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GOTTLIEB, D a le V i c t o r , 1 943-
THE USE OF FORMAL SYSTEMS IN LOGIC AND
MATHEMATICS.
B r a n d e i s U n i v e r s i t y , P h . D . , 1970
P h ilo so p h y
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THE USE OF FORMAL SYSTEMS
A D issertatio n
P resen ted t o
The F a c u l t y o f t h e G r a d u a te S c h o o l o f A r t s and S c i e n c e s
B ra n d sis U n iv e rs ity
D e p a rtm e n t o f P h i lo s o p h y
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t
o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e D egree
D o c to r o f P h i l o s o p h y
By
D a le V i c t o r G o t t l i e b
J a n u a r y , 1970
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T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , d i r e c t e d a n d a p p ro v e d b y t h e c a n d i d a t e ’ s
C om m ittee, h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d and a p p ro v e d by t h e G r a d u a te
F a c u lty o f B ra n d e is U n i v e r s i ty i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
req u irem e n ts f o r th e d e g re e of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Dean, G r a d u a te S c h o o l o f A r t s
an d S c i e n c e s
JUN 7 1970"
D i s s e r t a t i o n Com m ittee
Chairma:
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-iv -
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T u s h le b a
The a d v i s o r o f a t h e s i s i s u s u a l l y due a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e
from t h e a u t h o r . But I f e e l t h a t i n my c a s e t h e i n d e b t e d n e s s i s
v a n H e i j e n o o r t h a s g i v e n u n s t i n t i n g l y o f h i s t i m e , e f f o r t and
encouragem ent. I n s e l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , s u g g e s t i o n o f s o u r c e s , a nd
s t y l i s t i c c r i t i c i s m , h i s a d v i c e h as b e e n t h o r o u g h and s o u n d . His
a n d w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s o f my s e m in a r i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t ic s
a t The J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y , f a l l o f 1 9 6 9 . F i n a l l y , I m ust t h a n k
my w i f e f o r h e r s a c r i f i c e and c o n t i n u o u s e n c o u ra g e m e n t w h ic h e n a b l e d
me t o p u r s u e a nd c o m p le te my g r a d u a t e e d u c a t i o n .
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-V -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION vi
CHAPTER I 1
CHAPTER II 23
CHAPTER I I I 46
CONCLUSION 74
APPENDIX 82
FOOTNOTES 88
BIBLIOGRAPHY 107
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INTRODUCTION
I n t h e l a s t 70 y e a r s , t h e u s e o f f o r m a l m e th o d s i n l o g i c an d
l o g i c , a nd t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f v a r i o u s m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e s p l a y s
a n i n t e g r a l r o l e i n t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t . The s t u d y o f f o r m a l s y s te m s
h a s becom e a m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e i t s e l f , a nd p o s s e s s e s n o t a few
q u e s t i o n s o f a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In c o n tr a s t to th e
m o d e r n i t y o f F r e g e ' s l e g a c y , t h e s t u d y o f l o g i c and m a t h e m a t i c s i s o f
F o rm a l t e c h n i q u e s may b e u s e d i n c l a r i f y i n g a nd s o l v i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g
p ro b le m s, b u t a ls o th e y f o r c e us t o r e - c o n c e iv e th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e
a r e a s t o w h ic h t h e y a r e a p p l i e d . C o n tr a s t th e form al tr e a tm e n t o f
q u e s t i o n s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e o f ax io m s w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e new
c o n c e p t o f c o m p l e t e n e s s , f o r e x a m p le . A lthough th e form er a r o s e e a r l y
c r e a tio n o f t h i s c e n tu ry .
The c e n t r a l p r o b le m w h ic h w i l l o c c u p y u s i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
It
o f G o d e l 's i n c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e o r e m f o r f i r s t o r d e r f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y .
S t r i c t l y , a l l t h a t i s shown b y t h a t t h e o r e m i s t h a t i n c e r t a i n f o r m a l
s y s te m s t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p r e f i x i n g a t i l d a d o e s n o t a lw a y s make a
ii
th eo rem o u t o f a n o n -th e o rem . N a i v e l y , we may w onder how t h i s
c o u l d b e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t number t h e o r y i s
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-v ii-
u n a x io m a tiz ab le . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f G o d e l 's c o m b i n a t o r i a l r e s u l t
i s w a r r a n t e d - i f a t a l l - o n l y when t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s e
z a t i o n i s a l s o i n n e e d o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n , a nd i n one i m p o r t a n t s e n s e
number t h e o r y c a n b e c o m p l e t e l y a x i o m a t i z e d : th ere i s a f in i te s e t of
As we s h a l l s e e i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h e i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
G lJ d e l's t h e o r e m i s t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o m p le te a nd e f f e c t i v e
f o r a n y ( r e c u r s i v e ) s e t o f axiom s t h e r e w i l l be t r u t h s l a c k i n g p r o o f s
from t h e a x io m s . Even t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e p e n d s up o n c e r t a i n
g e n e ra l a ssu m p tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n o f fo rm a l t h e o r i e s t o th e
i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e s t h e y f o r m a l i z e , and t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e n o t
I n t h e se co n d and t h i r d c h a p t e r s we s h a l l g i v e a n e x p o s i t i o n
o f two f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s w h ic h a r e c o m p l e t e . Each w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d
a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s on a x i o m a t i z a t i o n w h ic h a r e
r e v e a l e d b y G o d e l 's t h e o r e m . B o th u s e t h e same s t r a t e g y : s i n c e no
s i n g l e a x i o m a t i c number t h e o r y c a n b e c o m p l e t e , we b u i l d a e m u l a t i v e
se q u e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g e r t h e o r i e s s u c h t h a t e v e r y t r u t h i s
p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y o f t h e s e q u e n c e , t h o u g h no one t h e o r y o f t h e
sequence i s c o m p le te . We s h a l l s e e t h a t t h e p r i c e o f c o m p l e te n e s s i n
b o t h c a s e s i s t h e e x tr e m e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e s e q u e n c e , and
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-v iii-
The c o n c l u s i o n we s h a l l draw i s t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f s u c h f o r m a l
s t r u c t u r e s i s u n i n t e r e s t i n g from t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f i n f o r m a l number
th e o ry .
F i n a l l y , two s p e c i f i c p ro b le m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f
i n c o m p l e t e n e s s th e o re m s t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s a m b ig u ity i n th e n o t i o n of
a n open w f f " e x p r e s s i n g ” a p r o p e r t y o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e s y n t a x o f t h e
fo rm al sy ste m . A t e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p ro o le m b a s e d upon t h e
f o r th e a p p e n d ix .
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CHAPTER I
F o rm a l l o g i c c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o s y n t a x a n d s e m a n t i c s . The
f o r m e r i s t h e s t u d y o f c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d c l a s s e s o f sym bols
f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e t o t h e i n f o r m a l a r e a w here i t f i n d s i t s u s e , and c a n
b e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o m a t h e m a t i c a l a nd l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s . M a th e
m a t ic a l se m a n tic s i s th e stu d y o f s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of
t h e f o r m a l s y s te m ; l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s t r e a t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
f o r m a l s y s te m t o n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e . A p a r t from p u r e l y m a t h e m a t i c a l
i n t e r e s t , th e u s e f u ln e s s o f m a th e m a tic a l se m a n tic s i s i n c l a r i f y i n g
l i n g u i s t i c se m a n tic s. F o r, j u s t as t h e f i r s t o rd e r c a lc u lu s w ith o u t
a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s no c la i m on t h e t i t l e " L o g ic ,” so a l s o giv en
t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e we l e f t w i t h o u t an y r e a s o n t o
I n t h e b e g in n in g ; t h e r e w e re v a l i d a nd i n v a l i d a r g u m e n t s , sound
and f a l l a c i o u s i n f e r e n c e s . * I t i s t o j u d g m e n ts c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e
t h i n g s t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s i s r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y , and i t i s
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a s e s up o n w h ic h t h e y a r e m ade) t h a t i t i s c a l l e d
t h e o r y o f a rg u m e n t a n d i n f e r e n c e , a s w e l l a s a p r a c t i c e f o r d e c i d i n g
r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g s y n t a x a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l s e m a n t i c s , we s h o u l d e x p e c t
o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s ( i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g tw o)
a n s w e rs t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s s how w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e i s t h e fo rm a l
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-2 -
f e a t u r e s o f v a l i d a rg u m e n t a nd i n f e r e n c e ?
The l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s o f f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c a r e e x c e e d i n g l y
2
in fo rm a l: th e y c o n s is t of th e a r t of a s s ig n in g t o a se n te n c e a w ff
o f th e form al c a l c u l u s . I n g e n e r a l , we may s a y t h a t t h e l o g i c a l p a r a
E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s w h ic h a r e e s s e n t i a l t o a t h e o r y o f v a l i d a rg u m e n t
p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s A' w i l l ha v e t o d i s p l a y w i l l d e p e n d upon t h e
t h e o r y o f l o g i c e s p o u s e d ; i n o u r c a s e A ' m u s t b e a n e x p l i c i t g ram
m a t i c a l c o m b i n a ti o n o f i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , p r e d i c a t e s , t r u t h
f u n c t i o n a l s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e s , and i d io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n . The
r e l a t i o n o f " p a r a p h r a s e " h o l d i n g b e tw e e n A a nd A* i s w h o l l y p r a g m a t i c :
t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h A i s em ployed a nd w h i c h a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n
s t r a i n t s o f l o g i c s h o u l d be e q u a l l y s e r v e d ( o r p e r h a p s b e t t e r , due t o
p p . 1 5 7 -6 1 ) V ia A ' , l o g i c - a t e c h n i q u e o f i d e n t i f y i n g v a l i d a r g u -
A* i s r e a d i l y s y m b o liz e d by a w f f whose f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e c o r d
o n l y t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f A' - w h i c h t r u t h f u n c t i o n s t h e s e n
t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e s e x p r e s s e d , w h e t h e r t h e id io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n
w e r e u n i v e r s a l o r e x i s t e n t i a l , how many d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l
w h ich , e t c . ^ The t e c h n i q u e i s t h e n , i n t h e c a s e o f a p r o p o s e d i n f e r
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-3 -
t h i s p r o p e r t y , i f f t h e p r o p o s e d i n f e r e n c e i s v a l i d , and i f (W^,Wg) h as
m ent t o i t s u s e i n m a t h e m a t i c s , an d t o t h e d o u b t f u l n e s s o f i t s u s e f o r
l i n g u i s t i c se m a n tic s by d e f in in g ( in f o r m a lly ) th e l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s
o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o rm a l p r o p e r t y o f t h e
a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n t h e h a r d - c o r e d a t a , r e s o l v e open q u e s t i o n s i n a n
i l l u m i n a t i n g w ay, do t h e l e a s t v i o l e n c e p o s s i b l e t o b o r d e r l i n e c a s e s
and n a i v e i n t u i t i o n s , a nd p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o r e l a t e d a r e a s . In
th eo ry .
The f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s c o n s i s t s o f a f i n i t e s e t o f s y m b o ls ,
and c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e l y s p e c i f i e d i n f i n i t e s e ts o f sequences o f th e s e
le tte rs , i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t s , a nd w e l l form ed f o r m u l a s ( w f f s ) . In
a d d i t i o n t h e r e i s a s e m i - e f f e c t i v e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n
w f f s w h ic h w i l l b e c a l l e d " d e r i v a b i l i t y ” , a nd w i l l b e w r i t t e n
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-4'
w h ic h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A a nd B by t h e a r t o f l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s ,
c r i t e r i a m u st b e m et i f we a r e t o j u s t i f y o u r u s e o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e :
o f t h e c a l c u l u s , t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one w f f WA a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A.
no s e n t e n c e s a t a l l n e e d n o t i m p a i r t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e c a l c u l u s i n
(2 ) F o r an y s e n t e n c e s A a n d B, t h e i n f e r e n c e from At o B is
v a l i d i f f D(lN^,H^).
i s some i n f e r e n c e w h ic h w i l l be i n a c c u r a t e l y c l a s s i f i e d b y t h e f o r m a l
t h e n a tu r e of an a d e q u ate form al l o g i c . (2 ) i m p l i e s (v ia ( l ) ) :
D(W,Wg), t h e n f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e C, A i m p l i e s C i f f B i m p l i e s C an d C
i m p l i e s A i f f C i m p l i e s B.
To u n d e r s t a n d ( 3 ) , t h i n k o f t h e s e t o f w f f s a s p o i n t s on one map, w i t h
(2 ) t h e n s a y s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s a n iso m o rp h is m
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-5 -
m i r r o r e d b y D - r e l a t i o n s among a s s o c i a t e d w f f s , a n d v i c e v e r s a . We may
t h e n d e f i n e t h e e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n D* o n t h e s e t o f w f f s : D*(WpW ) 2
i . e . W^ and a r e e x a c t l y a l i k e i n t h e i r D - r e l a t i o n s t o a l l w f f s (fro m
s e n t e n c e s , A, B, i f D*(W^,Wg) t h e n I* (A ,B ) - i . e . i f t h e i r a sso c ia te d
w f f s o c c u p y e q u i v a l e n t p l a c e s on t h e "D-map" t h e n A and B o c c u p y e q u i v a l e n t
m ent t o a m ethod o f e v a l u a t i n g i n f e r e n c e s o ne a t a t im e i s b y i m p l i
l e t u s ex a m in e t h e co n v erse o f (3):
A l t h o u g h we c a n p r o v e t h a t (4) i s s a t i s f i e d b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , i t
h a s a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r from i t s c o n v e r s e ( 3 ) . From t h e a s s u m p t i o n
o f t h e v i o l a t i o n o f ( 3 ) and b y u s e o f (1) we s e e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t
t h e r e m ust b e some i n f e r e n c e w h ic h o u r f o r m a l t e c h n i q u e w i l l m i s -
a s s u m p t io n t h a t (4) i s v i o l a t e d no su c h c o n s e q u e n c e f o l l o w s : even i f
m ig h t h a v e I* (A ,B ) i f W i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y s e n t e n c e i n t h e
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6-
u n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y s e n t e n c e i n t h e dom ain o f a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t so
w h ic h i s p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o i t d o e s . T h is i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y . )
t h e n n o t D(Wg,W^), b y t h e t r a n s i t i v i t y o f D. By ( 2 ) we t h e n h a v e n o t
l(B ,A ), c o n t r a d i c t i n g I* (A ,B ). P u t t i n g (3) an d (4 ) t o g e t h e r , we s e e
t h a t i f (2) i s s a t i s f i e d by f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s lin
n e e d n o t b e (and i s n o t , i n f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c ) a o n e -o n e f u n c t i o n .
by c h a n g in g o r d e r f o r t h e s e n t e n c e " S m i t h w i l l s e l l u n l e s s J o n e s w in s "
s e n t e n c e s c a n n o t b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e same w f f , a n d n o n - D * - i d e n t i c a l
w f f s c a n n o t be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e same s e n t e n c e ( t h o u g h t h e c o n v e r s e s
a r e g e n e r a l l y f a l s e , a s we j u s t s h o w e d ) .
A c c e p ti n g ( l ) and (2 ) a s c r i t e r i a of adequacy f o r f i r s t o rd e r
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m et. The b r i d g e b e tw e e n t h e f o rm a l s y s te m and E n g l i s h a r g u m e n ts and
i n f e r e n c e s m u st be i n t h e form o f a t h e o r y o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a rg u m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e f o r m a l r e l a t i o n D
p i c k s o u t j u s t t h o s e p a i r s (W^,Wg) f o r w h ic h t h e t h e o r y f i n d s A a n d B
t o ha v e t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f a v a l i d i n f e r e n c e . I n o u r c a s e , we
ha v e t h e e x t e n s i o n a l t h e o r y o f l o g i c , and t h e s o u n d n e s s and c o m p l e t e
n e s s th e o r e m s o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e t
t h e o r e t i c a l se m a n tic s.
T a k in g t h e l a t t e r f i r s t : we d e f i n e t h e s e t t h e o r e t i c a l
n o t i o n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s a t i s f a c t i o n a nd c o n s e q u e n c e (U i s a c o n s e
q u e n c e o f W = d f U i s s a t i s f i e d by e v e r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h s a t i s f i e s
i f f U i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f W. B u t , we r e p e a t , i f we s t o p h e r e we ha v e
no l o g i c . What m u st b e a d d e d i s a t h e o r y o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e w h ic h
w i l l show t h a t Wg i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f W^ i f f A i m p l i e s B. As a ro u g h
o u t l i n e , t h i s t h e o r y may be d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s . The e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e s o f E n g lis h s e n te n c e s f o r th e purpose of i d e n t i f y i n g v a l i d
i n f e r e n c e s a r e id io m s o f t r u t h f u n c t i o n a l s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n and
say t h a t an in d iv id u a l d e s c r ip tio n d e s ig n a te s th e in d iv id u a l i t
d e s c r i b e s , and a p r e d i c a t e d e s ig n a te s th e c l a s s o f th o s e th in g s t o
w h ic h i t t r u l y a p p l i e s . ) The t h e o r y h o l d s t h a t i f t h e t r u t h
f u n c t i o n a l a nd q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e n t e n c e s o f a p r o
p o s e d i n f e r e n c e fro m A t o B have b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n t h e i n f e r e n c e
i s v a l i d j u s t i n c a s e t h e r e i s no way b y v a r y i n g t h e d e s i g n a t o r s o f A
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and B t o make A t r u e and B f a l s e . I n o th e r w ords, th e proposed i n f e r
e n c e from A t o B i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a member o f a c l a s s o f i n f e r e n c e s
same t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v e s a n d q u a n t i f i e r s - a n d i s c a l l e d
v a l i d i f no i n f e r e n c e i n i t s c l a s s ha s a t r u e p r e m i s s a nd a f a l s e con
c lu sio n .
(We s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h h e r e b e tw e e n two s i m i l a r - s o u n d i n g b u t
v ery d i f f e r e n t v ie w s. We may r e q u i r e t h a t no E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e
s h a r i n g t h e fo rm o f t h e one we a r e t e s t i n g h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s and
f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n , o r we may r e q u i r e t h a t no m a t t e r w h a t t h e e x t e n s i o n s
( i . e . d e sig n a ta ) o f t h e d e s i g n a t i n g p h r a s e s b e , we c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e
o u s l y h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s and f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t
w h i l e t h e c l a s s o f i n f e r e n c e s s h a r i n g a g i v e n l o g i c a l form i s c o u n t a b l e ,
t h e number o f d i f f e r e n t ways t o a s s i g n e x t e n s i o n s t o t h e d e s i g n a t o r s
of a sen te n c e i s n o t: we ha v e a l l t h e s u b s e t s o f ( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s
is u n p ro b le m atic . I f we u s e t h e n o t i o n o f e v e r y p o s s i b l e s y s te m o f
e x t e n s i o n s f o r t h e d e s i g n a t o r s , t h e n we do f i n d t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r o o f
b a s e d upon t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l s e m a n t i c s d o v e t a i l i n g w i t h t h e n o t i o n
o f v a l i d i t y o f E h g l i s h i n f e r e n c e , a nd t h u s t h a t p r o o f w ould j u s t i f y
p o w e r f u l m e t a - t h e o r y i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n an d j u s t i f y o u r s y m b o lic
lo g ic . Q u a n t if i e r s ov er u n c o u n ta b le s e t s ! I n p a r t i c u l a r , we n e e d
t h i s th e o ry to e x p la in th e n o tio n o f v a l i d i t y of E n g lish in fe re n c e , in
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9
O
a d d itio n to s e t- th e o r e tic v a li d it y . T h is i s u n d e s ir a b le : i f no
t h e n by r e l y i n g on t h i s form o f i n f e r e n c e we w i l l n e v e r b e m i s l e d . So
why s h o u ld t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a f a l s i f y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e
n o tio n of v a l i d i t y is n e e d le s s ly r e s t r i c t i v e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o
u s e c l a s s e s o f E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e s does n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e n e e d f o r
u n c o u n t a b l e s e t s i n e x p l a i n i n g s e t - t h e o r e t i c v a l i d i t y , and a l s o l e a v e s
open t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r o o f d o e s n o t f u l l y
ju stify (2 ). F o r , i f t h e r e w e re a s y s te m o f e x t e n s i o n s - s u b s e t s o f
( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f ) II - f o r a c e r t a i n E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e w h ic h
t h e r e w e re no E n g l i s h d e s i g n a t o r s , i . e . no c o rre sp o n d in g E n g lish
i n f e r e n c e , t h e n w h i l e t h e E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e w o u ld , on t h i s v i e w , be
v a l i d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f s w o u ld n o t b e f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e - t h e
w ould b e i n c o r r e c t .
