnological products
in building materials
Received: 28 May 2004 / Revised: 8 July 2004 / Accepted: 9 July 2004 / Published online: 1 October 2004
# Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract Bio admixtures are functional molecules used in
building products to optimize material properties. They
include natural or modified biopolymers, biotechnological
and biodegradable products. Concrete and dry-mix
mortars (e.g. wall plasters or tile adhesives) represent
two major applications for bio admixtures. Examples of
bio products used in concrete are lignosulfonate, sodium
gluconate, pine root extract, protein hydrolysates and
Welan gum; and in dry-mix mortar methyl hydroxypropyl
cellulose, hydroxypropyl starch, guar gum, tartaric acid,
casein, succinoglycan and Xanthan gum. In a number of
applications, bio admixtures compete well with synthetic
admixtures. Sometimes, they are indispensable in the
formulation of certain building products. Their market
share is expected to increase because of technological
advances, particularly in the field of microbial biopoly-
mers, and because of the growing trend to use naturally
based or biodegradable products in building materials.
Introduction
The benefit from using admixtures in building materials to
improve their properties was discovered in ancient times.
As early as 3000 B.C., the Sumerians used bitumen as an
organic binder and water-repellent in mixtures with clay
and straw. Being magnificent architects, the Romans
required highly advanced building materials and invented
the use of particular chemicals obtained from natural
sources. For example, in his famous encyclopedia “De
architectura libri decem”, Vitruvius (84–10 B.C.) de-
scribed the use of biopolymers such as proteins for set
retardation of gypsum and dried blood for air-entrainment
J. Plank (*)
Chair for Construction Chemicals, Institute for Inorganic
Chemistry, Technische Universität München,
Lichtenbergstr. 4,
85747 Garching, Germany
e-mail: johann.plank@bauchemie-tum.de
Tel.: +49-89-28913150
Fax: +49-89-28913152
(Vitruvius Pollio 2001). Today, admixtures providing
additional properties such as plastification, water retention,
adhesion, shrinkage reduction etc. are available to the
building materials industry.
In 2000, the global market volume for chemical
admixtures in building materials was estimated at
approximately U.S. $ 15×109 (Becker, personal commu-
nication). Of this, roughly U.S. $ 2×109 were for bio
admixtures (Plank 2003). Their relative market share in
comparison with synthetic chemicals has increased over
the past 10 years. With environmental awareness for
constituents in building materials generally growing, the
trend towards bio admixtures is expected to continue.
The term “bio admixture” as used in this review
comprises biopolymers and products produced by bio-
technological processes. Admixtures produced in biotech-
nological processes are meant to be products made in
fermentation processes by employing bacteria or fungi.
Synthetic admixtures with significant biodegradability,
such as polyaspartic acid, are also perceived as bio
admixtures by the industry and are therefore included. Bio
admixtures might be small molecules, such as tartaric acid
or sodium gluconate, or macromolecular compounds, such
as lignosulfonate, cellulose ether or Xanthan gum. Some-
times they are native products isolated from natural
sources and used as is (“natural products”), or they are
chemically modified by derivation from natural products,
e.g. to introduce specific chemical groups into the
molecule, or they are processed, for example, to adjust
the molecular weight for optimized performance.
Product overview
A great diversity of bio admixtures with well over 500
different products is used by the building materials
industry. Table 1 gives an overview of products with
either significant market volume or major technological
impact. Among them are products obtained from plants
(e.g. starch), animal sources (e.g. casein), soil (e.g. humic
 2
Table 1 Major bio admixtures used in building materials
Admixture Product category Source Function Major application (s) Relative cost (%)