T h e re i s a way o u t o f t h e w oods, b u t we w i l l g i v e o n ly r o u g h
o f r e c u r s iv e p r e d i c a t e s by e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , and s in c e th e
l a t t e r a r e d e f i n a b l e from a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and t r u t h -
f u n c t i o n s a l o n e , we c e r t a i n l y do n o t l a c k d e s i g n a t o r s f o r t h e members
of S. L i k e w i s e f o r S* - t h e c l o s u r e o f S u n d e r t r u t h f u n c t i o n s - we
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 -
t h a t i f we d e f i n e v a l i d i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o S* i n s t e a d o f t h e power s e t
o f ( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f ) N we w i l l n o t i n c r e a s e t h e s e t o f v a l i d
w ffs. Thus p a r i t y i s r e s t o r e d b e tw e e n t h e s e t o f a l l s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d t h e s e t o f a l l E n g l i s h a r g u m e n ts , and we a r e
a s s u r e d t h a t b o t h d e f i n i t i o n s o f v a l i d i t y a s s i g n t h e same i n f e r e n c e s
9
to th e v a lid c l a s s . To o u r p r a g m a t i c b i a s , h o w e v e r, t h e d e f i n i t i o n
i n te r m s o f c l a s s e s o f E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e s seems t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l . )
S in c e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s a s a l o g i c
d e p e n d s f o r i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n upon t h e e x t e n s i o n a l a c c o u n t o f l o g i c a l
th e fo rm er. Thus t h e w e l l- k n o w n p ro b le m s c o n c e r n i n g f a i l u r e s o f
r e f e r e n t i a l t r a n s p a r e n c y and s u b j u n c t i v e c o n d i t i o n a l s f u n c t i o n t o
d i s c r e d i t t h e c l a i m o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s t o b e l o g i c by
consequence f o r f i r s t o rd e r l o g ic o f th e la c k o f e x te n s io n a l a n a ly s e s
o f t h e s e E n g l i s h id io m s i s t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s w i l l make
m is ta k e s in ju d g in g th e v a l i d i t y o f in fe r e n c e s i f th e y a r e t r e a t e d
l i k e e x te n s io n a l id io m s. F o r e x a m p le , w h i l e t h e law o f c o n t r a p o s i t i v e
d oes n o t im p ly s u c h a c o n d i t i o n a l , b u t i f we u s e t h e h o r s e s h o e , b o t h
in fe re n c e s w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d as v a l i d . A g a in , t o a n a l y z e " J o h n l i t
commit o u r s e l v e s t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t J o h n l i t t h e bomb
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 1 -
so m e th in g .^ ® The s i t u a t i o n i n g e n e r a l may be n e a t l y i l l u s t r a t e d b y
t h e c a s e o f m odal l o g i c . We ha v e b e e n p r o v i d e d (KRIPKE) w i t h t h e s e t -
t h e o r e t i c a l s e m a n t ic s a n d b o t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d p r o o f o f c o m p l e t e
( i n a d d i t i o n , t h e form o f t h e s e s e m a n t i c s c a r r i e s n o t a l i t t l e in tu i
t i v e w eig h t i n l i g h t of th e an a lo g y t o t h e n o t io n o f " p o s s ib le
t h e d i s p u t e r a g e s on? B e c a u se t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e d i s p u t e i s t h e
a r e u e s t h a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n - i . e . E n g l i s h id io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n -
m odel o f t h e c o n s e q u e n t . I t i s " S o m e th in g i s n e c e s s a r i l y g r e a t e r t h a n
7" and s i m i l a r s e n t e n c e s w h i c h c a u s e d e b a b e . To a t t e m p t t o a p p l y t h e
f o rm a l s y s te m w i t h a n y e x t e n s i o n a l s e m a n t i c s i s t o im ply a t h e o r y o f
E n g l i s h m o d a l i t y , and i t i s t h i s t h e o r y w h ic h i s d i f f i c u l t f o r many t o
s w a l lo w .
So t h e p o r t i o n o f E n g l i s h f o r w h ic h t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s
c a n be a c c e p t e d a s l o g i c i s q u i t e r e s t r i c t e d . Even t h e l e a s t c o n t r o
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
12-
t h e y a r e f a l s e f o r c e r t a i n m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , a nd t h e r e a r e
t h a t fo rm al d e r i v a b i l i t y does n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y m ir r o r o ur in fo rm a l
i n t u i t i o n s co n c ern in g i m p l i c a t i o n . S i n c e we a r e c o n c e r n e d i n p a r t i c u
l a r w i t h t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , we m u s t exam ine t h e s e
c h o i c e o f c e r t a i n t r u t h s a s s t a r t i n g p o i n t s i n a rg u m e n ts i n
e s ta b lis h in g o th er t r u t h s . T h i s am o u n ts t o t h e commitment t o a
s t a n d a r d form f o r p r o o f s : e v e ry s t e p i n a p ro o f m ust e i t h e r be an
fits o f a x i o m a t i z i n g a r e w e l l- k n o w n : i n t e r n a l l y , t h e axiom s p r o v i d e a
summary o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l a p p a r a t u s and a s s e r t i v e c o n t e n t o f t h e
d i s c i p l i n e ; e x t e r n a l l y , w h a te v e r c o u n ts as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e
axiom s c o u n ts a l s o a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e w h o le d i s c i p l i n e , and
s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f one d i s c i p l i n e t o a n o t h e r . (2 ) F o r m a l i
t h e la n g u a g e o f m a t h e m a t i c s a_£ i t s lo g ic . T h is means p r o v i d i n g a
o f m a t h e m a t ic s w i t h one a n o t h e r s o t h a t c r i t e r i a ( l ) and (2 ) a b o v e a r e
m et, i . e . s o t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y p r o v i d e s a f o r m a l map o f t h e
a x i o m a t i z a t i o n a nd f o r m a l i z a t i o n a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f one a n o t h e r . The
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 3 -
o l d , p r e d a t i n g b y more t h a n 2400 y e a r s t h e f i r s t f o r m a l s y s t e m . L ik e
w i s e t h e l a t t e r , a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n ie d b y t h e f o r m e r , i n no way
s e l v e s m u st b e s u f f i c i e n t t o s e t t l e e v e r y q u e s t i o n o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e -
t o im p ly e v e r y t r u t h o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . O th e r w is e t h e y do n o t c o n t a i n
t h e w h o le o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . How d o u b t s a s t o t h e
c o m p l e t e n e s s o f a g i v e n i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n c a n a r i s e i n tw o w a y s :
firs t, r e g a r d i n g a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g p r o o f s o f t h e o r e m s , we may a s k f o r
some a s s u r a n c e t h a t p u r e l o g i c o n l y i s a l l o w e d ( b e s i d e s a x io m s ) i n t h e
( a s t h e r e w e re i n E u c l i d u n t i l t h e l a s t c e n t u r y ) ; second, as re g a rd s
a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e s e axiom s a l o n e w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o s o l v e th e m .
F o r m a l i z i n g p r o v i d e s a m ethod o f a t t a c k f o r b o t h p r o b l e m s . I f our
fo rm al l o g i c m eets c r i t e r i a ( l ) and ( 2 ) , t h e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r
can be re -a s k e d in p u re ly fo rm al te rm s: i s Wg f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from
WA? T h i s q u e s t i o n a d m i t s a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r ( t h o u g h we may n o t b e a b l e
i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a t l e a s t one w f f . T hus, t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i
z a t i o n w i l l be c o m p le te i f f f o r e v e r y t r u t h T o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e , Wip i s
f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from WA . T h i s means t h a t a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r
c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s e n t e n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e , e i t h e r W o r -W
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 4 -
s e n t e n c e s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h W o r -W i s t r u e . T h i s c o n d i t i o n w ould
become s u f f i c i e n t i f we a d d e d t h e p r o v i s o t h a t f o r no f a l s e h o o d F was
p u r e l y f o r m a l one w h ic h a d m i t s a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r . Thus, f o r m a l i z a t i o n
e n a b l e s u s t o a s k a n d (s o m e tim e s ) a n s w e r i n a p r e c i s e f a s h i o n q u e s t i o n s
w h ic h a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e a d e q u a c y o f i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n . But
we have made a p p e a l t h r o u g h o u t t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g
l o g ic of a f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y m eets c r i t e r i a ( l ) and ( 2 ) - a n a t t a c k
on t h a t a s s u m p t io n may v e r y w e l l b e a n a t t a c k upon t h e w h o le j o i n t
p ro je c t.
m e n ts m arked v a l i d b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c a s f a l l a c i e s . In o th e r w ords,
c o m p l e te n e s s r e s u l t o f t h e s o r t o u t l i n e d i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h would
be o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t t o an i n t u i t i o n i s t : i f you u s e f i r s t o r d e r
l o g i c i n p r o v in g a l l t h e t r u t h s from t h e a x io m s , you a r e n o t t h e r e b y
v ia form al in c o m p le te n e s s . He may c o n te n d t h a t t h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n
assum es t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d v a l i d i t y o f t h e law o f t h e e x c l u d e d m i d d l e ,
w h i c h he r e j e c t s . F o r , from t h e f o r m a l u n d e r i v a b i l i t y o f b o t h W and
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 5 -
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e i t h e r W o r -W i s t r u e . T h i s may n o t he t h e c a s e :
b o t h s e n t e n c e s may f a i l t o be t r u e . Thus t h e u s e o f a f i r s t o r d e r
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r an i n t u i t i o n i s t . Only b y p r o d u c i n g a n u n d e r i v a b l e
w f f whose c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e i s i n t u i t i o n i s t i c a l l y t r u e c a n we
c o n v in c e t h e i n t u i t i o n i s t , and i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h i s c a n be d o n e .
By c o n t r a s t , t h e d o u b t s r a i s e d by t h e ’’p a r a d o x e s o f i m p l i
c a t i o n ” ( s e e , e . g . ANDERSON a nd BELNAP) do n o t a f f e c t o u r c o n c l u s i o n s
at a ll. A l t h o u g h t h e y c la im t o c a s t d o u b t upon t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f
c r i t e r i o n ( 2 ) b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e problem o f
t h e i n f o r m a l a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n t o t h e f o rm a l
p ro b le m s o f i d e n t i f y i n g f o r m a l l y c o r r e c t d e r i v a t i o n s , and a r g u i n g t h a t
h o ld s. F o r , t h e k i n d s o f a rg u m e n t w h i c h , t h o u g h v a l i d a c c o r d i n g t o
f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , a r e f e l t t o b e p a r a d o x i c a l - A and n o t A, t h e r e f o r e
B* A, t h e r e f o r e B o r n o t B; n o t A, t h e r e f o r e i f A t h e n B; B, t h e r e f o r e
i f A t h e n B - a r e n o t f a l l a c i o u s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y c o u ld l e a d
t h e y do n o t a c c o r d w i t h o u r n o r m a l u s e o f s u c h p h r a s e s a s ’’i m p l i e s , ”
o b v io u s t h a t no f a l l a c y i s i n c u r r e d . The l a s t tw o may b e s e t t l e d by
th e fo llo w in g c o n s id e r a tio n s . I f A a nd B a r e t r u e t h e n t h e i n d i c a t i v e
false . If A is fa ls e , i t has no t r u t h v a lu e . By r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t
two t y p e s o f i n f e r e n c e v a l i d , we a r e t r e a t i n g t h i s i n d i c a t i v e
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
-1 6 -
c o n d i t i o n a l a s i f i t had t h e t r u t h v a l u e t r u e i n t h i s c a s e . If th is
i s u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n why we
s h o u ld n o t do s o . ^ But t h e s e form s o f a rg u m e n t c e r t a i n l y do n o t
a x i o m a t i z a t i o n t o t h e f o r m a l p ro b le m o f t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f a f i r s t
we n e e d o n ly d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e S o f t h e i n f o r m a l
t h e o r y w h ic h i s i n f a c t t r u e , i t i s im p o ssib le ( c o n tr a d ic to r y ) t h a t th e
a x i o m a t i z a t i o n b o t h i n f o u n d a t i o n s and i n p r o o f t h e o r y i s j u s t i f i e d ;
g i v e n t h e a x io m s , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t S ’ s c o n t r a d i c t o r y i s i n c o n
s i s t e n t w i t h t h e axiom s i s a p r o o f t h a t S i s t r u e , and t h a t a n y t h i n g
w h ic h j u s t i f i e s t h e axiom s a l s o j u s t i f i e s S, e v e n i f t h a t d e m o n s t r a t i o n
p r e j u d i c e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t no f a l s e S i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
a x io m s , t h e y do n o t p r e j u d i c e t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l
a x i o m a t i z a t i o n . 12
A i l o f t h e p r e c e d i n g m ust b e k e p t i n m ind i f we a r e t o u n d e r -
s t a n d t h e e x a c t s i g n i f i c a n c e o f G B del’ s i n c o m p l e t e n e s s th e o r e m . H is
arg u m e n t shows d i r e c t l y o n l y t h a t a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f f o rm a l ( f i r s t
number t h e o r y ? A f te r a l l , th e f i r s t o rd e r c a lc u lu s i s a ls o fo rm a lly
i n c o m p l e t e , a nd t h i s i s d e s i r a b l e ( n e c e s s a r y , a c t u a l l y ) , c o n s i d e r i n g
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-17'
we assum e t h a t ( a ) t h e f o r m a l l o g i c u n d e r l y i n g t h e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y
i s a d e q u a t e i n g e n e r a l , an d (b ) o u r p a r t i c u l a r f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y i s
g r a p h d e a l t w i t h d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g ( a ) ; l a t e r we s h a l l have t o s e t t l e
some d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g ( b ) .
t h e r e i s an i n f i n i t e s e t of in d iv i d u a l c o n s ta n ts i^ ,. . .,i ,.. • ;
(2 ) we h a v e a n o r d e r i n g w ^ , . . .,w n , . . . o f t h e o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e fo rm u
l a s o f H; ( 3 ) t h e r e i s a o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e f o r m u la o f H - Y (x) - s u c h
t h a t , f o r ev ery n:
(The s u b s c r i p t "E" w i l l b e u n d e r s t o o d t o a p p l y t o a l l o c c u r a n c e s o f
o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e w f f , and s o i n t h e o r d e r i n g r e q u i r e d by (2 ) - l e t i t
be wjj. Now c o n s i d e r t h e w f f - Y ( i k ) :
a) I f | Y (ijj.), t h e n b y ( I I ) , n o t wjc( i j £) , i . e . n o t (— - Y ( i k ) .
T h e r e f o r e n o t j— ~Y(i-K) .
b) I f Y ( i k ), th e n by ( l ) , [ — w ^ (ik ) , i . e . J - - Y ( ik ) . B ut b y
( a ) , t h i s is im p o ssib le . So n o t |— Y ( i ] c ) . So we s e e t h a t i f H
fu lfills ( l ) - ( 3 ) , t h e r e m u st b e a w f f - n a m e ly , Y( i^-) - s u c h t h a t
G i i d e l 's th e o r e m i s i n t h e a rg u m e n t t h a t s u c h a t h e o r y m u st l i k e w i s e
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18-
fu lfill (3 ). N ote t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y r e s t r a i n t up o n t h e f o r m a l
a p p a r a t u s o f H. In p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s n o t n e c e ssa ry t h a t p ro o fn ess in
H be re c u rs iv e , o r t h a t th e o re m h o o d f o r H b e r . e . f o r t h e i n c o m p l e t e
n e s s a rg u m e n t t o go t h r o u g h , ( i n f a c t , ROSSER h a s d e r i v e d G5Jdel-type
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p l a y a r o l e o n l y i n t h e a rg u m e n t t h a t a l l f i r s t o r d e r
th e o rie s o f a c e r ta in ty p e f u l f i l l ( 3 ) , t o w h ic h a rg u m e n t we now t u r n .
n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c r e l a t i o n R m ^ ...m n , we s h a l l s a y t h a t R i s r e p r e s e n t
a b le i n H i f f th e r e i s a w ff W x ^ ...x n such t h a t :
r e l a t i o n on any s e t A. (R i s a s u b s e t o f An . ) L e t f : A—?N b e 1 -1
13
and s u f f i c i e n t l y n i c e - i . e . d e c i d a b l e . Then we may s a y t h a t R i s
r e p r e s e n t a b le i n H i f f t h e r e i s a w ff W x ^ ...x n in H such t h a t :
—
'Wm^ . . .m^ •
( N o te : on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t H i s c o n s i s t e n t , t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f ( i )
and ( i i ) i m p l i e s t h e c o n v e r s e s o f e a c h o f ( i ) and ( i i ) . P ro o f:
L ik ew ise f o r ( i i ) . ) We s h a l l c a l l t h e s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n " . . . i s a
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 9
m in im a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c s t r e n g t h , t h e n H 's p r o o f
p r e d i c a t e i s r e p r e s e n t a b l e i n H. (The v e r y m in im a l r e q u i r e m e n t may be
p r o p o s i t i o n w h ic h c a n b e v e r i f i e d o r f a l s i f i e d b y a d d i n g , m u l t i p l y i n g ,
an d r e s o l v i n g t r u t h f u n c t i o n s a n e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n . The m in im a l
e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n s h o u l d b e f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from t h e w f f s
w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m s . ) How t h i s i s done i s t o o
c o o k -b o o k r e c i p e f o r f i n d i n g a w f f Pxy, a n d a f u n c t i o n f fro m t h e
f o r m a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f H ( i . e . s y m b o ls , w f f s , and s e q u e n c e s o f w f f s )
i n t o N and 1 -1 s u c h t h a t :
(i) I f f “ l (m ) i s (a s e q u e n c e o f w f f s o f H w h ic h i s ) a p r o o f i n
j— -H nn.
t u t i n g t h e n u m e ra l ____ f o r t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e o f t h e - th one-free-
v a r i a b l e w f f H” ( b r i e f l y , ” . . . i s a p r o o f o f w_ ( _ ) ” ) , h o l d i n g b e tw e e n
s e q u e n c e s o f w f f s o f H and n a t u r a l n u m b e r s . That i s :
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 0 -
F i n a l l y , i n o r d e r t o show t h a t H f u l f i l l s ( 3 ) , we n e e d t o assume t h a t
H i s o m e g a - c o n s i s t e n t ( > w - c o n s i s t e n t ) , i . e . , w h e n e v e r j— Wn f o r e v e r y n ,
i t i s n o t t h e c a s e t h a t {— (Ex)-VIx. The p r o o f i s a s f o l l o w s :
a ) w - c o n s i s t e n c y i m p l i e s s im p l e c o n s i s t e n c y , s i n c e t h e r e a r e
t h e n o n - p r o v a b i l i t y o f a n y f o r m u la i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s im p le c o n s i s t e n c y .
b) S in ce H i s c o n s i s t e n t , ( i ) and ( i i ) t o g e t h e r g iv e t h e
co n v erse of e a c h .
converse o f ( i i ) , f ^ G n ) m u st b e a p r o o f o f wn (n ) - so wn (ii) i s
]— -Qmn f o r e v e r y m. S i n c e H i s c o n s i s t e n t , we may c o n c lu d e t h a t f o r
e v e r y m, n o t j- Qmn. By t h e c o n v e r s e o f ( i ) , f o r e v e r y m, f"^ (m ) i s
n o t a p r o o f o f wn (n ) - i . e . wn ( n ) i s n o t p r o v a b l e .
We s h a l l now c o n s i d e r i n d e t a i l t h e i n f o r m a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f
t h e f o r m a l i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e o r i e s s u c h a s H. F o l lo w in g t h e a r g u
t h e f o r m a l ax io m s o f H . ^ I f we assum e t h a t H i s a n a d e q u a t e f o r m a l i
c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a l axiom s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t c a n b e j u s t i f i e d a s
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21-
n e i t h e r i s a l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e a x io m s . Hence t h e s e axiom s
t h e a d v a n t a g e s w h i c h we d e s i r e d f ro m a x i o m a t i z i n g - c a p t u r i n g t h e w hole
c o n c e p t u a l an d a s s e r t i v e c o n t e n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e axiom s -
w i l l n o t be r e a l i z e d . But now, t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f o u r a s s u m p t i o n s
f “ *(n) i s a p ro o f o f w ^ (k ), i . e . o f -(Ey)Qyic, b u t t h i s w f f i s n o t
q u a n t i f i e r s and no v a r i a b l e s , I t c a n b e shown t h a t i f H f u l f i l l s t h e
is n o t. O b v i o u s ly , t h i s t y p e o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s can b e r e p a i r e d i f we
a d d t o H w hat i s c a l l e d t h e u / - r u l e ( t h u s f o r m in g H ^ ) : i f fo r a l l n,
f o rm a l u / - r u l e i n H c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e form o f a rg u m e n t: " 0 i s F, 1 i s
c o n c l u s i o n be f a l s e ? And i f s u c h a rg u m e n ts a r e c o r r e c t i n i n f o r m a l
number t h e o r y t h e n d o e s n o t t h e ^ - i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f H d i s q u a l i f y i t a s
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 2 -
c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e a rg u m e n t " 0 i s F , 1 i s F , t h e r e f o r e every
p r e m i s s e s f o l l o w s fro m a s e t o f a x io m s , t h e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n w i l l a l s o
f o l l o w from t h o s e a x io m s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e r i v a t i o n i s
n o t a v a i l a b l e i n H. Then we may a r g u e t h a t t h e f o r m a l i n c o m p l e t e n e s s
o f H i s n o t a p r o o f t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l axiom s a r e i n a d e q u a t e . In f a c t,
from t h e s im p l e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f we c a n draw t h e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n :
i f t h e a d d i t i o n o f a v a l i d mode o f a r g u m e n t s u f f i c e s t o show t h a t t h e
axiom s do s e t t l e e v e r y q u e s t i o n , t h e n t h e axiom s a r e a d e q u a t e !
I n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h i s a r g u m e n t, l e t us d i s t i n g u i s h two
p rev io u s l i n e s . Such a n o r m a l fo rm f a c i l i t a t e s r e c o g n i t i o n o f p r o
t h e a x io m s . I f th e a x io m a ti z a t io n i s co m p le te , th e n a l l c o n cep ts n o t
m e n t io n d , a n d a l l t r u t h s o f t h e t h e o r y m u st f o l l o w l o g i c a l l y from t h e
a x io m s . T h is f a c i l i t a t e s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n a n d / o r j u s t i f i
c a tio n : e i t h e r p r o c e s s n e e d be c a r r i e d t h r o u g h o n l y f o r t h e axiom s t o
opposed t o H, in t h e l i g h t o f ( l ) an d ( 2 ) . .
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
-2 3 -
(l): I n o r d e r t o a p p l y t h e w - r u l e i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , we
m u st somehow b e a s s u r e d t h a t i t s p r e m i s s e s h o l d . But t h e r e a r e an
i n f i n i t e number o f th e m . Such a s s u r a n c e c a n n o t b e t h e p r o d u c t o f a
s i t i o n from t h i s a rg u m e n t t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t e v e r y n i s F w i t h o u t
t h e m i d d l e s t e p o f a p p e a l i n g t o t h e t r u t h o f a n i n f i n i t e num ber o f
se n te n c es. I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e two s u c h p a t t e r n s o f a rg u m e n t t y p i c a l l y
in d u c tio n . I n e a c h c a s e a n a rg u m e n t i s g i v e n w h ic h c o n v i n c e s u s t h a t
f o r a n y n we can p ro v e t h a t n i s F . I n f a c t , t h e s e a r g u m e n ts c a n b e
a r g u m e n t, j u s t p l u g n i n f o r t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e and y o u have a p r o o f
th a t n is F. I n t h e c a s e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n , t h e a rg u m e n t
i t s e l f shows t h a t 0 i s F, a n d t h a t i f n i s F t h e n n+1 i s F . So f o r
a n y n , t h e p r o o f t h a t i t i s F i s j u s t n modus po n e n s s t e p s a w a y . Now
in b o t h t h e s e c a s e s we n e e d no a p p e a l t o t h e w - r u l e ; t h e a rg u m e n t
su p p o s e t h e r e a r e s i t u a t i o n s i n w h ic h , a l t h o u g h i t i s tru e t h a t each n
i s F , an d e v e n t h a t t h i s c a n b e p r o v e d f o r e a c h n , t h e r e i s n o a r g u
m e n t w h ic h c a n e s t a b l i s h t h i s f a c t . T hen we w i l l n e v e r b e a b l e t o
em ploy t h e u j - r u l e t o p r o v e t h a t e v e r y n i s F , s i n c e we w i l l n e v e r know
u / - r u l e can b e p a r t o f a p r o o f r e c o g n i t i o n p r o c e d u r e o r a p r o o f
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24-
(2 ): However, t h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s do n o t t o u c h t h e c l a i m
th a t i s s u p e r io r to H i n th e second r e s p e c t . F or, in o rd er t o
shown t h a t t h e a xiom s do l o g i c a l l y im p ly e v e r y t r u t h o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .
The f a c t t h a t we c a n n o t f i n d t h e p r o o f s i n p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s i s i r r e l e
v a n t. T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y H a s a l o g i c a l map w i t h r e s p e c t
t o ( 2 ) , we m u s t a r g u e t h a t t h e ‘" - r u l e i s n o t a v a l i d mode o f a r g u m e n t .
B u t i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t i t i s i n f a c t e n th y m e m a tic : th e in feren ce
t h e '•'“■ ru le f a i l s t o b e v a l i d i n t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c s e n s e : th ere is a
w f f Wx s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n w h ic h f o r e a c h n , Wn i s
t r u e , b u t (x)Wx i s f a l s e . (P ro o f: s i n c e n o t g - ( E y ) Q y k , t h e axiom s
w ould be a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n w h i c h -QnR i s t r u e f o r a l l n , b u t
i n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y , u ^ - r u l e t y p e a r g u m e n ts a r e n o t l o g i c a l l y
v a lid .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 5 -
a v a l i d a rg u m e n t i f we s u p p l y t h e m i s s i n g p r e m i s s , b u t t h e r e i s no w f f
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s e n t e n c e o f i n f o r m a l number t h e o r y . A lthough
t h e map i s r e l i a b l e , i t d o e s n o t c o v e r t h e w h o le o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .
To g e t a c o m p l e te map, we w o u ld h a v e t o r e c o r d t h e d e d u c t i v e pow er o f
e . g . b y a d d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n f i n i t e w f f ( x )( x = 0 v x = 0 ' v . . . ) .
B u t i f we do t h i s , a n d do n o t a l t e r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p r o o f f o r H,
a rg u m e n t "0 i s F , 1 i s F , . . . , and 0 , 1 , . . . a r e a l l t h e n u m b e r s ,
t h e r e f o r e e v e r y number n i s F" w i l l n o t h a v e a c o u n t e r p a r t i n H.
One way t o s t r e n g t h e n H so a s t o r e c o r d f o r m a l l y t h e d e d u c t i v e
s t r e n g t h o f A i s t o add t h e W - r u l e - n o t a s a n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
u n d erly in g lo g ic , b u t as a non- lo g ic a l r u le . I t th en p la y s a r o le
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e w f f s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i n f o r m a l a x io m s:
i t s u s e i n a f o r m a l d e r i v a t i o n w i l l map t h e i n f o r m a l u s e o f A i n
a x i o m a t i z i n g c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e te d b y t h e new s e t o f a x io m s .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 6 -
To t h i s a rg u m e n t we s e e no r e p l y . The i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e f a r - r e a c h i n g :
t o t h e second p u r p o s e o f a x i o m a t i z i n g . T h u s , f o r e x a m p le , F r e g e ' s
pro g ra m c a n n o t be c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t h a v i n g shown t h a t m a t h e m a t ic s i s
a p a r t o f l o g i c by a p p e a l t o i n c o m p l e t e n e s s ; i f h i s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e
th eo ry as a w h o l e T h e c o n t e n t o f G B d e l's t h e o r e m - i . e . o f i t s
i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e - s h o u ld t h e n b e e n t i r e l y i n t e r m s o f l i m i
p r o o f i s d e c i d a b l e , t h e n t h e r e a r e t r u t h s o f number t h e o r y w h ic h ,
them t o b e l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e a x io m s .
t h e o r e m by s a y i n g t h a t i t shows t h e f o l l o w i n g t o be i n c o m p a t i b l e :
( i ) The i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e : f o r every
s e n t e n c e S o f number t h e o r y , e i t h e r S o r i t s c o n t r a d i c t o r y f o l l o w s
l o g i c a l l y from t h e i n f o r m a l a x io m s .
( i i ) The p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H i s r e c u r s i v e ,
( i i i ) As a l o g i c a l map, H i s a d e q u a t e - i . e . c o m p le te and
a c c u ra te : ev e ry se n te n c e o f t h e in fo rm a l th e o r y has a co rre sp o n d in g
t h e i n f o r m a l c o m p l e te n e s s p ro b le m t o a p r e c i s e c o m b i n a t o r i a l q u e s t i o n ;
(2 ) t h e u s e o f f o r m a l i z a t i o n i n d e c i d i n g i f a g i v e n s e n t e n c e f o l l o w s
l o g i c a l l y from t h e a x io m s ; (3 ) t h e u s e o f ( i n f o r m a l ) a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i n
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 7 -
e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f c o n t e n t ; a n d (4 ) t h e u s e o f ( i n f o r m a l ) a x i o m a t i z a t i o n
h e n c e H i s a d e q u a t e f o r number t h e o r y w i t h o u t t h e s e n t e n c e A, and Hw
i s a d e q u a t e f o r number t h e o r y w i t h o u t A, b u t H^. i s n o t a d e q u a t e f o r
number t h e o r y w i t h A, s i n c e ( i i ) is v io la te d . The s u c c e s s o f (3 )
( i n f o r m a l l y ) i n a d e q u a t e , a nd number t h e o r y w i t h A a s axiom i s a d e q u a t e .
e v e r y t r u e s e n t e n c e t o have a r e c o g n i z a b l e p r o o f - and h e n c e i s
im p o ssib le .
The n e x t tw o c h a p t e r s a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e e x p o s i t i o n and e x a m i
n a t i o n o f tw o c o l l e c t i o n s o f f o r m a l t h e o r i e s e a c h o f w h ic h i s , in a
c e r t a i n se n se , c o m p le te . Our i n t e r e s t i n th em w i l l b e t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e o r y i m p o s s i b l e , and makes t h e p r i c e o f i n f o r m a l c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e
t o w a r d t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i s u n d e r t a k e n ?
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 8 -
CHAFTEft I I
it.
I n h i s i n f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y C a n t o r p r o v e d a t h e o r e m T w h ic h
s a y s t h a t t h e power s e t o f a g i v e n s e t h a s h i g h e r c a r d i n a l i t y t h a n
t h a t o f th e g iv en s e t . G iven e l e m e n t a r y s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l n o t i o n s s u c h
as u n io n , i n t e r s e c t i o n , s u b s e t , and o r d e r e d p a i r s , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
o r d e r e d p a i r s s u c h t h a t i f ( a , b ) a nd ( c . d ) a r e members o f t h e s e t ,
th en a * c i f f b * d. Two s e t s a r e e q u in u m e ro u s i f t h e r e i s a 1 -1
p a irs, i ts r a n g e i s t h e s e t o f s e c o n d m e m b e rs .) A s e t A i s of h ig h er
c a r d i n a l i t y t h a n a s e t B i f f B i s e q u in u m e ro u s w i t h some s u b s e t o f A
s u b s e ts of th e g iv en s e t . So w h a t T s a y s i s t h a t f o r a n y s e t A, t h e r e
n o t b e tw e e n A and t h e f u l l P ( A ) . The c l a i m e d f u n c t i o n i s e a s i l y
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-2 9 -
s u p p o s e we f o r m a l i z e s e t t h e o r y i n a f o r m a l s y s te m F, t h e n t h e w f f o f
F w h ich c o rresp o n d s t o T w i l l lo o k l i k e t h i s :
n - ( E f ) ( 0 ( f ) n D (f)= x n R ( f ) « p ( x ) ) )
t h e r e i s a 1 -1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n a s u b s e t o f P(N) and N b u t n o t b e tw e e n
w ritte n : C ( t ) = N ) , ^ t h e n a w f f o f F c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o T(N) i s
n - ( E f ) ( 0 ( f ) n D (f) * t n R (f) * p ( t ) ) .
T(N)W i s a f o r m a l th e o r e m o f F . Thus i n t h e f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y F t h e
e x is t e n c e o f n o n c o u n ta b ly i n f i n i t e s e t s w i l l be p r o v a b le . But by t h e
Lowenheim-Skolem (L -S ) m e t a - t h e o r e m , e v e r y f o r m a l i z e d t h e o r y h as a
c o u n t a b l e m o d e l, i . e . t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y i n
w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e o v e r a u n i v e r s e w h ic h i s c o u n t a b l e and i n
w h ic h a l l t h e t h e o r e m s o f t h e f o r m a l i z e d t h e o r y a r e t r u e . T h is seems
t o be a c o n tr a d ic tio n : we c a n p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f C ( p ( t ) ) and t h e
f o r m a l th e o r e m T(A)W s a y s t h a t i t i s n o t c o u n t a b l e ; how t h e n c a n t h i s
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 0 -
22
fo rm al th e o r y have a c o u n ta b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ? Now l e t us com pare
f o r m a l t h e o r y - i . e . t h e u n i v e r s e o v e r w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e may
be t a k e n t o be t h e n a t u r a l n u m b e rs , t h e n - a r y p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r s a s
s e t s o f n - t u p l e s o f n a t u r a l n u m b e rs , e t c . , and a l l t h e f o r m a l th e o r e m s
s u p p o s e we f o r m a l i z e some n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , e . g . b i o l o g y . W i l l an y o n e
b e t r o u b l e d by t h e f a c t t h a t , in a d d it io n t o th e in te n d e d i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l t h e o r y a s b i o l o g y , i t w i l l a l s o have a n i n t e r p r e
s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t F a l s o p o s s e s s e s s u c h a m o d el? I n s u c h a m o d e l, Tw
w i l l n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s T, n o r T(N) w a s T (N ), b u t r a t h e r a s
s e n t e n c e s o f number t h e o r y , s i n c e t h e s i n g l e t w o - p l a c e p r e d i c a t e
l e t t e r o f F w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e l a t i o n i n NxN. Hence i n t h i s
m o d e l, t h e r e w i l l b e no t h e o r e m o f F i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s s e r t i n g t h e
e x i s t a n c e o f a n o n - d e n u m e ra b le s e t . A l l we n e e d remember i s t h a t th e
w f f s o f a f o rm a l s y s te m have no m ea n in g a t a l l u n t i l a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
t o e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e n t e n c e s i n t h e d e n u m e r a b le m odel p r o v i d e d by
t h e L-S m e t a - t h e o r e m .
th e o re tic a l. I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e s u c h m o d e ls i n w h ic h t h e u n i v e r s e
o v e r w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e i s a u n i v e r s e o f s e t s , and t h e tw o -
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-3 1 -
p l a c e p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s c l a s s m e m b e rs h ip . Hence t h e
a l t h o u g h Tw and T(N)W w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s th e o r e m s o f s e t t h e o r y ,
t h e y w i l l n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s T and T ( N ) . To s e e t h i s , c o n sid e r th e
o f t h e d e n u m e ra b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n t h e q u a n t i f i e r " ( z ) " r a n g e s
o v e r V i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and C ( p ( x ) ) w i l l ha v e a s members a l l
t h e s e c o n d c l a u s e o f Tw r a n g e s o v e r V. So, w h a t i s a s s e r t e d b y Tw i n
Now s i n c e V i s c o u n t a b l e , c e r t a i n l y i t i s n o t t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s
w i t h w h ic h C a n t o r o p e r a t e d i n a s s e r t i n g T . Thus Tw i s a g a i n n o t b e i n g
p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h r e s p e c t t o T(N)W, C a n t o r ' s u n i v e r s e U i s r i c h e r t h a n
V i n tw o w a y s: U d oes c o n t a i n a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) and t h e s e t
w h ic h was t a k e n a s p ( t ) i n V* and i n U, C ( p ( t ) ) i s a d i f f e r e n t s e t
( s i n c e t h e r e a r e s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) w h ic h a r e i n U and n o t i n V) s u c h
t h a t II does n o t c o n t a i n a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) a n d i t s ( U 's )
in te rp re ta tio n of p ( t ) . Thus i n t h e c o u n t a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Tw i s
s t i l l s a y t h a t i n : a n y s e t t h e o r y i n w h ic h T i s a t h e o r e m t h e r e w i l l be
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 2 -
Of c o u r s e , we know a C a n t o r i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f s e t s d e t e r m i n e d
by p r o p e r t i e s ( e x p r e s s e d b y a n u n r e s t r i c t e d c o m p r e h e n s io n axiom ) i s
i n c o n s i s t e n t as i t im p lie s R u s s e l l 's p a ra d o x . I t h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by
t h e so f a r t r o u b l e - f r e e n o t io n o f s t a r t i n g w i t h a w e l l - d e f i n e d t o t a l i t y
of th in g s ( s e t s o r n o t ) and a d o p t i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f e x t e n t i o n w h e re b y
members o f t h e o r i g i n a l t o t a l i t y a r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r t o form s e t s
w h ic h a r e t h e n added t o t h e t o t a l i t y an d become m a t e r i a l f o r f u r t h e r
ex te n tio n s. D i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n abound c o n c e r n i n g w h ic h p r i n c i p l e s
o f e x t e n t i o n a r e t o be a l l o w e d ; f o r o u r p u r p o s e s t h e i m o o r t a n t
p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t o f fo rm in g t h e power s e t . G iv e n a t o t a l i t y o f sefcs
some o f w h ic h a r e c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e , a r e we t o r e c o g n i z e a p r i n c i p l e
w h i c h a d d s t h e power s e t o f e a c h t o t h e t o t a l i t y ? (l) I f we do ( e . g .
2 7 0 - 2 ) , t h e n t h e a rg u m e n t above w i t h r e s p e c t t o 1^ s t i l l a p p l i e s . For
Tw t h e r e a r e s t i l l two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e : one i n a u n i v e r s e
i n w h ic h t h e power s e t p r i n c i p l e i s e m p lo y e d , and t h u s t h e r e a r e n o n -
a s T ( U ) , a n d one i n a u n i v e r s e i n w h ic h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f pow er s e t s i s
t o t h e r e a l power s e t o f x - i . e . t o t h e s e t o f a l l s u b s e t s o f x - b u t
r a t h e r t o t h e p o o re r s e t o f a l l s u b s e ts o f x found i n t h i s u n i v e r s e .
(2 ) I f we do n o t ( e . g . f o l l o w i n g Putnam i n SHOENKAN, c h a p . 1 8 , e s p .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 3
h a v e , s t a r t i n g from a g i v e n u n i v e r s e V, i s t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e s e t o f
a l l s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) w h i c h a r e a l r e a d y i n V. By t h i s an d o t h e r
e x t e n t i o n s we may r e a c h a r i c h e r u n i v e r s e V* i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e new
s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) , i n w h ic h c a s e we c a n form a l a r g e r s e t o f s u b s e t s o f
w i l l o n l y be a b l e t o draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n t h i s u n i v e r s e C ( t )
a n d i t s " p o w e r s e t " a r e n o t e q u in u m e r o u s . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o
s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e i s n o r i c h e r u n i v e r s e i n w h ic h t h e y a r e e q u in u m e r
ous. Thus i n e v e r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F t h e r e w i l l b e s e t s w h i c h a r e
n o t c o u n t a b l e i n t h e u n i v e r s e o f t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and we may v e r y
c o u n ta b le . Wang’ s s y s te m i s s o d e s i g n e d t h a t we a lw a y s h a v e s u c h new
i n te r p r e ta t io n s a t hand.
What w i l l t h e c o u n t a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F l o o k l i k e ? The
key i s t o l i m i t t h e u n i v e r s e t o s e t s w h ic h w i l l b e u s e d a s t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f theorem s e x p l i c i t l y s t a t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s e t s .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n e v e r t h e r e i s a th e o r e m o f t h e fo rm " ( E y ) ( y = x F x )"
t h e r e i s s o m e th in g i n t h e u n i v e r s e t o c o r r e s p o n d t o x F x , an d o n l y s u c h
s e t s a r e a llo w e d i n th e u n i v e r s e . From s u c h a l i m i t a t i o n t h e
s i n c e t h e e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e f o r m a l s y s te m a r e e n u m e r a b l e , a n d t h e r e
f o r e C ( p ( t ) ) w i l l be c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e ; (2 ) s i n c e Tw an d T(N)W a r e
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-3 4 -
o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) a nd C ( p ( t ) ) , and t h e r e f o r e (3) th e
f u n c t i o n w h ic h i s c l a i m e d t o e x i s t i n ( l ) when i t i s s a i d t h a t C ( p ( t ) )
i s c o u n t a b l e m u st b e l o n g t o a r i c h e r u n i v e r s e o f s e t s t h a n t h a t o f t h e
g iv en i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h is s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f i n i n g a
s t r o n g e r f o r m a l t h e o r y whose i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l i n c l u d e t h i s r i c h e r
u n i v e r s e , and i n w h ic h t h e c o u n t a b i l i t y o f C ( p ( t ) ) i s p r o v a b l e . The
r e a s o n t h a t Tw and T(N)W w i l l n o t b e c o n t r o v e r t e d i n t h e s t r o n g e r
th eo ry is t h is : t h e q u a n t i f i e r s o f Tw and T(N)W w i l l b e i n d e x e d t o
show w h e t h e r t h e y a r e m eant t o r a n g e o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e o f t h e w e a k e r
t h e s t r o n g e r t h e o r y t h e t e r m p ( t ) no l o n g e r d e f i n e s t h e power s e t o f
C (t): i n t h e s t r o n g e r t h e o r y i t s e l f t h e power s e t o f C ( t ) i s o f
have W a n g 's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s S .
S i m p l i f y i n g somewhat, we may d e s c r i b e S a s f o l l o w s : th e
a b l e i s i t s i n d e x : t h e o r d e r o f a w f f w i t h no q u a n t i f i e r s i s t h e o r d e r
a t l e a s t one h i g h e r t h a n t h e o r d e r o f t h e q u a n t i f i e d v a r i a b l e , and t h e
same f o r t e r m s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a t o r ; t h e o r d e r o f
a t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l compound o f w f f s i s t h e o r d e r o f t h e h i g h e s t w f f i n
t h e empty s e t , i t e r a t i o n s o f b r a c k e t i n g t h e empty s e t , a nd a l l f i n i t e
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■35-
i s s a i d t o b e o f o r d e r a i f some te r m t o w h ic h i t c o r r e s p o n d s i s o f
order a . A t e a c h o r d e r t h e s e n t e n c e s ( c l o s e d w f f s ) o f t h a t o r d e r make
up t h e s e t t h e o r y o f t h a t o r d e r . Sin ce a l l s e n te n c e s in v o lv e q u a n ti
f i e r s a n d /o r a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a to r s , th e s e t th e o r y o f a giv en o rd e r i s
24
t h e t h e o r y o f s e t s o f lo w e r o r d e r s o n l y . S i n c e a t o r d e r 0 we have
a l l f i n i t e c o m b i n a ti o n s o f b r a c k e t i n g s o f t h e em pty s e t , in p a r tic u la r
t o s t a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n we n e e d t o q u a n t i f y
o v e r i n f i n i t e s e t s , h e n c e we m u st b i n d a v a r i a b l e x-^. So e l e m e n t a r y
number t h e o r y f i r s t a p p e a r s a t o r d e r 2 , i n S g . A g a in , n - t u p l e s (n
n u m b e rs , w h ic h a r e i n f i n i t e s e t s o f f r a c t i o n s ( i . e . ordered p a ir s ) a re
l e v e l S g,
Now t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r e n l a r g i n g t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s
u n iv erse s of s e t s . T h a t i s , f o r any g i v e n f o r m a l t h e o r y , we w a n t t o
a d o p t a m in im a l m o d e l , and t h e n u s e a m ore p o w e r f u l t h e o r y w i t h a
r i c h e r m odel t o p r o v e t h e e n u m e r a b i l i t y o f t h e pow er s e t s o f t h e f i r s t
m o d el. However, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f h i g h e r t y p e s e t t h e o r i e s i s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t to express t h is a t t i t u d e ; e v e n Sg a s a f o r m a l s y s te m i s
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-36.
open t o d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s : in a d d it io n to th e c o u n ta b le
u n i v e r s e , t h e r e i s t h e n o n - c o u n t a b l e one g i v e n b y t h e pow er s e t
p r i n c i p l e ( f o r t h o s e t o whom i t i s i n t e l l i g i b l e ) and o t h e r s . If a
s u f f i c i e n t l y r i c h m odel f o r S£ i s c h o s e n , t h e r e may b e no f o r m a l
s e ts of S 's u n iv e rs e .
2 The s t r a t e g y o f l i m i t i n g t h e u n i v e r s e t o t h o s e
i s a c c o m p li s h e d r o u g h l y a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) t h e r e i s a t h e o r e m on r e c u r
siv e d e f i n i ti o n s ( g o in g b a c k t o D edekind) w h ic h s a y s t h a t i f a s e t o f
o r d e r a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d r e c u r s i v e l y i n Sa , t h e n a s e t o f o r d e r a + 1
c a n b e d e f i n e d s u c h t h a t when i t r e p l a c e s t h e f i r s t s e t i n t h e
tw o axiom s i n e a c h Sa w h ic h p r o v i d e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s e t s (asid e
axiom o f c o m p r e h e n s io n : f o r e v e r y open s e n t e n c e F ( x a _ i ) t h e r e e x i s t s
t h e s e t o f a l l s e t s o f o r d e r a - 1 w h ic h s a t i s f y t h e open s e n t e n c e - i . e .
xa _ ^ (x a _ ) e x i s t s .