L(+)-Tartaric acid Natural product Wine Set retarder Gypsum plaster 100
Sodium gluconate Biotechnological product Fungus Retarder/plasticizer Concrete 35
Lignosulfonate Derivation product Wood lignin Dispersant/thinner Concrete, plasterboards, oil well construction 15–65
Starch (ether) Natural and derivation product Corn, potato Viscosifier Grouts, plasters, oil well construction 20–50
Cellulose (ether) Derivation product Cotton, wood Water retention Grouts, plasters, oil well construction 200
Guar gum (ether) Natural and derivation product Guar plant Viscosifier Plaster, oil well construction 15–120
Vegetable oils (esters) Natural and derivation product Plants Carrier fluid Oil well construction; concrete 25–50
Waxes Natural product Plants, insects Coating Paints and coatings 60
Casein Natural product Milk Dispersant/binder Grouts, paints 100
Protein extract Natural product Animal hair, hides, hoofs Air-entraining agent Concrete, mortar 30
Humic acid Natural product Soil Water retention Oil well construction 10–35
Lignite Natural product Coal Dispersant/thinner Oil well construction 7
Bitumen Natural product Coal, petroleum Coating Road construction 5–10
Asphalt Natural product Petroleum Coating Road construction; oil well construction 5–15
Xanthan gum Biotechnological product Bacterium Viscosifier Oil well construction, floor screeds, paints 200
Welan gum Biotechnological product Bacterium Viscosifier Oil well construction, floor screeds, paints 600
Scleroglucan Biotechnological product Fungus Viscosifier Oil well construction 350
Succinoglycan Biotechnological product Bacterium Viscosifier Self-leveling compounds 500
Curdlan Biotechnological product Bacterium Viscosifier Concrete 350
Rhamsan Biotechnological product Bacterium Viscosifier Grouts 550
Polyaspartic acid Biodegradable product Synthetic Dispersant Gypsum retarder 30–65
Chitosan Biodegradable product Insect chitin Viscosifier Oil well construction 350
 3

acid) or industrial biotechnological processes (e.g. Welan

gum).
Prices for different admixtures can vary significantly.
Among other factors, they depend on raw material,
process and equipment costs. Mined, untreated lignite,
for example, is a rather inexpensive product, while
cellulose ethers (which require costly equipment for the
derivation process) are expensive admixtures. Biopoly-
mers produced in fermentation processes yielding a broth
of low gum concentration are the among most expensive
bio admixtures currently in use. The fact that such costly
biopolymers are being used indicates that their contribu-
tion to the material properties must be extremely high, if
not indispensable. Table 1 provides relative price indica-
tions for various bio admixtures at the manufacturer’s
level.

Applications in building materials

Of all building materials, concrete and dry-mix mortars

consume by far the major portion of bio admixtures. These
applications are discussed in more detail in the following.
Other segments of the building materials market include
interior and exterior paints and coatings, gypsum wall
boards, joint fillers and grouts, and oil and gas well
construction. These are described briefly at the end of the
review. There are, of course, many more applications, for
example in organic adhesives, sealants, foams, varnishes,
asphalt compounds etc. They were excluded from this
review because they represent core applications for
synthetic admixtures and little, if any bio admixture is
used. Chemical structures of major bio admixtures
referenced in this review are presented in Fig. 1. A
comprehensive overview of bio admixture use in the
construction industry is provided by Plank and Winter
(2003).
As can be seen, dosage levels for bio admixtures vary
significantly, depending on application, desired material Fig. 1 Chemical structures of major bio admixtures used in building
property and chemistry of admixture. Typically, expensive materials
microbial biopolymers such as Welan gum or scleroglucan
are added at 0.002–0.1 wt%, based on the total formula-
tion of the building material, whereas less expensive synthetic admixtures. Types and volumes of major bio and
additives such as lignosulfonate are used at 0.1–0.4 wt%. synthetic admixtures used in concrete are given in Table 2.
Nevertheless, some expensive products (e.g. cellulose Reviews of concrete admixtures are provided by Rama-
ethers) are used at significant dosage levels of 0.2–0.7 chandran (1995), Rixom and Mailvaganam (1999) and
wt%. Ramachandran et al. (1998).