2 2 The o t h e r i s t h e axiom o f p a i r s e t s : g iv e n any
two s e t s t h e r e e x i s t s a s e t h a v in g e x a c t l y t h o s e tw o a s i t s members -
e x ists. Thus f o r e a c h s e t w h ic h c a n be p ro v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa t h e r e
a , »
w i l l b e a t e r m xa - l F ( xa - l ) naming i t . Now t h e s e t o f s u c h t e r m s i s
r e c u r s i v e ; v i a t h e a r i t h m e t i z a t i o n o f s y n t a x we c a n g i v e a r e c u r s i v e
w h i c h c a n b e p r o v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa . By ( l ) , in S a + 2 we can d e f i n e
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
■37-
o r d e r a w h ic h e x i s t a r e t h o s e w h ic h c a n b e p r o v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa .
Thus i n a n y m odel o f Sa + 2 , t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o f o r d e r a w i l l be
c o u n t a b l e , a n d c a n b e p r o v e d t o b e c o u n t a b l e i n Sa + 2 .
An i n t e r e s t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e ax io m o f l i m i t a t i o n i n Sa+2
i s t h a t t h e u n d e c i d a b l e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa g i v e n b y G B d e l's i n c o m p l e t e
n e s s th e o r e m become d e c i d a b l e i n Sa + 2 . R o u g h ly , t h e p r o c e d u r e i s t o
d e f i n e i n Sa+2 t h e n o t i o n o f a f i n i t e sequence o f s e ts of o r d e r a
( u s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t Ea e n u m e r a t e s t h e s e t s o f o r d e r a ) , and t h e n t o
g i v e a d e f i n i t i o n o f T a r s k i ' s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e l a t i o n (TARSKI, c h a p . 8 ,
e s p . p p . 1 9 0 -5 ) b e tw e e n f i n i t e s e q u e n c e s o f s e t s o f o r d e r a a n d t h e
se n te n c e s o f o rd e r a . From t h i s t h e s e t o f t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa can
be d e f i n e d i n Sa+2 a n d i t c a n b e p r o v e d t h a t a l l t h e th e o r e m s o f Sa
are tr u e . Hence t h e n o n - t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa w i l l n o t be t h e o r e m s :
t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Sa i s p r o v a b l e i n Sa+ 2 . S i n c e t h e GBdel s e n t e n c e s
o f Sa a r e p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s e n t e n c e a s s e r t i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y
2S
o f Sa , t h e y t o o w i l l b e p r o v a b l e i n Sa + 2 . T h u s , i f we c o n s i d e r t h e
u n i o n o f a l l Sn f o r n f i n i t e , i t seems t h a t a l l t h e u n d e c i d a b l e
s e n t e n c e s o f t h e GBdel t y p e w i l l be d e c i d a b l e i n t h e u n i o n , and t h e
c o n s i s t e n c y o f e a c h s y s te m i n t h e u n i o n w i l l b e p r o v a b l e i n t h e u n i o n .
However, U Sn , n f i n i t e , i s s t i l l a f o r m a l s y s te m ; i t s proof p re d ic a te
is s t i l l re c u rsiv e . F o r , t o b e a p r o o f o f U Sn i s t o b e a p r o o f i n
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 8 -
p r e s e n t e d w i t h a p u t a t i v e p r o o f , we know i m m e d ia te ly i n w h ic h Sn i t
c o u l d b e a p r o o f , and t h e n c a n a p p l y t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p r o o f f o r t h a t
27
Sn t o t e l l w h e t h e r i t i s r e a l l y a p r o o f . Thus i n S g , s i n c e we have
number t h e o r y , we c a n r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f t h e w h o le U Sn .
I f we t h e n a p p l y G B d e l's c o n s t r u c t i o n t o t h i s p r o o f p r e d i c a t e , t h e
a t i o n a xiom a r e t h o s e b a s e d up o n t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f Sa , o r o f
lo w e r s y s t e m s , and o n l y t h o s e . We s e e t h e n t h a t U Sn a d e q u a t e l y
e x p r e s s e s t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f " r e l a t i v e e n u m e r a b i l i t y " t o w a r d s
e x i s t e n c e o f c e r t a i n r e a l num bers c a n o n ly be f o r m a l i z e d by t a k i n g
t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers o f o r d e r a c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y f o r m a l i z e d i n
Sa + , and so o n .
3 So, i n o r d e r t o g e t a u n i f i e d t h e o r y o f r e a l n u m b e rs ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
■39-
we n e e d some way o f t a l k i n g : a b o u t a l l t h e f i n i t e o r d e r s a t o n c e : we
p a s s on t o t h e f i r s t t r a n s f i n i t e s y s te m (V a ria b le s of o rd e r w
o f Sn f o r n f i n i t e an d h e n c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t
p u rp o se .) In th e t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers c a n be u n i f i e d : is
H ow ever, i n o r d e r t o r e i n f o r c e o u r a t t i t u d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o u n t a b i l i t y
of th e u n iv erse of th e i n t e r p r e ta t io n o f we a r e f o r c e d t o c o n t i n u e
th e h ierarch y . (We w o u ld a l s o l o s e e v e n t h e l i m i t e d r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g
t h e p r o v a b i l i t y o f c o n s i s t e n c y a n d GBdel s e n t e n c e s i f we s t o p p e d a t
S +- . )
1 B u t a s s o o n a s we t a k e one m ore s t e p i n t h e h i e r a r c h y t h e u n i f i -
\Jj J.
c a t i o n o f r e a l num ber t h e o r y i s l o s t : a g a i n we m u st t a k e t h e u n i o n o f
a l l Siu+n. But t h e a rg u m e n t g i v e n a b o v e c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f
nTJ Sr\ w i l l h o l d a s w e l l f o r t h e u n i o n o f a n v- i n f i n i t e h i e r a r c h v o f
a Ub Sa f o r an y l i m i t o r d i n a l b - w i l l s u f f e r t h e same d e f e c t a s nUw Sn .
h i e r a r c h y a l l t h e way up t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s and t h e n t a k e t h e
u n i o n S o f a l l t h e s y s te m s t h u s g e n e r a t e d .
L e t us now e v a l u a t e t h e f u l l S w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t h r e e
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-40.
S i n c e f o r e v e r y s y s te m S& t h e r e i s Sa + g i n w h ic h t h e e n u m e r a b i l i t y o f
t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o f t h e m odel o f Sa c a n b e p r o v e d , S f o r m a l l y
a l l t h e G B d e l-ty p e s e n t e n c e s o f Sg b e p r o v e d . ) A l l p r o p e r s u b s y s te m s
t o o l i n f o r m a l i z i n g m a t h e m a t i c s , and i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e f u l l S
th e s e t of c o n s tru c tiv e o rd in a ls is n o t re c u r s iv e . S in c e th e y a r e to
b e t h e i n d i c e s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f S, e v e n t h e s e t o f sym bols o f S i s
z a t i o n o f t h e w h o le h i e r a r c h y S, b u t o n l y o f p r o p e r s u b s y s te m s o f i t .
Now l e t us r e c a l l t h e d i s t i n c t i o n made i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r b e tw e e n t h e
use of a x io m a tiz in g a g iv en d i s c i p l i n e i n th e p ro o f th e o r y o f th e
d i s c i p l i n e , and i t s u s e i n r e d u c i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e t h e o r y . A.s we
saw t h e r e , b o t h f o r t h e s a k e o f r e d u c t i o n o f c o n t e n t , a nd f o r t h e s a k e
o f p r o o f t h e o r y , t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n m u st b e c o m p l e t e . T his
means t h a t e a c h t r u e s e n t e n c e o f t h e t h e o r y m u st f o l l o w b y l o g i c a l o n e
w h e re we a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a n a rg u m e n t fro m t h e axiom s t o a c o n c l u s i o n ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4 1 -
l o g i c a l l y im p ly a l l t h e t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f t h e t h e o r y . By f o r m a l i z i n g
t h e t h e o r y i n t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s we o b t a i n a n o rm a l form f o r
l o g i c a l l y v a l i d p r o o f s w h ic h i s r e c u r s i v e , and so e n a b l e s us t o d e c i d e
c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u n d n e s s o f a ny g i v e n p r o o f ( o f t h a t f o r m ) , and t h e
i n f o r m a l c o m p l e te n e s s p ro b le m i s r e d u c e d t o a c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o b le m .
from f o r m a l i z i n g i s i n f a c t u n a t t a i n a b l e : i f we r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o
a no rm a l form f o r p r o o f s i n w h i c h t h e s e t o f p r o o f s i s r e c u r s i v e , t h e n
t h e s e t o f s e n t e n c e s f o r w h ic h t h e r e a r e p r o o f s from t h e axiom s i s
a lw a y s a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f t h e s e t o f t r u e s e n t e n c e s . The q u e s t i o n f o r
p ro o f th eo ry of th e in fo rm al d i s c i p li n e ? In p a r t i c u l a r , w i l l th e
i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r o j e c t o f h a v in g p r o o f s f o r a l l t h e t r u e s e n t e n c e s ?
The i n f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y w h ic h S f o r m a l i z e s i s " c o n s t r u c t i v e ” :
i t s g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t t h e r e i s no c l o s e d t o t a l i t y o f a l l s e t s
e x te n sio n s of th e t o t a l i t y p o s s ib le . Thus t h e id io m s o f q u a n t i f i
c a t i o n i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e n t e n c e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e s e t t h e o r y m u st
b e r e l a t i v i z e d t o t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o v e r w h ic h t h e y r a n g e , ( i t is
t h i s r e l a t i v i z a t i o n w h ic h t h e o r d i n a l i n d i c e s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f S
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4 2 -
b e -wholly u n i f i e d ; i t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e f u l l S s u f f e r s t h e f r a g
m e n t a t i o n o f r e a l num ber t h e o r y j u s t a s e a c h l i m i t s y s te m d o e s ; t h i s
i s a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e w h ich e x p re s s e s th e c o n s t r u c t i v i s t v ie w p o in t.
Now s u p p o s e we h a v e s u c h a s e n t e n c e and we w i s h t o e i t h e r p ro v e o r
d isp ro v e i t . I f we c a n f i n d t h e w f f o f S t o w h ic h i t s h o u ld c o r r e s p o n d ,
have t h e t y p i c a l p ro b le m o f f i n d i n g a p r o o f i n a f o r m a l s y s te m w i t h a
t o w h ic h t h i s w f f b e l o n g s i s G'6del i n c o m p l e t e , so we m u st a t l e a s t
p a s s t o t h e s y s te m tw o l e v e l s h i g h e r b e f o r e we s t a r t h u n t i n g f o r a
pro o f. B u t , a s we saw a b o v e , s u c h p a s s a g e o n l y c u r e s t h e i n c o m p l e t e
n e s s b r o u g h t on b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e ( f o r m a l i z e d ) p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r
t h a t s y s te m ; b u t we c a n f o r m a l i z e i n a n y s y s te m Sa , a 2 th e proof
p r e d i c a t e s o f e a c h o f t h e s y s te m s o f jS. T h u s , i f we p i c k an y p a r t i c u
l a r s y s te m o f S f o r o u r s e a r c h f o r a p r o o f o f o u r c h o s e n w f f , o u r
p r o o f p r o c e d u r e s u f f e r s from p r e c i s e l y t h e same i n c o m p l e t n e s s t h a t
f i r s t o r d e r num ber t h e o r y d o e s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f we t a c k l e t h e
f u l l S, we m u st f a c e i t s w i l d n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y . L e t us s e e e x a c t l y
w h a t i t t a k e s t o r e c o g n i z e a p r o o f o f S ; a n d w h e re t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f
s h a l l have t o c h o o s e a n o t a t i o n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s ; l e t u s
p p . 2 0 5 -1 3 ) t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e ( a t b e s t ) a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n f g s u c h
t h a t i f n i s a member o f a c e r t a i n s u b s e t O' o f 0 , t h e n f g ( n ) = 0 , ^
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■43
th en f(n ) = 2 . B u t i f n i s i n n e i t h e r O' n o r P, t h e n f g ( n ) = 1 .
i t s m em b e rsh ip i n 0 . So f a r from b e i n g r e c u r s i v e , t h e s e t 0 i s
c e d u r e f o r g u a r a n t e e i n g a n y r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t m em bership i n
•2*2
n o t a t i o n s f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s , t h e n we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y d e c i d e
u s e d a s s u b s c r i p t s f o r v a r i a b l e s w h e t h e r o r n o t i t i s a w f f , and f o r
a n y s e q u e n c e o f s u c h s e q u e n c e s o f sym bols w h e t h e r o r n o t i t i s a
p ro o f. In o th e r w ords, th e s e t o f p r o o fs , l i k e th e s e t o f w f f s , i s
r e c u r s i v e _in t h e s e t o f s y m b o l s . But th e s e t o f p ro o fs i s n o t r e c u r
o r d i n a l s w ould a l s o be r e c u r s i v e , t h u s : f i r s t , to t e s t a s trin g X of
s im p l y t e s t ( x ^ (x-fj *= x ^ ) f o r w f f i t y . So t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r
S - X i s a p r o o f o f I i n S, i . e . t h e s e q u e n c e X o f w f f s o f S i s a
p r o o f i n S and W i s t h e l a s t member o f X - i s l i k e w i s e n o t r e c u r s i v e .
Thus e v e n i f we c a n f i n d a w f f i n S c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s e n t e n c e o f
in fo rm a l c o n s tr u c tiv e s e t th e o r y , a s e a rc h f o r a form al d e r i v a t i o n o f
t h i s w f f i n t h e f u l l S i s n o t a t a l l l i k e s u c h a s e a r c h i n some s u b
s y s te m o f S: i n t h e l a t t e r we s e a r c h t h r o u g h a n i n f i n i t e r e c u r s i v e
c l a s s , w h i l e i n t h e f o rm e r we s e a r c h t h r o u g h a c o m p l e t e l y
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4 4
s till fe lt: i f we l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o a r e c u r s i v e p r o o f - r e c o g n i t i o n
p r o c e d u r e , t h e n we c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e c l a s s o f w f f s h a v i n g p r o o f s
s t r u c t i v i s t p o i n t o f v ie w , e v e n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . Of
i s open t o d o u b t . What e v i d e n c e do we ha v e t h a t S f u l f i l l s c r i t e r i o n
o f c o n s t r u c t i v e m ethods c a n n o t be c h a r a c t e r i z e d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , if
o n e 's c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n (a n d n o t j u s t a
m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r a t e g y ) t h e n i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o be s u r e t h a t S
c o m p le te ly co v e rs in fo rm a l c o n s t r u c t i v e s e t t h e o r y . We may have
s t r o n g i n d u c t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h a t h y p o t h e s i s - a nd i t i s t o s u c h e v i
o f S - b u t t h a t i s t h e b e s t we c a n g e t . Some p a r a l l e l s w i l l b e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f w f f s o f f i r s t o r d e r number t h e o r y - i . e . gram
m a t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f i d io m s o f a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , q u a n t i f i
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45 -
t h e w h o le c o n t e n t o f a d i s t i n c t m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e - t h e t h e o r y
o f w h o le n u m b e r s . By c o n t r a s t , f o r th e i n t u i t i o n i s t , i t is a m a tte r
o f p r i n c i p l e t h a t no f o r m a l i z a t i o n c o u l d be known t o b e a c o m p le te
l o g i c a l map: c o r r e c t m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s r e a s o n i n g w h ic h m a t h e
m a t i c i a n s a c c e p t , a nd a t b e s t a n y f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t l o g i c
o r any f o r m a l i z a t i o n , f o r t h a t m a t t e r - s h o u ld b e c l o s e t o t h a t o f t h e
in tu itio n ists.
To sum m arize o u r e v a l u a t i o n o f S: s i n c e e a c h s u b s y s te m i s
i n c o m p l e t e e x c e p t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e f u l l S, and s i n c e t h e f u l l S
i s n o t r e c u r s i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z a b l e , t h e dilemma f o r i n f o r m a l a d e q u a c y -
e i t h e r th e p ro o f re c o g n itio n procedure i s n o t r e c u r s iv e , o r i t is n o t
a s a l o g i c a l map i s o pen t o d o u b t .
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- 46 -
CHA.FTER III
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r a p p l i e s t o a n y o f t h e s t a n d a r d
IV. We u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s : i f F i s a ny
I f n i s t h e number o f a n y f o rm u la F t h e n n # i s F . F o r any n a t u r a l
number n, n i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m a l n u m e r a l ( u s u a l l y 0 f o l l o w e d b y
r e s p o n d t o s y n t a c t i c o p e r a t i o n s - e . g . p r e f i x i n g a t i l d a t o a f o rm u la
m ig h t c o r r e s p o n d t o m u l t i p l y i n g by t h r e e . So t h e r e i s a p r i m i t i v e
* - F '. But i f we w i s h t o f o r m a l i z e a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e
e x a m p le , t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f "No f o rm u la s t a r t i n g w i t h a t i l d a h as
s y n t a c t i c o p e r a t i o n l i k e n e g a t i o n , c o n j u n c t i o n , s u b s t i t u t i o n e t c . , we
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-4 7
The same p h r a s e o l o g y a p p l i e s t o p r e d i c a t e s ( i n c l u d i n g r e l a t i o n s ) , e . g .
t h e o r e t i c r e l a t i o n w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s v i a t h e GlJdel nu m b erin g t o t h e
o f a s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n - f ( x i , . . . , x n ) * xn+ i r e p r e s e n t s t h e n u m b er-
t h e o r e t i c f u n c t i o n F (m ^ ,. . . , ^ ) i f f f o r e v e ry m ^ , . . . , ! ! ^ ,
11 i f F (m ^ ,...,m n )
= r , t h e n (— f ( m i , . . . , m n ) “ r - p e n d in g o u r d i s c u s s i o n b e lo w . F o rm al
f u n c t i o n s o f more t h a n one a rg u m e n t w i l l b e w r i t t e n f ( x ^ , . . . , x n ) ; f o r m a l
of th em se lv e s. Thus we d i s p l a y t h e w f f i t s e l f , b u t u s e i t a s i f i t
w h ic h do n o t c o n s i s t o f t h e w f f s t h e m s e l v e s .
F o rm al i n c o m p l e t e n e s s means t h a t t h e r e i s same w f f W s u c h t h a t
n e i t h e r W n o r -W i s p r o v a b l e . The i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s situ
a t i o n i s t h a t t h e r e i s some p r o b le m w h ic h c a n n o t b e s o l v e d u s i n g t h e
i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , t h e p ro b le m i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y u n s o l v a b l e : we know t h e
f o r a l l n , J— Gn. Thus i f we ha v e f a i t h t h a t i n t h e s t a n d a r d i n t e r p r e
a l l n , Gn c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c t r u t h . L e ttin g S be th e
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-4 8 -
have a s o l u t i o n . Thus i f we s o u g h t t o s t r e n g t h e n o u r a x i o m a t i z a t i o n s -
f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l - w i t h minimum r i s k o f a r r i v i n g a t f a l s e t h e o r e m s ,
a l l n , n tS " t o th e l a t t e r . Of c o u r s e t h e r e s u l t on t h e f o r m a l s i d e ,
b e i n g a f o rm a l s y s te m , i s s t i l l s u b j e c t t o G B d e l’ s c o n s t r u c t i o n .
F u r t h e r p r o g r e s s i s a lw a y s p o s s i b l e . The q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r i t i s
p o s s i b l e , by a n e x t e n t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e , t o a c h i e v e c o m p l e t e n e s s ,
m e n t io n two a m b i g u i t i e s w h i c h i n f e c t a l l a c c o u n t s o f G B d e l's w o rk -
e s p e c i a l l y t h e se c o n d t h e o r e m .
a n d n o t i t s n e g a t i o n , c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f number t h e o r y . T h is
s i s t e n t - i . e . we assum e t h a t t h e y a r e , b u t n o one h as a n y r e a l
d o u b t s - and b y c o n t r a p o s i t i o n we g e t n o t [— -G n . S ince th e fo rm al
t h e o r y i s c o m p le te f o r q u a n t i f i e r l e s s f o r m u l a s , ]— Gn. So o u r c o n f i d e n c e
i s u l t i m a t e l y b a s e d upon o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e
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-4 9 -
t h e f o r m a l c o n j u n c t i o n f u n c t i o n a n d P ( x ; y ) i s t h e f o rm a l p r o o f
p re d ic a te ).. F u r t h e r m o r e , i f we a r e p r e p a r e d t o w ork s e r i o u s l y w i t h a
s e t o f a x io m s , we s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e a d d i t i o n o f new
a xiom s b a s e d n o t o n l y on o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e
b y F e fe rm a n b y c o n s i d e r i n g v a r i o u s c l a s s e s o f l i k e l y f o r m u l a s and t h e
r e s u l t o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e f o r m a l ax io m s by e a c h .
s poke o f P ( x ; y ) a s t h e f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f t h e f o r m a l s y s te m .
s i n c e t h e o b v io u s a n s w e r , n a m e ly j— P ( m ; n ) i f f 4 i s a p r o o f o f raff-- a n d
|— - P (m ;n ) i f f m# i s n o t a p r o o f o f n # , i s w r o n g . V a r io u s f o rm a l
r e l a t i o n s c a n b e d e f i n e d w h ic h m e e t t h i s c o n d i t i o n w h ic h do n o t
e x p r e s s t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e a n d s o c a n n o t be t h e , o r e v e n a_, f o r m a l
proof p re d ic a te . To s e e t h i s , n e t s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g h e l d : ( l) Pat
v e r y r o u g h l y ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e a p p e n d i x ) , G’6 d e l ' s s e c o n d t h e o r e m
shows t h a t t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f a n a x i o m a t i c s y s te m c a n n o t b e a t h e o r e m
c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n F, and (3 ) i f a n y f o r m u la
R (x jy ) e x p re s s e s th e p ro o f p r e d i c a t e o f F , th e n th e w ff - (E x ) R ( x ;n ) ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i
-5 0 *
M0ST0WSKI, p p . 2 3 -4 we f i n d t h e f o r m a l r e l a t i o n R ( x ; y ) = d f P ( x ; y ) n - P ( x ; m ) ,
w h e re m# i s 0 / 0, w h i c h f u l f i l l s t h e above c o n d i t i o n . (F o r, sin c e
0 / 0 i s n o t p r o v a b l e , we w i l l n e v e r ha v e P (n;m ) p r o v a b l e , and s i n c e
P ( x ; y ) i s r e c u r s i v e , we have - P ( n ; m ) p r o v a b l e , f o r a l l n . So i f n# i s
a p ro o f o f r $ , th e n R (ii;r) i s p ro v a b le . And i f n ^ i s n o t a p r o o f o f
r # , t h e n - P ( n ; r ) i s p r o v a b l e , and h e n c e - R ( n ; r ) i s a l s o p r o v a b l e . ) But b y
i s - ( E x ) ( P ( x ; m ) n - P ( x ; m ) ) w h ic h i s p r o v a b l e i n F b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c
alo n e I By ( 2 ) t h i s w f f o u g h t t o e x p r e s s a s t a t e m e n t w h ic h i m p l i e s F ' s
c o n s is te n c y , b u t th e n ( l ) w i l l be f a l s e . So t o m a i n t a i n ( l ) we m ust
in s u r e t h a t a fo rm al p r e d i c a t e R (x ;y ) i s a form al p ro o f p r e d i c a t e .
W hether i t i s n e c e s s a r y and w h a t c o n d i t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t w i l l b e c o n
p red icate P (x ;y ).
a t a t i m e , o r e v e n a r e c u r s i v e b a t c h a t a t i m e , we know t h a t G f td e l's
c o n stru c tio n s s t i l l a p p ly . We w i l l g e t s t r o n g e r b u t s t i l l i n c o m p le t e
axiom s i s n e e d e d : t r a n s f i n i t e p ro g re ssio n s o f th e o r ie s . We s t a r t w i t h
a t h e o r y A = Aq , w h i c h c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e s e t o f i t s a x io m s .
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t h e o r i e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a r e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r i e s w i t h t h e same
u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c , a n y d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e o r i e s i s t r a c e a b l e t o a
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r s e t s of ax io m s.) L et us suppose t h a t th e p ro
c e d u r e o f p a s s i n g from t o A j , ^ i s t o a d d a w f f e x p r e s s i n g t h e c on
s i s t e n c y o f An . Thus we h a v e d e f i n e d a n i n f i n i t e s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s
{ An*S# n f i n i t e . S i n c e t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s w h ic h a r e n o t p r o v a b l e i n
b u i l t by f i r s t d e f i n i n g a l o c a l e x t e n t i o n - i . e . some r e c u r s i v e c l a s s
of w f f s t o be added t o a n y g i v e n t h e o r y - and t h e n a l t e r n a t i n g t h e u s e
o f t h i s l o c a l e x te n tio n t o g e n e ra te a n i n f i n i t e sequence o f t h e o r i e s
d i s t i n g u i s h i n a n a t u r a l way b e tw e e n s u c c e s s o r t h e o r i e s w h ic h r e s u l t
from a l o c a l e x t e n t i o n o f a p r e v i o u s t h e o r y a nd l i m i t t h e o r i e s w h ic h
r e s u l t from u n i o n s . We may t h e n n o t e t h a t a n i n f i n i t e r e p e t i t i o n o f
t h e a l t e r n a t i o n of l o c a l e x t e n t i o n and u n io n w i l l produce an i n f i n i t e
s e q u e n c e o f l i m i t t h e o r i e s , whose u n i o n c a n a g a i n b e t a k e n t o form a
su p e r-lim it th eo ry . And s o on t o a s e q u e n c e o f s u p e r - l i m i t t h e o r i e s ,
t h e i r u n io n in a s u p e r - s u p e r - li m i t t h e o r y . . . . Of c o u r s e , t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n e x a c t l y m im ics t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r d i n a l n u m b e rs .
i n i t i a l i n f i n i t e se q u e n c e o f l o c a l e x t e n t i o n s , Aw i s t h e f i r s t l i m i t
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-52
th eo ry , \o x n ^o r n f i r s t sequence o f l i m i t t h e o r i e s ,
AJ> i s t h e f i r s t s u p e r - t h e o r y , an d s o o n . So we may t h i n k o f o u r p r o
w f f s o f t h e i n i t i a l t h e o r y A, e a c h s e t o f w f f s b e i n g t h e s e t o f axiom s
o f some t h e o r y o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n , s u c h t h a t f o r a l l o r d i n a l s o , o ' ,
t h e o r i e s c e n te r s around d e f i n i n g f u n c tio n s l i k e F .
axiom o f A * Aq ^ . F ( l ) = F ( 0 ) U { c o n g \ , w h e re ConQ i s a w f f
e x p r e s s i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Aq . T h i s p re s u m e s t h a t we h a v e overcome
t h e two a m b i g u i t i e s n o t e d : we h a v e c h o s e n a s t a n d a r d way o f d e f i n i n g
t h e f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r an y e i v e n f o r m a l t h e o r y , and we have
c h o s e n a p a r t i c u l a r w f f b a s e d upon t h a t f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e t o
ex press t h e c o n s is te n c y o f t h a t th e o r y . At t h i s s ta g e t h i s i s r e l a
f o rm e r a n d u s e (xX(-{(&y) P(_y ; x ) n ( E y ) P ( y ; n ( x ) ) ) f o r t h e l a t t e r . As
l o n g a s n i s f i n i t e , t h i s c a n b e r e p e a t e d f o r a l l An . F(w) * U An , n
p r o o f p r e d i c a t e P ^ C x jy )? I n t h e f i n i t e c a s e t h e r e i s n o p ro b le m : th e
g e n e r a l form o f a n y f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e P ( x ; y ) i s
Sx n ( z ) ( L ( z ; x ) D (Mz v ( E w ) ( E u ) ( L ( w * x ) n L ( u ; x ) n D (w ;u ;z)) n L ( y ; x ) ,
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-53-
w f f o f X, Z i s a n axiom ( o f w h a t e v e r t h e o r y i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d ) ,
c o n s e q u e n c e o f W. F o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y An we n e e d o n l y p u t a
some o f t h e q u e e r p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y u s i n g q u e e r ax io m
fro m Pn ( x ; y ) i s a m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s . V ia t h e GSdel n u m b e r in g , t h e r e
w h e re Pn# i s Pn ( x ; y ) . So f o r t h e i n i t i a l f in ite , of
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n we p r o c e e d a s f o l l o w s : g i v e n Aq an d MqX we fo rm
t h e above e q u a t i o n , a n d t h e n P ^ ( x ; y ) , e t c . , so t h e sequence lo o k s l i k e
n D (w ;u;x))J n L (y ;x ) w h i c h i s PQ( x ; y )
Mqx v x = c (P q ) w h i c h i s Mjx
( z ) ^ L ( z ; x ) 3 (Mjx v ( E w ) ( E u ) ( L ( u ; x ) n L (w ;x ) n
n D (w ;u ;x ))j n L (y ;x ) w hich i s P j ( x ; y )
e tc .
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54-
The f i r s t s p o t w h ic h t h i s p r o c e d u r e f a i l s t o h a n d l e i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n
o f M, x - t h e f o r m u la w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f axiom s o f AUJ .
B e f o r e we a t t a c k M^x, n o t i c e w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d . We s t a r t e d
b e e n a s s o c i a t e d a f o r m u la En x w h i c h d e f i n e s t h a t s e t . In f a c t i t is
f o r l a c k o f one s u c h f o r m u la - M^x - t h a t we f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o go
on d e f i n i n g F b e y o n d t h e f i n i t e o r d i n a l s . Thus t h e a b i l i t y t o d e f i n e
F d e p e n d s u p o n t h e p r i o r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n F ' w h ic h a s s i g n s
t h e f o r m u la Mn x t o e a c h o r d i n a l n . Once F ' i s d e f i n e d , F i s a u t o
What do we w a n t o f M^x? We w a n t i t t o d e f i n e t h e s e t o f
b u t o f c o u r s e we have no i n f i n i t e f o r m u l a s . ) What we n e e d i s a
v a r i a b l e and a q u a n t i f i e r t o r a n g e o v e r t h e s e t o f f o r m u l a s , n
numbers o f t h e f o r m u l a s Mnx a n d u s i n g t h e o r d i n a r y q u a n t i f i e r . A l l we
n e e d i s a f o r m a l p r e d i c a t e My s u c h t h a t Mn i f f n # i s one o f t h e
(E z)(P ( z ; s ( y , x
0 ) ) 3 6 (w h e re s ( x , y ) i s a f o r m a l s u b s t i t u t i o n f u n c t i o n ,
r e p l a c i n g ( a l l t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f ) t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e o f a fo rm u la
( h a v i n g o n l y one f r e e v a r i a b l e ) w i t h a f o r m a l n u m e r a l . Thus i f m# i s
Fx, t h e n r # i s Fn i f f s ( m ,n ) ■ r . ) We w i l l t h e n h a v e M^n i f f n#
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-55-
b e ) t h e n My n P g ( z ; s ( y , x ) ) i s a l s o r e c u r s i v e . So i f f - ( E y ) ( E z ) ( M y *
3*7
P g ( z ; s ( y , n ) ) t h e n t h e r e a r e m , r s u c h t h a t |— Mm n P g ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) .
r# is a proof of th e r e s u l t o f s u b s t i t u t i n g n f o r th e f r e e v a r ia b le of
j- P ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) i f m# i s MjX.
0 By e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n we g e t
Mwn . So t h e o n l y o u t s t a n d i n g t a s k i s t o f i n d a s u i t a b l e f o r m u la My.
T h a t t h e r e i s s u c h a f o rm a l p r e d i c a t e My i s c l e a r : sin c e th e
B u t f o r o u r p u r p o s e s i t i s n o t eno u g h t o know t h a t My e x i s t s , we m u st
•ZQ
show how t o c o n s t r u c t i t i n o r d e r t o g e t t h e f o rm u la M jx. L et us
f i r s t d e s c r i b e i n t u i t i v e l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f G' d e l
6
how t o fo rm P g ( x ; y ) . From t h e l a t t e r we c a n f i n d t h e f o rm u la e x p r e s s i n g
t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f A0 , n a m e ly Cong, a n d t h e n t a k e f o r M^x t h e f o rm u la
Mq x v x ■ ’ Cong1 . I n o t h e r w ords, th e p ro g re s s of t h e c o n s tr u c ti o n
lo o k s l i k e t h i s :
t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s , a nd C t h e f u n c t i o n w h i c h t a k e s
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-56-
res p o n d in g ; c o n s i s t e n c y f o r m u l a s . F u r t h e r , l e t D b e t h e tw o - a r g u m e n t
t h e s e f u n c t i o n s e x i s t and a r e p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e . Now we g i v e a
J ( 0 ) = G(Mqx )
J(n+ 1) - D ( j ( n ) , C ( P ( j ( n ) ) ) ) .
f u n c t i o n s C, D, and P, i t s h o u l d a l s o be c l e a r how t o f i n d t h e f o r m a l
f u n c t i o n s w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e m . ( F o r t h e g-eneral p r o c e d u r e , s e e
MENDELSON, p p . 1 3 5 - 4 2 . ) We a l s o ha v e a n e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e f o r
r e p l a c i n g r e c u r s i v e d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n s i n num ber
f o r m a l r e p r e s e n t i n g f u n c t i o n s o f t h e l a t t e r , we c a n c o n s t r u c t t h e
My - d f (E w )(y « j ( w ) ) .
t h e o r i e s - t h e f u n c t i o n F ' - up t o Aw+ i * We s t a r t w i t h a g i v e n s e t o f
w f f s - t h e ax io m s o f Aq - a nd a r e c u r s i v e p r o c e s s o f a d d i n g new axiom s
to any e x i s t i n g b a tc h - th e lo c a l e x te n t io n . T h is g iv e s a sequence o f
s e t s o f w f f s Ag, A ^ , • • . w h ic h we t a k e a s t h e s e t s o f axiom s o f t h e s e
th e o r ie s of th e p ro g re ssio n . S in c e t h e p r o c e s s o f p a s s i n g from An t o
An+^ i s r e c u r s i v e , we can g i v e a m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e d u r e f o r g e n e r a t i n g a
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-57
s e t o f w f f s ( M j x j s u c h t h a t e a c h w f f M^x r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s e t o f w ffs A^. A g a in , s i n c e { m ^ x| is e f f e c ti v e l y g e n e ra te d , th e s e t
f o r m a l p r e d i c a t e My t o r e p r e s e n t i t . S i n c e t o b e a n axiom o f A^ i s t o
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s t a n d a r d GBdel c o n s t r u c t i o n t o g e t P ^C xjy) a nd
39 /
Conw and t o c o n ti n u e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n . (We s a i d a b o v e t h a t we have
t o go on i n t o t h e t r a n s f i n i t e b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s n o t p r o v a b l e
we c a n f o l l o w G B d e l's c o n s t r u c t i o n t o f i n d a w f f s u c h t h a t n e i t h e r i t
n o r i t s n e g a tio n i s p rovable in ■ U An n f i n i t e . )
p r o g r e s s i o n - F ' - h a s u n d e rg o n e a n o t h e r s h i f t . In fo rm a liz in g th e
g r e s s io n t o a c t u a l l y be used t o b u i ld s tr o n g e r t h e o r i e s , th e f u n c t i o n
d e f i n i n g i t w i l l have t o e x i s t a s more t h a n a s e t o f o r d e r e d p a i r s :
we m u s t ha v e a r u l e e n a b l i n g u s t o c a l c u l a t e i t . The u s e o f s u c h a
f o r t h e r a n g e o f t h e f u n c t i o n ( s e e ROGERS, p . 28 , t h e f i r s t f o o t n o t e ) ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
— 58 "«
i s t o u s e a s u b s e t 0 o f N c a l l e d t h e s e t o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s w h ic h
m i r r o r s i n a somewhat r e d u n d a n t f a s h i o n ( s e e d e f i n i t i o n b e lo w ) t h e
t h e members o f 0 a r e n u m b ers, b u t s i n c e we h a v e a n o t a t i o n f o r u s e i n
c a l c u l a t i n g n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c f u n c t i o n s , i f o u r f u n c t i o n i s d e f i n e d on
0 we a r e a s s u r e d o f h a v i n g a n o t a t i o n f o r i t s d o m a i n .) (2) In
d e f i n i n g M^x we r e a s o n e d i n f o r m a l l y t h a t s i n c e Aw * U a n y axiom o f
t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o t h e e n t i r e sequence o f
fo rm u la s^ M ^ x ^ . Any i n f i n i t e s u b s e q u e n c e .x jw o u ld do a s w e l l .
Even i f some i s l e f t o u t , a l l t h e ax io m s i t w o u ld ha v e i n c l u d e d i n
Aw w i l l b e s u p p l i e d by a n y M j. w h e re i ^ > k . Thus i n f o r m a l l y i t is of
J J
d e p e n d upon w h ic h s e q u e n c e we p i c k : we w i l l w a n t Mn i f f n # i s one
F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n g i v e n a p a r t i c u l a r s e q u e n c e , we may
a n d e a c h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i l l l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a s My and Mjjx.
These d i f f e r e n c e s need n o t be t r i v i a l . To g i v e a c r u d e a n a l o g y ,
g r e a t e r th a n tw o . B u t o n l y t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i l l a l l o w us
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-59'
g iven a p a r t i c u l a r sequence, d i f f e r e n t in fo rm a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s of
i t w i l l l e a d t o f o r m u l a s w h ic h w i l l d i f f e r e v e n e x t e n s i o n a 1l y , i . e .
w i l l r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f axiom s f o r t h e s u c c e s s o r o f t h e l i m i t
i n a n o n - a r b i t r a r y way d e t e r m i n e w h ic h i n f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , and
h e n c e w h ic h o f t h e many e l i g i b l e f o r m u l a s , we s h o u l d a d o p t t o r e p r e s e n t
t h e s e t o f a x io m s o f t h e l i m i t t h e o r y . The p o i n t o f t h i s o b se rv a tio n
i s t h a t e v e n i f we s u b s t i t u t e a s e t o f n a t u r a l n um bers f o r o r d i n a l s i n
o r d e r to p ro v id e a n o t a t i o n f o r t h e p r o g r e s s io n f u n c t i o n , t h i s s e t of
o r d i n a l s f o r w h ic h i t s t a n d s i n : we n e e d a s e t o f i n d i c e s w h ic h w i l l
r e f l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t a t e a c h l i m i t p o s i t i o n we h a v e n o t one b u t many
( i n f a c t /V q ) T i m i t t h e o r i e s = one f o r e a c h f o r m u l a . In e t h e r w ords,
th e s tr u c tu r e of th e p ro g re ssio n i s n o t:
e t c . , b u t r a t h e r t h a t o f an i n f i n i t e l y b ran ch in g t r e e :
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-60'
e tc .
.» •
\
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n d i c e s a t t h e l i m i t p o i n t s
m u st r e f l e c t t h e way i n w h ic h t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a s w h i c h c o u ld b e
u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e l i m i t t h e o r y become a v a i l a b l e . T h e s e f o r m u la s a r e
a r r i v e d a t by f o r m a l i z i n g i n f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f s e q u e n c e s o f
N. F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , t h e f u n c t i o n m u st b e r e c u r s i v e i n o r d e r f o r t h e
f o r m u la M^x b a s e d upon i t t o s u c c e e d i n d e f i n i n g t h e l i m i t t h e o r y Aw .
( R e c a l l t h a t t h e p r o o f o f t h e a d e q u a c y o f M^x d e p e n d e d upon a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e c o m p l e te n e s s o f Aq w i t h r e s p e c t t o q u a n t i f i e r - l e s s f o r m u la s t o
t h e f o r m u la Mm n P o ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) . I f J i s n o t r e c u r s i v e , t h e n Mm - i . e .
in g en eral in Aq . ) I t is l e s s c l e a r w hat t o co u n t as an a c c e p ta b le
d e f i n i t i o n o f a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n on N, b u t i t i s p l a u s i b l e t o
o u r " i n f o r m a l 1' a p p a r a t u s f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e s e q u e n c e s t h e s y s te m o f
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
'61-
e q u a t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e s r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s . Each s e t o f e q u a tio n s ,
e v e n th o u g h t h e r e i s r e d u n d a n c y i n t h e f u n c t i o n s d e f i n e d , w i l l d e t e r
m ine a d i f f e r e n t f o r m u la My. C o n v e r s e l y , a n y f o rm u la My w h ic h i s t o
g r e s s i o n i s a s e t h a v in g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n i n f i n i t e t r e e w here t h e
p r o l i f e r a t i o n of i n d ic e s a t e a ch l i m i t p o in t i s d e te rm in e d by th e s e ts
o f e q u a t i o n s p r o v i d i n g r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e i n c r e a s i n g
s e q u e n c e s o f i n d i c e s up t o t h a t p o i n t . T h is i s p r o v i d e d by u s i n g t h e
s y s te m ^ 0 , o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i n s t e a d o f t h e o r d i n a l num bers a s
in d ic e s. 0 c o n s i s t s o f a s u b s e t o f N an d a r e l a t i o n w h ic h a r e
d e f i n e d ( f o l l o w i n g ROGERS, p p . 2 0 8 - 9 ) t h u s : t h e o r d i n a l number z e r o
re c e iv e s th e n o ta tio n 1 ; i f t h e o r d i n a l number o r e c e i v e s x a s a
n o t a t i o n t h e n t h e o r d i n a l o+ l r e c e i v e s 2 X a s a n o t a t i o n , and f o r a l l
f u n c t i o n f ( i n t h e f o r m a l i s m o f t h e s y s te m o f e q u a t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e s
i s o and f o r a l l i , j £ N , i f i < j t h e n f ( i ) * ^ o f ( 3 )» t h e n 0 re c e iv e s
3x5® a s a n o t a t i o n , and f o r a l l z s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s a n n £ N f o r w h ic h
f y i n g t r e e i n w h ic h e a c h b r a n c h i s w e l l - o r d e r e d b y ^ Q , b u t n o t a t i o n s on
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-62-
d e f i n i n g a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n on N whose r a n g e i s a s e t o f o r d i n a l
o r d i n a l s i s o, t h e r e i s a u n iq u e n o t a t i o n f o r o . ^ Thus t h e f i n a l
Now F e fe rm a n p r o v e s t h a t we can a lw a y s f i n d s u c h a n F * ’ r e c u r s i v e ,
p r o v i d e d t h a t Aq i s r e c u r s i v e a nd t h e l o c a l e x t e u t i o n s a r e made r e c u r
F ’ ' ( n ) * * £m s u c h t h a t F " i s p r o v a b l e i n A q| ( i . e . i f r # i s
Qx t h e n r* * £m s . t . |— ^ t h e n f o r a l l m,mj.£ 0 , i f m<^Qm',
A t t h i s p o i n t we m u st t a k e n o t e o f tw o f e a t u r e s o f 0 w h ic h w i l l
e v e n t u a l l y b e i m p o r t a n t i n m ak in g t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s r e s u l t p o s s i b l e and
th e s u b s e t 0 o f N i s co m p le te ly n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e . A l th o u g h we m ay, i n
t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e e i t h e r f o r i d e n t i f y i n g members o r f o r
h ig h m o r t a li ty r a t e . C onsider t h e t r e e o n ly a s f a r as The t r e e
branches i n f i n i t e l y a t each p re c e d in g l i m i t o r d in a l , i . e .
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63
o
uj , iwx2, . . . , w x n , . . . . Thus b e f o r e you g e t t o uj th e t r e e has
X 0 *X o"* = ^ ^ ^ tra n c h e s.
0 Up t o t h i s p o i n t t h e r e i s n o p r o b le m ;
h a v in g an u n c o u n t a b l e number o f b r a n c h e s i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h - h a v i n g a
c o u n t a b l e num ber o f n o d e s . B ut e a c h b r a n c h i s s u p p o s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
h a s a n u n c o u n t a b l e number o f n o t a t i o n s w h ic h i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
o
fa c t th a t 0 is a subset of N. So m o st o f t h e b r a n c h e s d i e b e f o r e uj .