Concrete Lignosulfonates

Concrete is the most widely used of all man-made building
materials. An excellent overview of the state of art of
concrete technology is provided by Kerkhoff et al. (2002).
With approximately 5×109 t produced in 2000, it
constitutes a huge market for chemical admixtures. At
present, about 15% of the total concrete volume contains
admixtures. Bio admixtures play a very significant role in
concrete technology. By volume, they are as important as
By volume, the largest admixture used in the construction
industry is lignosulfonate. It is a very common plasticizer
which improves the flowability and workability of
concrete. The source is lignin, a natural biopolymer
contained in wood at 20–30 wt%. Native lignin is water-
insoluble. It is recovered from wood by treatment with
alkaline calcium sulfite, producing a “spent sulfite liquor”
containing water-soluble lignosulfonate with a low degree
4
Table 2 Bio and synthetic admixtures used in concrete. BNS β-
Naphthalene sulfonic acid formaldehyde, PMS polymelamine
formaldehyde sulfite
Product type Admixture Annual
category consumption
(metric tonnes)
Lignosulfonate Bio 700,000
Polycondensate resins (BNS, PMS) Synthetic 550,000
Polycarboxlates Synthetic 150,000
Sodium gluconate Synthetic 50,000
Protein hydrolysate Bio 20,000
Welan gum Bio 200
of sulfonation, sugars and other by-products (Lin and
Lebo 1995). To optimize its plasticizing effect, raw
lignosulfonate is further derivatized (Darley and Gray
1988). Sulfomethylation with sodium sulfite and formal-
dehyde is the most common process. It yields a sodium or
calcium lignosulfonate with a degree of sulfonation
between 0.5 and 0.6.
Lignosulfonate can be used in concrete for two different
purposes: plastification of stiff concrete to enhance its
flowability, pourability and workability, or water-reduc-
tion, which results in a concrete with good workability but
a lower water/cement ratio and corresponding higher
compressive strength. By far, ready-mix concrete repre-
sents the largest application for lignosulfonates. Their
plasticizing effect is used to produce concrete with an
improved pourability at the job-site. In pre-cast concrete,
lignosulfonates are used to obtain high-strength concrete.
Typical dosages of lignosulfonates in concrete are 0.1–
0.3% by weight of cement (Plank and Winter 2003).
The plasticizing and water-reducing effects of lignosul-
fonate are limited. For concrete with superior fluidity or
more dramatic water-reduction, so-called superplasticizers
based on polycondensate or polycarboxylate chemistry are
used. Examples of polycondensates are polymelamine
formaldehyde sulfite (PMS) or β-naphthalene sulfonic
acid formaldehyde (BNS) condensates with molecular
weights below 10,000 Da (Spiratos et al. 2003). The most
common type of polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer is
a methacrylic acid–methacrylate ω-methoxypolyethylen-
glycol ester copolymer (Shonaka et al. 1997). These
synthetic superplasticizers allow a water-reduction of up to
40%, whereas common lignosulfonate reduces the water
content only up to 15%. Lignosulfonate is mainly used
because of its cost-competitiveness. For stronger effects,
blends of lignosulfonates with synthetic superplasticizers
or pure superplasticizers are used.
Sodium gluconate
α-Hydroxycarboxylic acids are very strong set-retarders
for cement (Singh 1976). Sodium gluconate and δ-gluco-
heptonate are the most widely used cement set-retarders
based on this chemistry. Their starting material is D-
gluconic acid which is produced in 95% yield by
submerged microbial oxidation from glucose syrup using
Aspergillus niger (Singh et al. 2003).
The main application of sodium gluconate is ready-mix
concrete. It is used to delay early hydration of cement
which causes stiffening and loss of workability approxi-
mately 30 min after mixing the concrete. A sodium
gluconate dosage of 0.05–0.2% by weight of cement
prevents workability loss in the first 1–2 h. The effect
depends on cement content and concrete temperature. As a
result, the gluconate-treated concrete still is very fluid
when poured at the job-site. The advantages of gluconate
over its main competitor, tetra-potassium pyrophosphate
(K4P2O7), are a secondary plasticizing effect which
economizes plasticizer dosage and its compatibility with
calcium lignosulfonate. A very common, widely used
retarding and water-reducing liquid admixture for concrete
consists of 30% of calcium lignosulfonate, 5% β-
naphthalene sulfonic acid formaldehyde condensate, 5%
sodium gluconate, 2% caustic soda and 1% tributyl
phosphate defoamer (Reul 1991).
The disadvantage of sodium gluconate is its effect on
the early strength of concrete. Like most common
retarders, it reduces strength development up to 7 days.
Improved superplasticizers based on polycarboxylate
chemistry provide 2 h of workability without significant
retardation of early strength. Nevertheless, there are still
many applications where early strength development is not
so critical and sodium gluconate, because of its superior
economics, is used.
Pine root extracts
Root resin extracts, particularly from the roots of conifer
trees, have found a significant application as air-entraining
agents. They allow production of a freeze–thaw resistant
concrete (Plank and Winter 2003). Studies have shown
that freeze–thaw resistant concrete is obtained by disrup-
tion of the capillary pore system in concrete. The
introduction of micro air bubbles with diameters of 10–
300 μm distributed homogeneously in concrete at a
distance of less than 0.2 mm were found to work best. Air-
entrained concrete of this quality can withstand several
thousand cycles of freeze–thaw change without destruc-
tion, whereas untreated concrete cracks after only a few
hundred cycles (Kerkhoff et al. 2002).
Extracts produced from pine wood hair roots are among
the most effective and widely used air-entraining agents.
Their main ingredient is abietic acid. Root resin extracts
are often superior over synthetic surfactants such as
sodium tetradecyl sulfate because they provide air bubbles
in exactly the desired size range.
Protein hydrolysates
Protein hydrolysates are extracts obtained by cooking
animal blood, hair, hides or hoofs, particularly from cattle,