Thus f o r e v e r y l i m i t o r d i n a l o+w 11 t h e r e w i l l be an u n c o u n ta b le
i n f i n i t y o f p a t h s w h ic h w i l l be d e f i n e d up t o b u t n o t f o r o+w11. Thus
t h e s e p a t h s w i l l b e m ax im a l - i . e . n o t c o n t a i n e d i n a n y l a r g e r p a t h -
b u t w i l l not s t r e t c h th e le n g th of th e t r e e .
s p e c i f i e s s i x d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f f o r m u la s w h i c h o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n
( - ( E x ) P q ( x ; 'L * ) ; (2 ) t h e f o rm u la c h o s e n a b o v e a s e x p r e s s i n g c o n
|~ ( x ) ( E y ) P ( y ; s ( ' L x , , x ) ) ;
0 (5 ) a l l f o r m u la s o f t h e fo rm
( x ) ( E y ) ? o ( y ; s ( : L x : x ) ) D (x )L x ; (o ) a l l f o r m u l a s o f t h e form
( x ) ( ( E y ) P ^ ( y ;s ( * L x ',x ) ) D L x ). The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s a r e p r o v e d
among th em ; g i v e n an y i n i t i a l t h e o r y A;
A = A + ( l ) c A + ( 2 )C A + (3 )C A+(4) * A+(5) * A + ( ) . 6 A ll s ix c la s s e s of
f o r m u la s a r e r e c u r s i v e , an d w h e n e v e r t h e l o c a l e x t e n t i o n up o n w h ic h
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64-
a n d n t 0 t h e n F ( n ) $ i s t h e f o r m u l a Mn x w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f axiom s
w h i c h r e s u l t s fro m a l o c a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a x io m s d e f i n e d b y F (m )$;
( c ) i f n *= 3x5® an d n t O , t h e n F ( n ) $ i s a f o r m u l a w h ic h d e f i n e s t h e
u n i o n o f t h e s e t s o f f o r m u la s d e f i n e d by F M ( f ( k ) ) $ , k e N , w h e re e i s
GBdel n u m b e r s , b u t a g i v e n s e t o f e q u a t i o n s h a s o n l y o n e . Now t h e r e
w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n f and f i s d e f i n e d f o r a rg u m e n t
n , t h e n ( m ) (n ) = f ( n ) . Thus we c a n r e f o r m u l a t e ( c ) :
in d ic e s f o r th e o r ie s in th e p ro g re s s io n . N e v e rth e le ss, i f F ?! i s
g o i n g t o b e r e c u r s i v e we m u st p r o v i d e some v a l u e f o r t h e s e a r g u m e n t s .
The d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t 0 i s n o t r e c u r s i v e ; we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y s p o t
on N w hose r a n g e i s a n i n c r e a s i n g s e q u e n c e o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i s
n o n -e ffe c tiv e . Of c o u r s e , t h i s n o n - e f f e c t i v i t y i s t h e n i n h e r i t e d by
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-65-
n i t i o n o f F ’ * overcom es t h i s d i f f i c u l t y by a d o p tin g ; a u n i f o r m p o l i c y
m o st c a s e s t h i s p o l i c y w i l l b e h a r m l e s s b e c a u s e F '* ( 3 x 5 e ) w i l l n o t b e
number o f a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n and t h a t ( e ) ( n ) £ 0 f o r a l l n fN , b u t
d i l l i g e n t l y fo rm t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s f o r t h e in d e x 3x5®, i . e .
e x p e c t t o g e t p r e t t y w i e r d r e s u l t s , a s we s h a l l s e e .
t h e i n t e r e s t o f s u c h p r o g r e s s i o n s - s e e o u r c o n c l u s i o n b e lo w .
g r e s s i o n s b a s e d upon t h e l o c a l e x t e n t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o one o f t h e
th e o re m d e a l s e x p l i c i t l y w i t h c l a s s ( ) , b u t a p p l i e s a f o r t i o r i t o
2
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 66 -
n o t a t i o n f o r t h e o r d i n a l inhw+ l . The r e f e r e n c e t o a g i v e n o r d i n a l
n o t a t i o n m p o i n t s t o t h e way i n w h ic h 4 . 1 w i l l b e u s e d : we w i l l i n
g e n e ra l s t a r t w ith a th eo ry and t h e n w a n t t o f i n d a n e x te n d e d
t h e o r y w h ic h i s r i c h e r b y ( a t l e a s t ) on e ( t r u e ) th e o r e m (x )B x , a n d i s
re su lt - i f m ^ m th e n A ^ C A ^ ,, -
1 so b y r e i t e r a t i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e we
num ber e p r o v a b l y s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n :
m+Qng i f f o r a l l i j n , ig R
(e) (n) =
3x5e ,
2 i f f o r some i $ n , x f K
c l a u s e o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s s u p e r f l u o u s , we c a n c a r r y t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g
t h e i n d e x o f a t h e o r y w hose s e t o f axiom s i s t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t s
whose i n d i c e s a r e t h e r a n g e o f t h a t f u n c t i o n . B u t on e o f t h e i n d i c e s
3x5 6
in t h i s range i s 2 . Thus A ^ ^ e c o n t a i n s A 3 x ^ e " i-t s own s u c c e s s o r I
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
'67-
w i l l be p r o v a b l e i n Agx ge i t s e l f . Now t h i s b i t o f h y p o t h e t i c a l
r e a s o n i n g we j u s t w e n t t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l l y c a n b e f o r m a l i z e d , i . e . t h e
t h e s i s t h a t i f R / N t h e n t h e GBdel f o rm u la o f Agx ge c a n b e p ro v ed i n
i s t h e GBdel f o r m u la o f Agx g e ) , a n d p ro v e d i n A q . N o te t h a t t h e p r o v a
b i l i t y o f t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l i s i n no way a f f e c t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t we
know t h e h y p o t h e s i s t o be f a l s e . B ut we c a n a l s o p r o v e i n
i n Ag x ge jja a n y c a s e ( i . e . i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e t h e r o r n o t R = N ), we
3
g e t (x)B x p r o v a b l e i n A g x 5 e . ( i t i s a r o u g h l y s i m i l a r a rg u m e n t w h ic h
c*
shows t h a t d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e same s e q u e n c e o f (GBdel
Now c o m p l e t e n e s s i s r e a c h e d b y s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f
4 .1 . F i r s t F e fe rm a n p r o v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r o g r e s s i o n s b a s e d upon
( 4 ) - ( 5 ) t h a t i f a l l t h e i n s t a n c e s o f a n y f o r m u l a Bx c a n b e p ro v ed i n
way o f p u t t i n g a n y t h e o r y on one p a t h o n t o a n y o t h e r p a t h - i . e . f o r
A ^ C A jjjti. U s in g t h i s a b i l i t y t o c o l l a p s e p a t h s , he t h e n shows t h a t
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e such t h a t f o r a l l n, ( e ) ( n ) £ 0 and Bn i s p r o v a b l e i n A (e ) ( n ) - ev e n
i f t h e r a n g e o f e c o n t a i n s n o t a t i o n s on d i f f e r e n t p a t h s - we c a n
e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d a t h e o r y on a n y p a t h we l i k e i n w h ic h (x)R x i s
p ro v ab le. Now c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e R: f o r e v e r y f o r m u la Bx
such t h a t t h e r e i s a p r i m i t v e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n e such t h a t ( e ) ( n ) is
t h e r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e o m e g a - r u l e t h a t p r o o f s o f t h e i n s t a n c e s o f Bx
m u st b e p r o v i d e d by a p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n d o e s n o t a f f e c t
c o m p le te n e ss . 4 5 What we h a v e s e e n s o f a r i s t h a t a s i n g l e u s e o f R
can b e m i r r o r e d i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n b a s e d upon ( 4 ) - ( 6 ) - i . e . w f f s
p r o v a b l e i n A q p l u s one u s e o f R c a n a l s o b e p r o v e d i n some t h e o r y o f
su p p o s e ( x ) ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( x ; y ; z ; w ) i s t r u e , B ( x ; y ; z ; w ) h a v in g no q u a n t i
t h a t (E w )B (m ;I;n ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n Aq, i . e . e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f
(Ew)B(m‘ i ; z ; w ) ( f o r f i x e d m a nd i ) i s pro v ab le in A q . S i n c e t h e in d e x
o f A q i s 1 , we ha v e t h e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n e : (e )(n ) = 1 p ro v id in g
t h e i n d e x o f a t h e o r y i n w h ic h (E w )B (m ;x;n;w ) i s p r o v a b l e f o r e a c h n .
Hence we c a n f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h ( z ) ( E w ) B ( m ; ! ;z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e . Of
c o u r s e , t h e n ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( m ;y ; z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n t h a t t h e o r y . Now we
can r e p e a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e f o r e a c h m. Thus we g e t a c l a s s o f i n d e c e s
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- 69 -
w h i c h we may t a k e a s t h e r a n g e o f a f u n c t i o n f s u c h t h a t f o r e a c h m,
( E y ) ( z ) (Ew)B(m;y; z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n . I f f i s r e c u r s i v e , we c a n
r e - a p p l y F e f e r m a n 's r e s u l t t o f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h
( x ) ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( x ; y ; z ;w) i s p r o v a b l e . But s in c e t h e r e i s a r e c u r s iv e
we may t a k e f a s r e c u r s i v e .
T h a t we c a n r e p r o d u c e t h e e f f e c t o f u s i n g R a n y ( f i n i t e )
i n o n l y a v e r y weak s e n s e . A f t e r a l l , th e p r o g re s s io n has th e
p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y on t h i s t r e e i s h a r d l y e x c i t i n g s i n c e we
c a n n o t g a t h e r u p a l l t h e t h e o r i e s on t h e t r e e i n t o a r e a s o n a b l e w h o l e .
I n d e e d , a t t h i s p o i n t W a n g 's h i e r a r c h y S a p p e a r s m a r k e d ly s u p e r i o r t o
F e f e r m a n 's p r o g r e s s i o n : f o r t h e f o r m e r , i f we a r e g i v e n any p a r t i c u l a r
c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l t h e n we can c h a r a c t e r i z e r e c u r s i v e l y t h e w h o le
h iera rc h y to t h a t o r d in a l. H e r e , b y c o n t r a s t , t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s we
n e e d f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s a r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e t r e e and do n o t f u n c t i o n
to g e th e r a t a l l . H ow ever, Feferma.n im p r o v e s h i s r e s u l t i n tw o s i g n i f i
t o go t o f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h a n y g i v e n t r u e w f f i s p r o v a b l e , an d
i m p o r t a n t , a l l t h e t h e o r i e s c a n b e g a t h e r e d up o n t o a s i n g l e p a t h ,
t h u s g i v i n g t h e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t we n e e d . T h i s m eans t h a t t h e r e i s a
p a th in 0 s u c h t h a t e a c h t r u e w f f i s p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y on t h i s
p a t h , a nd t h i s p a t h i s b o u n d e d - i . e . i t d oes n o t go t h e w h o le l e n g t h
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-70-
of th e t r e e . Of c o u r s e , t h i s p a t h i s m a x im a l. T h i s means t h a t you
c a n n o t c o l l e c t a l l t h e t h e o r i e s on t h i s p a t h i n one t h e o r y f a r t h e r o u t
on t h e p a t h s i n c e t h e p a t h d o e s n o t go a n y f a r t h e r o u t . If, per
i m p o s s i b l e , i t d i d , G B d e l's t h e o r e m w o u ld b e v i o l a t e d : ev ery th e o ry
has a r . e . s e t o f th e o re m s . S i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n on a p a r t i c u l a r
p a t h i s c u m u l a t i v e , t o go b e y o n d w ould mean g e t t i n g a s i n c l e c o m p l e te
th eo ry . Hence t h e p a t h m u st b e m a x im a l.
Now i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s i s t h e b e s t we c o u ld a s k f o r , c o n
s i d e r i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s o f G B d e l's t h e o r e m . A c o m p l e te r . e .
F ' 1 i s r e c u r s i v e , i t seems t h a t we c a n a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t t h e s e q u e n c e
o f t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p le te p a t h , w h e r e a s W ang's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s
o f t h e th e o r e m s o f t h e t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p le te b r a n c h w i l l b e r . e ,
s i n c e t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e o r i e s seems t o be r . e . . an d t h e s e t o f
th e o r e m s o f e a c h t h e o r y i s r . e . ^ 1® S in ce t h i s l a s t i s im p o s s ib le , l e t
u s exam ine t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p r o g r e s s i o n t o s e e w h e re
r e c u r s i v e p r o c e d u r e w h e re b y f o r a ny g i v e n t r u e w f f a t h e o r y c o u l d b e
f o u n d i n w h ic h t h a t w f f i s a t h e o r e m , and t h e n p u s h i n g t h a t t h e o r y
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-71-
p r o c e d u r e t o a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t t h i s t h e o r y , we m u st know t h a t t h e w f f
we s t a r t w i t h i s t r u e . O t h e r w i s e , a l t h o u g h we w i l l g e t a t h e o r y i n
w h ic h t h e w f f we s t a r t w i t h i s p r o v a b l e , we w i l l n o t w an t t o make u s e
of th a t th eo ry . R e c a ll th e sk e tc h o f th e p ro o f o f 4 .1 . S uppose (x)B x
is false . Then t h e r e a s o n i n g t h e r e w i l l no l o n g e r b e c o u n t e r - f a c t u a l :
siste n t. I f we n e e d t o know f i r s t t h e t r u t h o f a w f f b e f o r e we a p p l y
e f f i c i e n t p r o c e d u r e f o r p r o v i n g new th e o r e m s ! Now, n o t e t h a t i n t h e
s e q u e n c e o f o r d i n a l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e ( ) , e ( l ) , . . . m u st c o n t a i n t h e
0
0
s u c c e s s o r o f t h e o r d i n a l o f w h ic h 3x5 is a n o ta tio n . So t h e q u e s t i o n
o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e t h e o r y d e t e r m i n e d b y (x)B x v i a 4 . 1 c a n b e s e t t l e d
0
by e s t a b l i s h i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t 3x5 i s an o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n . Thus we
s e e t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n s t r u c t i b i l i t y , F e f e r m a n 's p r o g r e s s i o n o f
t h e o r i e s i s v e r y a n a l o g o u s t o W ang's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s : in b o th
c a s e s , i f we a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a n i n d e x we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d t h e
th e o ry d e te rm in e d by t h a t in d e x . But s in c e t h e s e t o f i n d ic e s i s n o t
e f f e c t i v e , we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t t h e w h o le s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s .
How a d e q u a t e i s t h e c o m p l e te b r a n c h o f t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o -
II
g r e s s i o n a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n f o r m a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f Godel
in c o m p le te n ess? We know t h a t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r t h e u n i o n o f t h e
t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p l e t e b r a n c h - c a l l i t "T" - c a n n o t b e r e c u r s i v e ,
s in c e T i s c o m p le te . L e t u s s e e w h e re i t s r e c u r s i v i t y f a i l s . When
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p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s e q u e n c e o f f o r m u l a s o f T, w h a t p r e v e n t s u s from
d e te rm in in g e f f e c t i v e l y w h e th e r or n o t i t i s a p r o o f o f T? S in ce T 's
s t o c k o f w f f s i s t h e same a s t h a t o f Aq , w ffh o o d i s n o t t h e p r o b le m .
S i n c e t h e i n d i c e s o f t h e s u b t h e o r i e s o f T do n o t a p p e a r a s sym bols o f
T, t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e s t a t u s o f t h e s e t o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i s n o t
c o m p le te b r a n c h , w h ic h i s t o s a y t h a t t h e r e i s some o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n
i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e e f f e c t i v e l y due t o t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f
0. S i n c e d e t e r m i n i n g axiom hood i s a n i n d i s p e n s i b l e p a r t o f d e t e r
m in i n g p r o o f n e s s , t h e l a t t e r s u f f e r s t h e same n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y a s
th e fo rm er.
Thus t h e r e a p p e a r t o b e tw o ways i n w h ic h t h e p r o g r e s s i o n c a n
b e u s e d t o f i n d new t h e o r e m s . We may p i c k u n s o lv e d p ro b le m s a b o u t
w h ic h we have s t r o n g i n t u i t i o n s and p lu g t h e w f f we f e e l t o b e t r u e
i n t o t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e f o r f i n d i n g t h e o r i e s i n w h ic h t h e w f f
w i l l b e a t h e o r e m , a nd t h e n p r a y we have n o t made a m i s t a k e . O r, we
f o r some o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s n we w i l l have f o ( n ) = Oj a nd f g i s r e c u r
s i v e , we may f o r m a l i z e t h e s e n t e n c e f o ( * 0 = 0 f o r e a c h n , and r e f u s e
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73-
d e s c r i b e d by F e f e m a n a s a n a u tonom ous p r o g r e s s i o n - p r o v i d e s t h e
s e c u r i t y w h ic h t h e f i r s t l a c k s , a n d i s o b v i o u s l y t h e more o r d e r l y
m e th o d . B u t , a s we n o t e d a b o v e , t h e s e t o f th e o r e m s o f t h e e n t i r e
a g a i n Gftdel i n c o m p l e t e . I f n o t h i n g i s v e n t u r e d , s o m e th in g m u st b e
lo st. J u s t a s w i t h W ang's S , t h e p r i c e o f p r o v i d i n g e v e r y t r u e w f f
w i t h a p r o o f i s t h e e x tr e m e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e c l a s s o f p r o o f s .
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-74-
CONCLUSION
a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r m a l s y s te m s t o i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e s - l o g i c and
k i n d s o f p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s e x i s t , we exam ined w h a t
f o r m a l i z a t i o n can c o n t r i b u t e t o th em , a n d w h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s
t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s t o map t h e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f s e n t e n c e s o f
E n g lish . I t s s u c c e s s d e p e n d s up o n t h e b r e a d t h o f i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y ,
i t s a c c u ra c y , and th e s e m i - e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e r e l a t i o n o f form al
d e r i v a b i l i t y w h ic h i s t o m i r r o r l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n . F i r s t o rder
a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n and t o im p ro v e i t s e f f i c i e n c y
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f G B d e l’ s p r o o f o f f o r m a l
p l a c e s c e r t a i n n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e s u c c e s s o f i n f o r m a l
a d e q u a t e r e d u c t i o n , a r e t o be a c h i e v e d . Of c o u r s e , i n t h i s form t h e
c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s y s te m s o f w h i c h Wang a n d F e f e m a n p r o v e d c o m p l e te n e s s
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75-
ev er, o ur p u r p o s e i n e x a m in in g t h e s e tw o s t r u c t u r e s was t o e v a l u a t e
second b e s t m ig h t b e . B o th a r e b a s e d u p o n a v e r y n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n t o
in co m p le te n ess: i f we d e s i r e t o r e t a i n p ro o f th e o ry in o rd er t o
i n c r e a s e t h e s t o c k o f known t r u t h s , t h e n we m u s t s a c r i f i c e c o m p l e t e n e s s .
So l e t u s g r a d u a l l y s t r e n g t h e n o u r t h e o r i e s so t h a t e v e n t u a l l y e v e r y
t r u t h can b e p r o v e d a t some s t a g e , t h o u g h a t no s t a g e w i l l a l l t r u t h s
be p r o v a b l e . Such a p r o c e d u r e , i t w o u ld seem , n e e d n o t ru n a f o u l o f
G B d e l's r e s u l t , s i n c e a t no p o i n t c o u l d one g a t h e r up a l l o f t h e
p a r t i a l t h e o r i e s i n t o one c o m p le te t h e o r y w i t h a r e c u r s i v e p r o o f
t h o r o u g h l y r e c u r s i v e , i . e . i f t h e r e i s a r e c u r s i v e p r o c e d u r e v i a w h ic h
a n y t h e o r y o f t h e s e q u e n c e c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e f i r s t , t h e n
i s r e c u r s iv e , and th e e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f a r e c u r s iv e
w i t h a n a d e q u a t e p r o o f t h e o r y i s a new dilemma o f i n f o r m a l i n a d e q u a c y
f o r t h e se q u e n c e a s ji w h o l e ; e i t h e r in c o m p le te n e ss or non-
c o n s t r u c t i v i t y , w h ic h p a r a l l e l s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o r
Of c o u r s e , t h e a rg u m e n t above o n l y shows t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e sequence c a n n o t be r e c u r s i v e . (A p a r a l l e l a rg u m e n t shows t h a t
i t cannot even be r . e . ) I n t h e tw o e x a m p le s we p r e s e n t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n
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76-
was a g r e a t d e a l w o rs e t h a n j u s t n o n - r e c u r s i v e : c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e
i s i t a n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n on c o m p l e te s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s i n
g e n e ra l? We c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t t h e l a t t e r m u st b e t h e c a s e . F or,
i n t h e s t a n d a r d m odel i f f n# i s t r u e i n t h e s t a n d a r d m o d e l . Now
s u p p o s e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c o m p le te s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s was a r i t h
m e t i c , i . e . f o r some w f f S x , Sn i s t r u e i n t h e s t a n d a r d m odel i f f n i s
an i n d e x o f a t h e o r y i n t h e s e q u e n c e . S in c e t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e
Pn ( x ; y ) o f e a c h t h e o r y Tn i n t h e s e q u e n c e i s r e c u r s i v e , t h e r e l a t i o n
P ( n ; x ; y ) - x i s a p r o o f o f y i n Tn - i s r e c u r s i v e i n t h e s e t o f
i n d e c e s , and h e n c e a r i t h m e t i c . So we w i l l have a r i t h m e t i c t r u t h
n e c e s s a ry consequence o f i t s c o m p l e t e n e s s an d t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f t h e
p ro o f p re d ic a te s of th e th e o r ie s of th e sequence. How w i l l t h i s
f a i l u r e a f f e c t in fo rm al p ro o f th e o ry ? ( l ) One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f
i n f o r m a l p r o o f t h e o r y was t o s p o t l o g i c a l ga p s i n p r o p o s e d p r o o f s and
t o i d e n t i f y t h e l o g i c a l l y sound o n e s . T h is was t o b e a c c o m p li s h e d by
l i s t p lu s l o g ic . F o r m a l i z a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d t h i s e f f o r t by m aking t h e
q u e s t i o n o f r e c o g n i z i n g ax io m s a n d v a l i d l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n s a f o r m a l
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
77
one. B u t i n t h e c a s e o f a c o m p l e te s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s , t h e f o r m a l
d i s c o v e r y p r o c e d u r e may a l s o b e t h e r e s u l t o f a f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n :
i f v a l i d p ro o fs a re r e c o g n iz a b le , th e n i f a p r o o f o f a giv en se n te n c e
e x i s t s we can f i n d i t . B ut i f p r o o f s a r e n o t r e c o g n i z a b l e , t h e n t h i s
r e s p e c t t o p r o o f r e c o g n i t i o n , Wang a nd F e fe rm a n f a c e d i f f e r e n t , b u t
e q u a l, d i f f i c u l t i e s . _If t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f s o f _S c a n b e f o u n d ,
e ffe c tiv e . B ut f i n d i n g s u c h w f f s i n g e n e r a l i n v o l v e s f i n d i n g i n d e c e s
fo r o rd in a ls. F o r F e f e r m a n t h e s t o c k o f w f f s i s c o n s t a n t , so f i n d i n g
w f f s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e g i v e n s e n t e n c e s i s no s p e c i a l p ro b le m .
a nd t h i s m ust b e done i n o r d e r t o c h e c k t h e v a l i d i t y o f p ro p o s e d
p ro o fs. N e i t h e r s y s te m can b e u s e d i n g e n e r a l t o c h e c k t h e s o u n d n e ss
of n u m b e r - th e o r e tic a l a rg u m e n ts. ( 2 ) A t h e o r e m i s a w f f f o r w h ic h
t h e r e i s a p r o o f , and e v e r y t r u e w f f i s a t h e o r e m o f b o t h s y s te m s .