with sulfuric acid or, more recently, treating these animal
parts with enzymes. The resultant extract contains
degraded proteins, mainly oligo- and polypeptides, of
varied composition.
Protein hydrolysates lower the surface tension of water
significantly and are used to prepare foam concrete with a
specific density as low as 0.5 kg/dm3. This concrete is
used to fill ditches, to provide a base for roads on
unconsolidated soil and for prefabricated dividing walls in
homes.
Compared with synthetic surfactants such as alkyl
sulfonates, alkyl sulfates or betains, protein hydrolysates
stand out because they generate spherical foam bubbles,
whereas synthetic foamers typically generate hexagonal
bubbles. This difference is important because concrete
containing spherical bubbles has been shown to provide
20–30% higher compressive strength than concrete with
hexagonal bubbles. As a consequence, protein hydro-
lysates are preferred over synthetic foamers when it comes
to foam concrete with low specific weight and yet high
compressive strength (Plank 2003).
Welan gum
Welan gum is a microbial biopolymer produced from D-
glucose by bacteria from the Alcaligenes species in an
aerobic, submerged fermentation (Dimitru 1998). The
Welan gum repeat unit shows a single sugar side-chain
containing either L-rhamnose or L-mannose substituted on
C3 of every (1→4)-linked glucose unit.
In spite of its high unit cost, Welan gum finds a
significant application in concrete as a stabilizer (Hibino
2000). Highly fluid concrete, such as self-compacting
concrete, has a tendency to disintegrate, indicated by the
formation of a water layer at the surface, or by the settling
of large aggregates. Various viscosifiers have been
experimented with to prevent this effect. Welan gum, at
0.01–0.1% by weight of cement, has been shown to
stabilize concrete and prevent these negative effects. Its
main advantage is stabilization without destroying the
fluidity of the concrete. This effect is attributed to the
shear-thinning type of rheology typically observed for
aqueous Welan gum solutions. It provides a high yield
point which prevents sag of solid particles, but does not
increase plastic viscosity to an extent where concrete
flowability is reduced (Khayat and Yahia 1997).
Dry-mix mortar
Dry-mix mortars have become a major building product
used for a great variety of applications. These mortars
consist of a dry blend of binder, aggregate or filler and
chemical admixtures (Bayer and Lutz 2003). Typically,
they are delivered in bulk (e.g. in a silo) to the construction
site. By connecting a water hose and mixing pump to the
silo outlet, a homogeneous grout is obtained which is
pumped to the location where it is applied. Compared with
5
conventional on-site mixing of the mortar, this technology
can save considerable labour. The most common dry-mix
mortar products are:
1. Wall plasters
2. Tile adhesives
3. Self-levelling underlayers
Only the advance of admixture chemistry has made dry-
mix mortars possible and competitive. This technology
started in the 1970s and has been perfected to a very high
standard. Today, a great diversity of bio admixtures is
consumed by this industry. Among them are quite
expensive microbial biopolymers (see Table 3). The
following describes the major biopolymers and biotech-
nological products used in this field.
Wall plasters
Gypsum-based plasters are used for interior walls, whereas
plasters for exterior walls are based on cement or cement/
lime. Typically, they are machine-sprayed on the wall and
then smoothed to achieve the desired surface texture.
Typical compositions of cement-, cement/lime- and gyp-
sum-based plasters are given in Table 4 (Clariant 1998).
Wall plasters require a water-retention agent to prevent
the loss of water into the wall, which typically consists of
brick, light-weight concrete or porous concrete. Capillary
forces suck water from the plaster, thus dehydrating it. The
plaster cannot develop its full strength and will show
cracks or spall off.
Cellulose ethers are the dominant water-retention agent
used in plasters. Methyl cellulose or, more often, methyl
hydroxypropyl cellulose is added at 0.05–0.3% by weight
of the total blend. It is manufactured by alkoxylation of
alkaline cellulose linters of certain molecular weight and
subsequent derivation with methyl chloride (Dönges
1990). The dry powder is ground to <200 μm particle
size to achieve dissolution in water within 10–15 s. Slower
solvation is unacceptable because of the fast mixing
process in a machine-applied plaster. Typical degrees of
substitution (DS) range over 1.4–2.0 for methylation and
0.1–0.7 for propoxylation. It is well established that higher
viscosity ethers provide better water retention. Therefore,
typical grades show a Brookfield viscosity of 15,000–
60,000 mPa s−1 in 2% aqueous solution. Higher viscosity
products may cause excessive viscosity and poor work-
Table 3 Bio admixtures used in dry-mix mortars
Product Annual consumption (metric tonnes)
Cellulose ethers 100,000
Starch and derivatives 30,000
L (+)-Tartaric acid 10,000
Casein 5,000
Xanthan gum 250
Welan gum 100
Succinoglycan 50
6
Table 4 Composition of com- Component (wt%) Type of wall plaster
mon wall plasters. HP Hy-
droxypropyl, MC methyl cellu- Cement-based (%) Cement/lime-based (%) Gypsum-based (%)
lose
Portland cement 15–20 10–15 –
Multiphase gypsum – – 85–98
Lime 0–2 5–10 0–3
CaCO3 or quartz <1 mm 65–78 65–75 0–10
CaCO3 powder <0.1 mm 5–10 5–10 –
Perlite <1 mm 0–2 0–2 0–1
Water-retention agent (e.g. MC) 0.08–0.15 0.10–0.15 0.18–0.23
Adhesion agent (e.g. HP starch) 0–0.03 0–0.03 0–0.05
Foamer (e.g. laurylsulfonate) 0.01–0.03 0.01–0.03 0.01–0.03
Gypsum retarder (e.g. tartaric acid) – – 0.05–0.15

ability of the plaster, whereas lower viscosity grades workability is so important that the disadvantage of up to
require higher dosages to achieve acceptable water 50% lower compressive strength typically occurring with
retention (Clariant 1998). tartrate is tolerated. The working mechanism of tartaric
Other benefits from cellulose ethers include anti-sag, and citric acid in gypsum retardation was investigated by
adhesiveness to the wall and air-entrainment into the Hill and Plank (2004) and Hummel et al. (2003).
plaster, which increases its yield and reduces cost. Many
cellulose products are blended with up to 10% of synthetic
polymers, such as polyacrylamide, polyethylene oxide or Tile adhesives
polyvinylalcohol, to perfect their properties. The industry
offers custom-made blends tailored to specific binders for Cement-based grouts, commonly about 5 mm thick, are
major users. used to glue ceramic tiles onto walls or place them on the
Hydroxypropyl guar of high DS (1.5–2.0) was recently floor (Bayer and Lutz 2003). They must be viscous
introduced as a novel water-retention agent for plasters enough to prevent tile sag. Tile adhesives are a huge
(Molteni et al. 1998). Good field results were achieved in market in countries where ceramic tiles are popular.
gypsum plasters (Lamberti 2002). Germany alone, for example, produces in excess of 1×106
Hydroxypropyl starch of low DS (<0.5) is used at t of tile adhesives per year.
0.05% to provide instant viscosity for adhesion of the Like plasters, tile adhesives require water-retention
plaster to the wall. This effect is achieved through a agents to prevent loss of water into the porous wall or
synergism with cellulose ethers. Hydroxypropyl starch ground. Again, cellulose ethers as described above are
prevents the plaster from sagging once it has been sprayed used for this purpose. Likewise, hydroxypropyl starch is
on and reduces stickiness to the trowel (Aqualon 1996). added to provide so-called green-strength and anti-sag
Gypsum-based plasters typically consist of a blend of properties. Typically, tile adhesives require somewhat
β-hemihydrate gypsum (CaSO4·0.5H2O) and several higher dosages of both cellulose and starch ethers than
forms of anhydrite as a binder. This blend is called plasters. Table 5 provides common formulations of tile
“multiphase gypsum”. Pure β-hemihydrate will hydrate adhesives.
and stiffen within a few minutes and therefore requires a
retarder to provide enough workability.
Tartaric acid or its potassium salt, K2C4O6H4, is by far
the most common retarder for gypsum plaster. The best
effect is obtained from natural tartaric acid [also termed L
(+)- or (2R, 3R)-tartaric acid] obtained in the wine
manufacturing process. Meso- or (2S, 3S)-tartaric acid or Table 5 Formulations for tile adhesives
their salts show much less retardation (Forg 1989). Component Percentage (w/w)
Tartaric acid develops its full retardation at pH>9,
which is why gypsum plasters typically contain up to 5% Standard adhesive Flexible adhesive
of lime or cement. There is one effect why tartaric acid Portland cement 35–50 30–45
stands out far above other α-hydroxy carboxylic acids, Quartz sand 0.1–0.5 mm 45–60 45–55
such as citric or malic acid: while it retards the initial set of Calcium carbonate <0.1 mm 5–10 5–10
the plaster only slightly and provides sufficient early Methyl cellulose 0.35–0.7 0.3–0.5
strength for the plaster to stick, it delays the final set very
HP starch 0–0.06 0–0.06
strongly, thus allowing the worker several hours to smooth
Cellulose fibres 0–0.5 0–0.5
the plaster. This specific property, unknown from other
Redisperible latex powder 0–2 4–7
retarders, has turned the gypsum plaster market almost
Calcium formate 0–1 0–1
exclusively to natural tartaric acid. The improvement in
 7