B ut ( a ) f o r F e f e r m a n , s i n c e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a f o r m a l l y c o r r e c t
o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s , t o u s e t h e c o m p le te b r a n c h t o f i n d t h e o r e m s , we m u st
r e l y upon o u r r e s o u r c e s f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h e l a t t e r , a nd we have no
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-78-
Sa , a ^ 2 , t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s o f Sg n o t p ro v ab le i n Sa , o u r a b i l i t y t o
f i n d p r o o f s f o r t h e t r u e w f f s o f Sg d e p e n d s upon fin d in g o rd in a l
t r u e w f f a t h e o r e m , b u t i n o r d e r t o em ploy i t , we n e e d a n a u x i l i a r y
a rg u m e n t t h a t i t s p r e m i s s e s h o l d . The u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e w - r u l e
d e p e n d s up o n our a b i l i t y t o p r o d u c e s u c h a r g u m e n ts ; once we s e e t h a t
t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l m e th o d f o r d o i n g t h i s t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f Hw
becom es u n i n t e r e s t i n g f o r i n f o r m a l p r o o f t h e o r y . L i k e w i s e , when we
W ang's a n d F e f e r m a n 's s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s b r i n g s n o b e n e f i t s t o
in fo rm a l p ro o f t h e o r y , ( i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t im p ly t h a t
t h e s e s y s te m s a r e c o m p l e t e l y d e v o id o f i n t e r e s t . The a t t e m p t t o
d i s c o v e r new t h e o r e m s b y c o n s t r u c t i n g e v e r s t r o n g e r s u b s y s te m s o f e a c h
may b e v e r y f r u i t f u l , a nd o t h e r u s e s may a p p e a r ( s e e b e l o w ) . We a r e
only d is c u s s in g th e q u e s ti o n o f t h e i r c o m p le te n e s s.)
T u r n in g t o i n f o r m a l r e d u c t i o n , i t m ig h t b e t h o u g h t t h a t
c o m p le te s e q u e n c e s o f - t h e o r i e s a r e u s e f u l a t l e a s t f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
t h e r e i s a n i n f o r m a l l y c o m p le te a x i o m a t i z a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y number
t h e o r y w h ic h i s a d e q u a t e a s a n i n f o r m a l e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t
t h e o r y in a c t u a l l y p ro v in g th e o re m s . Would an a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n
f o r c o m p le te s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s b e i n o r d e r ? T h e r e a r e two
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-79-
t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e c o m p le te s e q u e n c e . T h i s s e t o f a xiom s w i l l b e
i n f o r m a l l y c o m p l e te , a nd h e n c e i t s u s e f o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s
be u s e f u l f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s s i n c e i t , l ik e th e s e t of tru e w ffs, i s
a n a ly z e , j u s t i f y , o r reduce t h i s s e t o f ax io m s t h a n t h e w h o le s e t o f
c e r n i n g t h e i n t u i t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f o u r a x io m s . He w r i t e s :
t h a t a c o n s i s t e n c y p r o o f m u s t b e a n a rg u m e n t w h ic h i s i n t u i t i v e l y l e s s
r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e m e th o d s u s e d i n t h e s y s te m t h u s p r o v e d c o n s i s t e n t .
e x t e n t i o n u s e d i n fo rm in g h i s p r o g r e s s i o n s " . . . p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e
a r e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t and t r u s t t h e a xiom s o f t h e l o w e s t t h e o r i e s ,
(S 2 f o r Wang. Aq f o r F e f e r m a n ) , t h e n we s h o u l d b e e q u a l l y p r e p a r e d t o
do s o f o r t h o s e o f h i g h e r l e v e l t h e o r i e s . Of c o u r s e , t h e s e t h e o r i e s
o f h ig h e r le v e ls a re s t r i c t l y s tr o n g e r th a n th o s e o f lo w er l e v e l s -
t h e r e a re w ffs of th e l a t t e r w hich a re o n ly p ro v a b le i n th e fo rm e r.
T h u s , s i n c e t h e axiom s o f t h e h i g h e r l e v e l t h e o r i e s do n o t f o l l o w
l o g i c a l l y from t h o s e o f t h e l o w e r l e v e l s , t h e e x a c t s e n s e i n w h i c h no
new r i s k i s i n c u r r e d by a c c e p t i n g t h e new a x io m s i s n o t c l e a r . As a n
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
-8 0 -
a n a l o g y , c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g a rg u m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n
j u n c t i o n R o f t h e axicsns o f R o b in s o n ’ s a r i t h m e t i c : by T a r s k i 's
e q u i v a l e n c e , i f R, t h e n "R" i s t r u e , a n d , o f c o u r s e , i f ” RH i s t r u e ,
t h e n "R” i s c o n s i s t e n t . Hence t h e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d c o n c l u s i o n
s t r o n g e r t h a n t h o s e f o r m a l i z e d i n a t h e o r y t o show t h a t t h e o r y c o n
i n t h e T a r s k i e q u i v a l e n c e t h a n m e e t s t h e e y e , and t h e same f e e l i n g
e v e n i f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s w e re a b s e n t , t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n
u s i n g t h e axiom A d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r m akes a n im m en se ly
s u p e r i o r r e d u c t i o n o f num ber t h e o r y t h a n e i t h e r s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s
c o u ld . I t h a s o n l y s e v e n a x io m s , a l l o f w h i c h a r e c l e a r and co m p e l
l i n g , w h ic h i s a s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e com plex t r a n s f i n i t e s e q u e n c e s
of th e o rie s .
I t m ust b e m e n t io n e d t h a t v a r i o u s s u b s y s t e m s o f t h e s e q u e n c e s
g r e s s i o n s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e f o r m a l l y a r e a l m o f num ber t h e o r y w h i c h c a n
t h e f u l l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s an d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s in fo rm al
sig n ific a n c e .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 1 -
w h i c h t h e y a r e u s e d i s n e c e s s a r y t o a v o i d s p u r i o u s p a r a d o x e s and
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p ro b le m o f d e f i n i n g a r e l a t i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n b e tw e e n
open w f f s a nd s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s beyond t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n o f
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( s e e a p p e n d ix ) i s a n exam ple o f t h e l a t t e r .
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX
I n c h a p t e r 3 we m e n t io n e d t h e problem o f c l a r i f y i n g t h e n o t i o n
o f e x p r e s s io n , as u sed e . g . i n sa y in g t h a t a w ff P (x ;y ) " e x p r e s s e s ”
t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f a f i r s t o r d e r number t h e o r y H. We t a k e t h i s t o
b e a n o r d i n a r y p r o b le m o f e x p l i c a t i o n : i n a r a t h e r lim it e d range
t h e r e i s an i n t u i t i v e u se of t h i s n o tio n ab o u t w h ich t h e r e i s a g re e
m e n t , b u t no c l e a r c r i t e r i o n . E v e ry o n e a g r e e s t h a t G B d e l's P ( x ; y ) f o r
H e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H. F u rth e rm o re , everyone a g re e s
( x ) - P ( x ; s ( p , p ) ) , w h e re p i s t h e GBdel number o f t h e w f f ( x ) - P ( x ; s ( y , y ) ) .
-(E y )P (y jB (x )) ) . I n H we c a n p ro v e 1 1 3 I , s o i f we c o u l d p ro v e I I i n
H, we c o u ld p r o v e I i n H, w h i c h G B d e l's f i r s t t h e o r e m t e l l s us we
s e n t e n c e "H i s c o n s i s t e n t " i s . A t a n y r a t e , we ha v e u n c o v e r e d a n o t h e r
p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n I I e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n t e n c e "H i s c o n s i s t e n t . "
I f we g e n e r a l i z e t h i s a l i t t l e , we h a v e : i f P (x ;y ) e x p re s s e s th e
p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n w f f s i n w h ic h i t i s com bined w i t h q u a n t i
f i e r s a n d t r u t h f u n c t i o n s e x p r e s s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e s composed
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 3 -
o f t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H a n d t h e v a r i o u s E n g l i s h id io m s o f q u a n t i
l a s t o b s e r v a t i o n we n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 3 t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t a
s u f f i c i e n t c o n d itio n f o r e x p re ssio n .
I t i s u s u a l i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o c ir c u m v e n t t h i s p ro b le m by-
s p e c if y in g t h a t th e w ff P (x ;y ) t o be used to e x p re s s th e p ro o f p r e d i
composed o u t o f a g i v e n P ( x ; y ) i s p r o v a b l e i n H, a nd P ( x ; y ) d o e s
r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n P ( x ; y ) e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o o f
p r e d i c a t e o f H. The r e a s o n s t h a t t h i s i s r e a s o n a b l e a r e tw o ; (l) fo r
t h e p r o o f o f G B d e l's f i r s t t h e o r e m t h a t I i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n H o n l y
t h e f a c t t h a t P ( x ; y ) r e p r e s e n t s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e i s u s e d . (So t h e
p r o o f w i l l go t h r o u g h a s w e l l f o r M o s t o w s k i 's p r e d i c a t e . ) I 's
u n p r o v a b i l i t y i n H d o e s n o t d e p e n d upon t h e f i n e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f
e x p re ssio n . Thus i f we r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o a P ( x ; y ) w h ic h r e p r e
s e n t s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e , we c a n n o t make I i n t o a t a u t o l o g y - o r a n y
(2 ) The a s s u m p t i o n o f c o n s i s t e n c y i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f i r s t t h e o r e m .
I f I I d i d n o t " e x p r e s s ” ( s o m e th i n g a t l e a s t a s s t r o n g a s ) c o n s i s t e n c y ,
H, we know t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o P ( x ; y ) r e p r e s e n t i n g H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e ,
" e x p r e s s e s " t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t o t h e r s do
l i k e w i s e - i . e . i t i s l i k e l y t h a t J?(x;y) e x p r e s s e s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e .
T a k in g t h i s s t r a t a g e m s e r i o u s l y f o r t h e moment, i t i s e a s y t o
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
\
-8 4 -
I I D I i s p r o v a b l e i n H, an d c o n s e q u e n t l y P ( x ; y ) e x p r e s s e s H ' s p r o o f
th e fo llo w in g :
1^- ( E x ) P ( x ; n ) D ( E x ) P ( x ; m ) .
II
(B) I f Gz i s a p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e p r e d i c a t e a nd i t s G odel
number i s n , t h e n f—■ Gz D ( E x ) P ( x ; s ( n , z ) ) .
(C) (E x )P (x ;n (y )) D ( E x ) P ( x ;n ( s ( y ,z ) ) ) .
(D) Pxy i s r e c u r s i v e .
t h e sy n ta x o f H i f P (x ;y ) does i n f a c t e x p re s s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e .
p r e d i c a t e i s f o r a l l w f f s o f H w h ic h s h o u l d e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f t h e
s y n t a x o f H t o be p r o v a b l e i n H when P ( x ; y ) i s u s e d i n f o r m in g t h o s e
w ffs. B ut t h i s w i l l n o t d o , s i n c e I I i t s e l f i s one s u c h w f f - H i s
c o n s i s t e n t - and i t i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n H. As i t s t a n d s , (A )-(D ) a r e
s u f f i c i e n t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y p e r m i t t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f I I D I i n H. We
h a v e no c l e a r i n f o r m a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f " e x p r e s s i o n , " an d (h e n c e ) no
The moment h a s p a s s e d , a nd we c a n t a k e t h i s s u g g e s t i o n s e r i
o u s l y no l o n g e r . F o r , o d d l y e n o u g h , I I D I _i£ p r o v a b l e f o r M o s t o w s k i 's
- ff
p r e d i c a t e R ( x ;y ) = d f P ( x ; y ) n - P ( x ; k ) w h e re k i s t h e G odel num ber o f
0 £ 0. Of c o u r s e , i f we s u b s t i t u t e f o r I I a w f f w h ic h s h o u l d e q u a l l y
w e l l e x p r e s s c o n s i s t e n c y , n a m e ly
( I l') ( x ) - P ( x ;k )
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85'
n o t o b v io u s how t o g e n e r a l i z e t h i s c r i t e r i o n . Something: l i k e d e r i v a -
b i l i t y o f a l l fo rm s o f G 'i d e l 's s e c o n d t h e o r e m m ig h t d o , w h e re e a c h
form was d e t e r m i n e d b y a d i f f e r e n t w f f e x p r e s s i n g c o n s i s t e n c y t a k i n g
th e p lace o f I I . But t h e n we a g a i n m u s t f a c e t h e c h a r g e o f a r b i t r a r i n e s s :
i f we r e q u i r e p r o v a b i l i t y o f t h e s e w f f s b e c a u s e t h e y e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f
H’ s s y n t a x , w h a t a b o u t a l l t h e w f f s w h ic h l i k e w i s e e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f H 's
s y n t a x w h ic h we know we c a n n o t p r o v e ? ( T h i s r e m a rk a l s o f o r e s t a l l s t h e
c a t e s w h ic h we ha v e come a c r o s s s a t i s f i e s ( A ) - ( D ) , t h i s may b e a c c i
d e n t a l , a n d c e r t a i n l y h a s no e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r .)
We b e l i e v e t h a t e x p r e s s i o n i s a c a s e o f l o g i c a l m a p p in g .
I n f o r m a l l y , we p r o p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u i v a l e n c e : th e w f f P (x ;y )
q u a n t i f i e r s and t r u t h f u n c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e a n a d e q u a t e l o g i c a l map
( v i a t h e l o g i c a l b a s e o f H) o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e s o f H 's
sy n ta x . T h i s w o u ld e x p l a i n why ( A ) - ( C ) , a n d | g I I D I , a r e n e c e s s a r y ,
b u tjg I I is n o t: t h e l a t t e r i s n o t r e q u i r e d f o r I I t o c o r r e c t l y map
t h e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f ”H i s c o n s i s t e n t ” w i t h o t h e r s e n t e n c e s o f H’ s
sy n ta x . I t a l s o e x p l a i n s w h a t i s w ro n g w i t h M o s t o w s k i 's R ( x ; y ) : if
I I b a s e d upon R ( x ; y ) i s a t h e o r e m o f l o g i c , t h e n i t d o e s n o t c o r r e c t l y
th e o rig in a l in s ig h t: t h e f u n d a m e n ta l s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n f o r m a l
t h e o r i e s and t h e t h e o r i e s t h e y f o r m a l i z e i s t h a t o f l o g i c a l m a p p in g .
E x p r e s s i o n f o r c l o s e d w f f s i s c o r r e c t l o g i c a l m ap p in g o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 6 -
s e n t e n c e s ; e x p r e s s i o n f o r open w f f s i s p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n f o r
c l o s e d w f f s b u i l t o u t o f th e m .
We c a n o n l y s k e t c h a n o u t l i n e o f how t h i s t h e s i s w o u ld be
d e v e lo p e d . The e q u i v a l e n c e w i l l ha v e t o b e b r o a d e n e d t o i n c l u d e ( l )
a l r e a d y g i v e n , a n d ( 2 ) s i m u l t a n e o u s e x p r e s s i o n o f many r e l a t i o n s by
Suppose we a r e o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t 0 a n d t h e
to 0 f o l l o w e d b y k p r im e s ( k ^ O ) . We c a l l 0 f o l l o w e d b y a n y number of
p r im e s ( i n c l u d i n g 0 ) a t e r m a n d l e t X b e a s y n t a c t i c v a r i a b l e ran g in g
m apping o f t h e s y n t a x o f H b y (a s u b s e t o f t h e ) w f f s o f H w i l l i n
s e n t e n c e N o f num ber t h e o r y , w h i c h l a t t e r w i l l b e e q u i v a l e n t v i a t h e
i s t h a t W m u st a l s o map S , Now c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f e r e n c e i n t h e
s y n t a x o f H:
(5 1 ) 0 is a term .
(5 2 ) I f X i s a t e r m , t h e n X* i s a term .
.•.(S 3 ) O’ i s a t e r m .
V ia t h e Gttdel n u m b e r in g , we s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f e r e n c e
i n num ber t h e o r y t o b e :
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 7 -
t h e r e i s a n m s u c h t h a t n+8 = 5+8m.
N ow w h i l e t h e f o n n e r i n f e r e n c e i s l o g i c a l l y v a l i d , t h e l a t t e r i s n o t r
own s y n t a x . Of c o u r s e , i f we u s e d
i n s t e a d o f (N 3 ), t h e n t h e l a t t e r i n f e r e n c e would b e l o g i c a l l y v a l i d
to o . I n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e o f ( N 3 ') i n s t e a d o f (N 3 ), we h a v e t o
b u t a s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n s e n t e n c e s o f H 's
n u m e r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n 5+8k m u st b e u s e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o 0 f o l l o w e d by
k p rim e s. F i n a l l y , t h e p ro b le m o f f i n d i n g f o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h a r e
n e c e s s a r y a n d / o r s u f f i c i e n t f o r e x p r e s s i o n i n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s y s te m s
need»? t o b e e x p l o r e d .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
FOOTNOTES
% e c h o o se t o t r e a t i n f o r m a l l o g i c a s a t h e o r y o f v a l i d a r g u
m en t r a t h e r t h a n a s a t h e o r y o f l o g i c a l t r u t h f o r tw o r e a s o n s . F irst,
s u c c e s s a r e du e t o i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , and t h e p o r t i o n
o f l o g i c a l v a r i e t i e s i s f a r o u tw e ig h e d b y t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n
tiv e (o r: much e a s i e r t o i n s t i l l ) th an th a t of lo g ic a l t r u t h . Of
P i a n d . . . a n d Pn , t h e n C" i s l o g i c a l l y t r u e . B ut s i n c e we c a n a l s o ru n
a d e f i n i t i o n i n th e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n - a se n te n c e i s l o g i c a l l y t r u e
i f f e v e r y a rg u m e n t h a v in g i t a s c o n c l u s i o n i s v a l i d - l o g i c a l t r u t h i s
no more g e n e r a l a n o t i o n t h a n t h a t o f v a l i d a r g u m e n t .
*%e s h a l l s p e a k o f s e n t e n c e s a s t r u e an d f a l s e , a s f u n c t i o n i n g
a s p r e m i s s e s and c o n c l u s i o n i n a rg u m e n ts a nd a s t h e e l e m e n t s o f
in feren ces. T h is c h o ic e i s a r b i t r a r y i n th e p r e s e n t c o n te x t: we w i s h
t o s k i r t t h e p ro b le m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h p r o p o s i t i o n s , s t a t e m e n t s , e t e r n a l
b e g any o f t h o s e q u e s t i o n s .
^ T h e re a r e tw o ways o f f o r m u l a t i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g r o l e t h a t A*
p lay s i n a p p ly in g l o g i c t o A. We may s a y t h a t A* i s a n a n a l y s i s o f A,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 9 -
t h a t i t r e v e a l s t h e r e a l c o n t e n t o f A, a n d h e n c e w h a t e v e r c o n c l u s i o n s
we r e a c h a b o u t t h e l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f A ’ a p p l y a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o A .
Or we may s a y t h a t s i n c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s a t h and A r f u n c t i o n s a s w e l l
a s A and i n a d d i t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s
w i t h o t h e r s e n t e n c e s , we c h o o s e t o u s e A* i n s t e a d o f A, e v e n t h o u g h i n
c e r t a i n o t h e r ways t h e y a r e m a r k e d ly d i f f e r e n t . P ro v id e d t h a t th e
ra n g e o f c o n t e x t s a n d p u r p o s e s i n w h i c h A a nd A ' a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e
i s w id e e n o u g h , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e two f o r m u l a t i o n s i s i n s i g
n ific a n t. E i t h e r w ay, t h e t h e o r y a nd t e c h n i q u e o f l o g i c d e v e lo p e d f o r
A 1 w i l l b e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h o s e c o n t e x t s and p u r p o s e s . The p r o v i n c e o f
lo g ic i s a p a r t i c u l a r use o f se n te n c e s - a rg u in g , or in fe r rin g - in
t h e p u r s u i t o f c e r t a i n e nds - e . g . c o m m u n ic a tio n o f i n f o r m a t i o n o f
c e r t a i n k in d s, t e s t i n g h y p o th eses, r a t i o n a l p e rs u a s io n . W hether we
o f t h e s e n t e n c e s we a c t u a l l y u s e , o r a v o l u n t a r y r e n u n c i a t i o n o f a l l
s e n t e n c e s w h ic h a r e n o t o f a c e r t a i n f o rm , i s i r r e l e v a n t .