Self-levelling underlayers Other building materials and systems

Self-levelling underlayers (SLUs) are poured on uneven
grounds to provide an even surface for laying out carpets,
parquet or tiles. Their characteristic is self-flowing and
self-healing behaviour, i.e. they spread out evenly by
themselves. SLUs are either based on Portland cement or
CaSO4-α-hemihydrate. Sometimes, a rapid-setting, highly
reactive mixture of calcium alumina cement, Portland
cement and CaSO4-anhydride is used (Wöhrmeyer 2000).
This grout gives a workability time for placement of
approximately 1 h and can be walked on after only a few
hours. SLUs are often dry-mix blends. They are machine-
mixed on-site and therefore referred to as machinery
grouts. Special dispersants are required to achieve the
perfect fluidity and self-healing properties of a SLU (Plank
2003).
Casein, a biopolymer recovered from milk by acid
precipitation, is by far the most widely used dispersant in
SLUs (Kumosinski et al. 1996). It is used at concentrations
between 0.4% and 2.0% by weight of binder and provides
perfect self-levelling properties. The disadvantages of
casein as perceived by the industry are volatility in quality
and pricing, occasional development of ammonia or evil
smells and its fostering of moulds such as Aspergillus
niger.
Succinoglycan, a microbial biopolymer produced in a
fermentation process by organisms like Alcaligenes
faecalis, has made some inroads into the SLU market
(Charrin 1997). This β-(1→3)-linked D-glucan provides
the shear-thinning type of rheology which is necessary to
achieve self-levelling and self-healing. Like casein, it also
prevents the sag of fine aggregates in the grout. The major
draw-back for succinoglycan is high cost.
Very recently, new polycarboxylate-based superplasti-
cizers were introduced into SLU applications. They
provide excellent flowability (Strauβ 2001). A typical
polycarboxylate copolymer consists of maleic (polyethy-
lenglycol) ester, maleic anhydride and vinylethers. As they
do not impart a high yield-point into the grout, solids-
settling has been observed. Xanthan or Welan gum, both
microbial biopolymers, were found to prevent particle sag
at very low concentrations (0.01–0.05%; Skaggs 1997).
Many more building materials and systems using bio
admixtures exist for various applications in construction.
An overview of some of them is given in Table 6.
Plasterboards, made from CaSO4-β-hemihydrate, are
large, thin gypsum panels covered with cardboard
(Wirsching 1985). They are used as partitioning and
ceiling panels in interior home building. Heavy plaster-
boards with a density between 800 kg/m3 and 1,200 kg/m3
are used for sound-proofing or fire resistance. They require
a dispersant to fluidify the gypsum slurry. Ammonium
lignosulfonate, obtained from native wood lignin by
sulfomethylation, is most widely used. In Japan, novel
synthetic polycarboxylate-based dispersants have arrived
only recently as a competitor for lignosulfonate in this
application.
Joint fillers and jointing compounds are pre-mixed
materials used to fill voids, e.g. between plasterboards or
tiles. They can be based on gypsum or cement. Like
plasters and tile adhesives, they require water-retention
agents. Methyl hydroxypropyl cellulose is the most
common admixture used for this purpose.
Injection grouts are cement-based grouts of very fine
particle size. They are used to fill cracks in concrete, for
example, and need to be very fluid to achieve optimum
penetration into the crack. Because of the high fluidity,
solids-settling may occur. This is prevented by the addition
of Xanthan gum. The shear-thinning viscosity imparted by
Xanthan gum reduces sedimentation and bleeding of the
grout.
Paints and coatings are suspensions of pigments in an
aqueous or solvent-borne liquid containing the binder.
Binders are either inorganic (e.g. potassium silicate) or
organic (e.g. a styrene/butylacrylate dispersion; Freitag
and Stoye 1998; Distler 1999). Non-ionic cellulose ethers
are universal thickeners for paints and coatings used on
exterior and interior walls. Their function is to prevent
pigment-settling, to provide structural viscosity and water
retention to the paint and to enhance spreadability and
abrasion resistance. Medium viscosity methyl hydroxy-
ethyl cellulose and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) are used
in aqueous-based paints, whereas ethyl hydroxyethyl

Table 6 Other applications of Field of Product(s) Function Volume

bio admixtures in building ma-
terials application (metric
tonnes)

Plasterboards Ammonium lignosulfonate Dispersant 30,000

Joint fillers and Methyl hydroxypropyl cellulose Water retention 20,000
compounds
Injection grouts Xanthan gum Anti-sag 100
Paints and Methyl hydroxyethyl, hydroxyethyl, Viscosifier, water reten- 25,000
coatings ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose tion, spreadability
Oil well con- Lignosulfonates Thinner 50,000
struction Caustic lignite Thinner 5,000
Hydroxyethyl cellulose Water retention 3,000
Xanthan gum Viscosifier 9,000
8
cellulose is preferred for solvent-borne systems. Over
recent years, associative thickeners based on synthetic
acrylate chemistry have developed as an alternative to
cellulose ethers.
Oil and gas well construction is another large consumer
of bio admixtures. Water-based drilling fluids are
commonly based on bentonite and require carboxylated
starch or cellulose products for the prevention of water
loss into the porous formation. Sometimes, thinners such
as lignosulfonates or caustic lignite (solubilized brown
coal) are added (Darley and Gray 1988). Oil well cement
slurries are prepared with water-retention agents such as
HEC. Various lignosulfonates are used to retard well
cement at elevated temperature (Nelson 1990). Spacer
fluids are pumped in between the drilling fluid and the
well cement slurry to prevent cross-over contamination.
Appreciable volumes of Xanthan and Welan gum
viscosifiers are used in spacers (Carpenter et al. 1997).
At present, oil well construction represents a market with a
particularly strong demand for bio admixtures and biode-
gradable products, because the government authorities
which issue drilling permits for the oil companies mandate
such products to prevent marine pollution in offshore
operations. A clear trend exists to phase out persistent
synthetic admixtures wherever possible.
Outlook
Bio admixtures have gained a solid position in building
materials. Some of the products offer unique properties
unmatched by synthetic materials and have become
indispensable for this industry. With advanced building
materials such as dry-mix mortars spreading to countries
in Eastern Europe and China, this market will continue to
grow for existing products. Bio admixtures will participate
in this growth.
New technology will be needed to further perfect
existing systems. Emphasis will likely be on the improve-
ment of cost-effectiveness, reduction of labour time,
workability and, as of late, environmental properties
(e.g. volatile organic compound emissions, biodegrad-
ability). Existing bio products used in other industries will
be looked upon for use in building materials. Product
refinement and development of completely new technol-
ogy will occur. Two recent examples are: (1) the
introduction of Diutan, a novel biopolymer produced by
Sphingomonas bacteria which achieves ultra-high zero-
shear rate rheology in cement-based grouts and drilling
fluids (Navarrete et al. 2001) and (2) the use of
hydroxypropyl guar as a new class of water-retention
agents for dry-mix mortars (Lamberti 2002).
Natural or biotechnological products still offer potential
for more widespread use. Their natural, or “green”, origin
is perceived as a significant advantage over synthetics.
Inhabitants have become more sensitive and in some cases
have developed a “sick house syndrome” from toxic
emissions and leaching of building products. Conse-
quently, bio admixtures will be strongly considered by
them, even if their cost is higher. It is therefore safe to
assume that bio admixtures will continue to provide a
major contribution to the technology of building materials.
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