^We s h a l l assum e t h a t e v e r y p r e d i c a t e i s a s s i g n e d a u n i q u e
p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r a nd e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l
o f d e s i g n a t o r s s u b j e c t t o t h e same t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l and q u a n t i f i -
e a c h s u c h w f f m u st b e a d e e p a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e n t e n c e : i t m u st b e
s u f f i c i e n t to account f o r a l l th e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h a t se n te n c e
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90'
i n t e l l i g e n t s tr a te g y in th e a p p lic a tio n of te c h n iq u e , b u t is
m is le a d in g i n an ac co u n t o f t h e o r e t i c a l ad eq u acy .
C
S ince o n ly c lo s e d w ffs w i l l be u sed t o c o rre s p o n d t o
s e n t e n c e s , D(W^,Wg) c a n be t a k e n a s f— o r W^t-Wg.
I t sh o u ld be c l e a r t h a t our n o t io n o f E n g lis h s e n te n c e i s an
t a k e n t o b e i r r e l e v a n t t o s e n t e n c e h o o d , e v e n t h o u g h s u c h f a c t o r s m ig h t
w f f s o f a r b i t r a r y l e n g t h may s t i l l c o r r e s p o n d t o E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s .
fa lse . Then t h e r e i s a s e n t e n c e C s u c h t h a t ( s a y ) l ( A ,C ) b u t n o t
c o n t r a d i c t s D*0% ,W b ) .
w i t h t h e p ro b le m o f t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e u s u a l s e t - t h e o r e t i c
s e m a n t i c s , he s u g g e s t s t h a t we r e p l a c e t h i s t y p e o f s e m a n t i c s w i t h
H e rb ra n d -ty p e p ro o f p ro c e d u re . H e rb ra n d showed t h a t t h e r e i s a
s y s t e m a t i c way o f t r y i n g t o f i n d a m odel f o r a w f f s u c h t h a t t h e w f f
h as no m odel i f f t h e a t t e m p t t o f i n d a m odel e n d s u p i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . .
t h a t we i n t e r p r e t t h e v a l i d i t y o f a w f f W a s t h e b r e a k i n g down o f t h i s
p r o c e d u r e when a p p l i e d t o -W. Of c o u r s e , t h e p r o c e d u r e i t s e l f i s
p u r e l y f o r m a l , s o i t a l o n e c a n n o t be t h e b a s i s o f t h e new s e m a n t i c s .
"The c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r -W i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y " m i g h t b e a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 1
o f s e t - t h e o r e t i c m odel an d t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e f o r m a l c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
b e n o . . . " o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e makes r e f e r e n c e t o a u n i v e r s e o f
a l l p o s s i b l e " o d e l s , n o t h i n g n e e d be known a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h i s
u n i v e r s e beyond t h e i r b e i n g p o s s i b l e m o d e ls - i . e . bey o n d t h e i r b e i n g
o r d e r e d n - t u p l e s , t h e f i r s t member o f w h i c h i s a s e t , and t h e r e s t o f
t h e members o f w h ic h a r e s u b s e t s o f C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f t h e f i r s t
member w i t h i t s e l f . I n p a r t i c u l a r , we n e e d n o t assum e t h a t t h i s u n i
v e r s e i s t h e w i l d l y n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e one w h i c h t h e o r d i n a r y s e t -
t h e o r e t i c a l sem an tics n a iv e l y ta k e s as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e .
Nor i s t h i s a l l . We may e v e n e l i m i n a t e r e f e r e n c e t o s e t -
t h e o r e t i c m o d e ls a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
s e m a n t i c a l l y a s a n a rg u m e n t t h a t t h e ( s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e )
w f f c a n n o t be t r u e . F o r, th e s te p s o f th e c o n s tr u c ti o n can be read as
v a l i d i n f e r e n c e s from t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t ( t h e s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o ) t h e w f f i s t r u e , an d t h e b rea k d o w n c a n b e r e a d a s t h e r e s u l t t h a t
e m bodied i n t h e s t e p s a r e v e r y e l e m e n t a r y , and t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n
t h e r e i s no d o u b t i n g t h e s o u n d n e s s o f t h e a r g u m e n t . In e f f e c t ,
l o g i c a l t r u t h - t h a t w h ic h i t i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o deny - i n p l a c e o f
t h e m odern n o t i o n o f t r u t h i n a l l p o s s i b l e m o d e l s , a n d p l e a d s t h e
T h a t i t i s s u p e r io r :_ n o n e c a n d e n y . S i n c e t h e m eth o d o f c o n
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
92
t h e w f f . . . b r e a k s down" - w h i c h , when i n t e r p r e t e d s e m a n t i c a l l y , i s t o
be t h e n o t i o n o f v a l i d i t y - i s r . e . , j u s t a s p r o v a b i l i t y i n th e form al
c a lc u lu s i s . I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e f u l l power s e t o f t h e s e t o f n a t u r a l
a c o n s t r u c t i v i s t i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a l l th e r e s u l t s o f o rd in a ry
t h a t w h a t i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e p r o o f o f a th e o r e m i n q u a n t i f i c a t i o n
t h e o r y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d s e m a n t i c a l l y by r e f e r e n c e t o v a l i d i t y ,
H in tik k a s t y l e : t h e soundness o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n t h e o r y r e l a t i v e t o
B u t t h e same c a n n o t be s a i d f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s . F o r, i n te r p r e ti n g th e
brea k d o w n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a b o v e , w h a t i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e ) w f f i s t r u e d o e s n o t l e a d v i a t h e s im p l e l o g i c a l
t r a n s i t i o n s o f th e s te p s of th e c o n s tr u c tio n t o a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . So
w h a t? Maybe o t h e r l o g i c a l l y v a l i d t r a n s i t i o n s would p r o d u c e a
m o d e l: t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r a w f f f a i l s t o b r e a k down i f f t h e r e i s a
t h a t a l l m o d els a r e f i n i t e - o r e v e n r e c u r s i v e l y e n u m e r a b le - and we
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 3 -
n o t ev e n r . e . l N eg a tio n s o f su c h w ffs w i l l be v a l i d i n su ch a u n iv e r s e
o f p o s s i b l e m o d e l s , t h o u g h t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n s do n o t b r e a k down. Thus
t h e m ethod o f m odel c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e d e s i r e d s e m a n t i c e f f e c t i f f
i t s breakdow n i s e q u i v a l e n t t o n o t h a v i n g a m o d e l, a n d t h i s l a s t can
o n l y be a r g u e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e o f
p o s s i b l e m o d els w h ic h d e s t r o y i t s supposed c o n s t r u c t i v i t y .
T h e re a r e c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n a l
a c c o u n t o f l o g i c a l t r u t h when t h e l a n g u a g e f o r w h ic h l o g i c a l t r u t h i s
t o be d e fin e d i s p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e s i g n a t o r s . See,
" . . . i f t h e la n g u a g e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g - i n p a r t i c u l a r , s t r o n g
enough t o d e v e l o p f i r s t o r d e r a r i t h m e t i c - t h e n o u r r e v i s e d d e f i n i t i o n
lem o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g v a l i d a rg u m e n t i n E n g l i s h i s n o t d i r e c t l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n show ing t h a t t h e tw o
o t h e r b a s e d upon s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l v a l i d i t y - d i f f e r when a p p l i e d t o
im p o v e r is h e d l a n g u a g e s , i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e y ha v e shown t h e
fo r m e r t o b e a t f a u l t . We r e p e a t ; i f no s e n t e n c e o f t h i s form i s
f a l s e , w h a t i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by a d o p t i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f l o g i c a l t r u t h
w hich d i s q u a l i f i e s i t ? (What c o u n t s a s i l l b e h a v i o u r i s a w e i r d
language?)
^ I n d e e d , t h e l a t t e r i n f e r e n c e p r e s e n t s a s u b t l e p ro b le m : th e
E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e seems t o b e v a l i d , b u t i f we w r i t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 4 -
th u s: ( E x ) ( J o h n h i t x i n t e n t i o n a l l y ) , t h e n we a r e a l s o c o m m itte d t o
s u b s t i t u t i v i t y by th e s ta n d a rd i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l
q u a n t i f i c a t i o n i n t o m odal c o n t e x t s . ) The e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i f i e r d o e s
ex a m p le o f i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d u e t o P r o f e s s o r Dan B e n n e t t .
P r o p o s i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s a r e a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f e x a m p le . I t is
u s u a l l y a m a t t e r o f c o n t e x t w h e t h e r t o t r e a t them e x t e n s i o n a l l y o r
t o b e t a k e n - t r a n s p a r e n t o r o p a q u e - we c a n u s e f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c t o
(1964), chap. 4 .
And i t i s u s e f u l . F o r, i n o r d e r f o r our l o g ic to a p p ly to
a n y p a r t i c u l a r s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e ( i . e . E n g l i s h p h r a s e m ak in g com
pound s e n t e n c e s o u t o f g i v e n s e n t e n c e s ) , i t m u st b e t r e a t e d a s a t r u t h
A B I f A, t h e n B
t t t
t f f
f t
f f
T h e r e a r e f o u r ways o f f i l l i n g i n t h e d a s h e s . The c o n s t r a i n t s on a
s o l u t i o n a r e j u s t t h a t no l o g i c a l m i s t a k e b e made - i . e . no i n v a l i d
a rg u m e n t j u d g e d v a l i d , an d v i c e v e r s a - a n d t h a t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f
o ur l o g ic n o t be im p a ire d . B ut t h i s d e t e r m i n e s a u n i q u e s o l u t i o n .
B o th t , f and f , f mean t h a t c o n t r a p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n ts w i l l b e i n v a l i d ,
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 5 -
v a l i d i t y o f t h e a rg u m e n t a s s u r e s u s t h a t we c a n n o t h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s
a nd a f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n . I f s u c h a s s u r a n c e d oes n o t a lw a y s a c c o r d w i t h
o u r o r d i n a r y u s a g e o f t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d p h r a s e s , s o w h a t?
12The q u e s t i o n m ig h t b e r a i s e d t h a t s i n c e t h e " i f . . . , th en 1
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n m a t h e m a t ic s i s r a r e l y - i f e v e r - a n i n d i c a t i v e
c o n d i t i o n a l , how a r e we t o f i n d w f f s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o s u c h s e n t e n c e s
w i t h o n l y t h e h o r s h o e w h ic h maps o n l y i n d i c a t i v e s ? The a n s w e r i s t h a t
c o n d i t i o n a l s i n m a t h e m a t i c s ha v e h i d d e n u n i v e r s a l q u a n t i f i e r s - e . g .
" I f a f u n c t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s on a c l o s e d i n t e r v a l , t h e n i t i s u n i
f o r m l y c o n t i n u o u s on t h a t i n t e r v a l " - an d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f i s o f
t h e form ( x ) ( F x D G x ) .
^ T h i s i s o n ly an e x te n t io n o f te rm in o lo g y . In p a r t i c u l a r ,
s i n c e we m u st r e q u i r e t h a t t h e " c o d i n g " f u n c t i o n f b e d e c i d a b l e
( c o m p u t a b l e ) (ROGERS, p p . 2 7 - 9 ) , we do n o t have a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f
d e c i d a b i l i t y on a n y dom ain f o u n d e d on t h e t h e o r y o f r e c u r s i v e
d o m ain i s A ) , i t s d e c i d a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f
re c u rs iv ity .
* % o t e t h a t t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e h e r e . In
p a r t i c u l a r , we have t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o k e e p d i s t i n c t : (a) th e
w f f - (E y ) Q y k , (b ) t h e s e n t e n c e o f number t h e o r y t o w h i c h ( a ) c o r
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-96-
h a s no c o n t e n t a t a l l . ( b ) i s a b o n a f i d e s e n t e n c e o f number t h e o r y ;
i t s v o c a b u l a r y i s made up w h o l l y o f a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , t r u t h
f u n c t i o n s , and q u a n t i f i e r s . If it r e f e r s t o a n y th in g a t a l l , th en i t
s e n te n c e , i t c e r t a i n l y does n o t r e f e r t o i t s e l f , (c ) i s a se n te n c e o f
s y n t a x w h ic h a s s e r t s t h e f o rm a l u n d e r i v a b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r w f f .
f a c t t h a t i n t h e l o g i c a l map, ( a ) a n d (b ) c o r r e s p o n d . T h i s means t h a t
t h e r e i s no i n t e r e s t i n g a n a l o g y b e tw e e n t h e w f f ( a ) a nd t h e v a r i o u s
s o - c a l l e d se m a n tic p a ra d o x e s: no r e m a rk s a b o u t t h e c i r c u l a r i t y ,
in co n siste n c y , e tc . of s e lf - r e f e r e n c e a re re le v a n t h e re . For a c le a r
d i s c u s s i o n , s e e LACEY a nd JOSEPH.
^■®A w f f w i t h o u t v a r i a b l e s c o n t a i n s o n l y n u m e r a l s , t h e f u n c t i o n
le tte rs c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s u c c e s s o r , a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and t h e
p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e q u a l i t y , a nd t r u t h f u n c t i o n s . Thus
i t c o r r e s p o n d s t o w h a t we ha v e c a l l e d a n e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n . Sin ce
t h e r e c u r s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r a d d i t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and t h e axiom s
f o r s u c c e s s o r nave t h e i r f o r m a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , f o r e v e r y c a l c u l a t i o n
w h ic h v e r i f i e s a t r u e e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n t h e r e i s a f o r m a l d e r i
v a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f i n H. S i n c e f o r e v e r y s u c h w f f W,
s i t i o n , e i t h e r i t o r i t s n e g a t i o n i s p r o v a b l e - H i s c o m p le te w i t h
re s p e c t t o such w f f s .
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-97-
I
- Note t h a t t h i s shows t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f w i - c o n s i s t e n c y i s
n o t s t r i c t l y n e c e s s a ry f o r th e c o n c lu s io n of th e in fo rm a l inadequacy
th a t i t is (y)-Q yE and n o t i t s n e g a t i o n w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h
i t s n e g a t i o n we may a l r e a d y draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a t r u t h
o f number t h e o r y w h ic h d o e s n o t f o l l o w from t h e a x io m s .
r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y . So i f e v e r y w f f c o r
r e s p o n d i n g t o a t r u t h o f i n f o r m a l number t h e o r y i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e
r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f n u m b e r 't h e o r y , a nd t h a t Fxy c o n t a i n s no v a r i
a b l e s o t h e r t h a n x and y . So Fxy r e p r e s e n t s a r e c u r s i v e r e l a t i o n R,
Rmn, so f o r e v e r y m t h e r e i s a n n s u c h t h a t Finn, i . e . t h e r e a r e
ng, n j , . . . n ^ , . . . such t h a t , f o r e v e ry i , ) - F i n ^ . By e x i s t e n t i a l
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , f o r e v e r y i , \ - (E y)F T y, i . e . e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f (Ey)Fxy
is d e riv a b le . By t h e w - r u l e , |— ( x ) ( E y ) F x y . A l l o t h e r c o m b i n a ti o n s o f
q u a n t i f i e r s can be h a n d le d in s i m i l a r f a s h i o n .
“ o f c o u r s e , “ f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y " m u st b e u n d e r s t o o d s e m a n t i c a l l y
h ere: e x te n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f w f f and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o i n c l u d e
s t a t e m e n t S, Wg i s p r o v a b l e i n Hy, i f f t h e r e i s no model o f ( t h e w f f s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ) t h e a xiom s w i t h A and ( t h e w f f c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ) t h e
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
98-
m i r r o r s t h e i n f o r m a l l o g i c a l pow er o f A d o e s n o t im p ly t h a t i t
s ta n d a rd m o d els, b u t A e li m i n a te s th e n o n - s ta n d a rd m o d els.
1Q
Note t h a t i f we a d d A, we may e l i m i n a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l
b u t z e ro has a un iq u e p r e d e c e s s o r , ( 3 ) A, a n d t h e r e c u r s i o n e q u a t i o n s
f o r a d d i t i o n a nd m u l t i p l i c a t i o n .
i n c o r p o r a t e t h e w h o le o f a r i t h m e t i c i n t o t h e s y s te m o f l o g i c . F or,
s i n c e t h i s s y s te m i s d e v e lo p e d a c c o r d i n g t o f i x e d r u l e s , one w ould
p . 283)
^ S o f a r , we have o n l y s p o k e n o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n w f f s
a nd s e n t e n c e s o f t h e i n f o r m a l t h e o r y . U s u a l l y , t h e way i n w h ic h t h i s
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s a c h i e v e d - i . e . d e s c r i b e d and l e a r n e d - i s by s p e c i
f y i n g a u n i v e r s e f o r t h e q u a n t i f i e r s t o r a n g e o v e r , and r e l a t i o n s
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-99
among members o f t h e u n i v e r s e a s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e p r e d i c a t e
le tte rs . (The n o r m a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t i v e s i s
a s s u m e d .) From s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a n a t u r a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n
i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i n f o r .al t h e o r y and te r m s o f t h e f o r m a l
s y s te m w i l l a l s o be a c h i e v e d . I t seems t h a t a n y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h ic h
p r e s e r v e d t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e l o g i c a l map s h o u l d a l s o i n d u c e s u c h a
t e r m - d e s c r i p t i o n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , b u t no c o m p l e te a rg u m e n t h a s b e e n
fo u n d y e t .
^ S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , we n e e d one more c o n d i t i o n t o g e n e r a t e
e v e n t h e s e m b la n c e o f a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . F o r , t h e L-S t h e o r e m p r o v i d e s
o n ly t h a t t h e u n iv e r s e o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n be c o u n ta b le ; t h i s i s n ot
i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h one o f t h e members o f t h a t u n i v e r s e b e i n g a n u n c o u n t
a b l e s e t - w h i c h i s a l l t h a t C a n t o r ’ s t h e o r e m w o u ld r e q u i r e - u n l e s s
we s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e b e c l o s e d u n d e r sum s e t s :
(x ) ( y ) ( x t-y n y t U D x eU ). T h is does h o ld f o r a l l i n t e r e s t i n g
in te rp re ta tio n s.
2^ I t s h o u ld b e c l e a r fro m o u r d i s c u s s i o n how t o a n s w e r a
f o r a s e t t h e o r y i n w h i c h u n c o u n t a b l e s e t s c a n b e p ro v e d t o e x i s t t o
e x i s t e n c e o f a n u n c o u n t a b l e s e t - o u r T(N)W - w i l l b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n
t h a t m odel a s a s s e r t i n g u n c o u n t a b i l i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e u n i v e r s e o f
s e t s o f t h a t m odel ( w h ic h i s o b v i o u s , s i n c e t h e q u a n t i f i e r ( E f ) r a n g e s
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 0
th e n o f c o u rse t h e r e a r e a b s o l u t e l y u n c o u n ta b le s e t s . I f n o t, th en of
and Putnam, c i t e d i n t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h .
e x a c tly . T h e re may b e w f f s o f a g i v e n o r d e r i n v o l v i n g
on ly a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a t o r s o f t h a t ( o r lo w er) o r d e r . T hese w f f s w i l l
c o r r e s p o n d t o s e n t e n c e s a b o u t s e t s o f t h a t same o r d e r . But s i n c e a l l
of th e i n t e r e s t i n g th e o r y o f th e s e t s o f a g iv en o r d e r in v o lv e s q u a n ti
f i e r s r a n g i n g o v e r t h e s e t s o f t h a t o r d e r , we w i l l s t i l l have t o p a s s
to th e next h ig h e st o rd e r.
g e t t i n g t h e G&del w f f s a s t h e o r e m s . Of c o u r s e , i f t h e r e a r e w f f s o f
Sa w h i c h a r e n o t p r o v a b l e i n Sa b u t a r e p r o v a b l e i n Sa + g , t h e h i g h e r
s y s te m f o r m a l i z e s a s t r o n g e r t h e o r y o f e v e n t h e s e t s o f o r d e r a - 1 t h a n
Sa - d o e s . But t h e a x io m s o f Sa + g d i f f e r fro m t h o s e o f Sa o n l y i n t h e i r
s u b s c r i p t s ; w h a te v e r c o u n ts a s i n t u i t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e cor
r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a l s e n t e n c e s i n t h e one c a s e s h o u l d c o u n t e q u a l l y
w e ll in th e o th e r . T h u s , a l t h o u g h e m p lo y in g more p o w e r f u l m e a n s , we
seem t o a v o i d s a c r i f i c i n g an y r e l i a b i l i t y . T h is i s d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r
in th e c o n c lu sio n .
* ^ I n m ore d e t a i l : t h e s e t o f s u b s c r i p t s u s e d i n w f f s o f g Sn
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 1 -
and s o b y t h e s u b s c r i p t s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s u s e d i n t h e w f f we c a n t e l l
w h a t i s t h e l o w e s t s y s te m o f w h ic h i t i s a w f f . H a v in g done t h i s f o r
a l l t h e w f f s i n t h e s e q u e n c e , we t a k e t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m . I f th e
s e q u e n c e i s a p r o o f i n g Sn , t h e n i t i s a l s o a p r o o f i n t h a t s u b s y s t e m .
pQ
L e t Ra b e t h e t e r m c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e t o f r e a l num bers
r e a l num bers o f o r d e r a l o o k s l i k e t h i s :
( Ey a+ l ) ( za ) ( z a £ Xa + P za ^ y a + l *n * ZA xa + l ^ za ) )
T h is i s , o f c o u r s e , a w f f o f Sa + . 2
29Thus a l l t h e s u b s c r i p t s u s e d i n t h e l e a s t u p p e r bound th e o r e m
f o r a l l t h e r e a l n um bers o f a l l f i n i t e o r d e r s w i l l be w , a n d t h e w f f
w i l l b e o f o r d e r u i+ l, a s w i l l t h e r e s t o f t h e t h e o r y o f t h e s e r e a l
num bers.
S^We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t S i s n o t known t o b e i n c o m p l e t e , j u s t
f r e e from G 8 d e l - t y p e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s . B ut o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o v a b i l i t y o f t h e Glidel f o r m u l a s o f S i n S a p p l i e s
e q u a lly w e ll i f S i s i n f a c t c o m p le te .
• ^ S i n c e t h i s i s Wang’ s a t t i t u d e , i t i s odd t o n o t e t h a t he
f e e l s c o m p e lle d t o a n s w e r t h e c h a r g e t h a t t h e r e i s no way i n S ” . . . ( t o )
p . 583). I t i s e v e n o d d e r t h a t he s h o u ld p r o p o s e a n u n i n d e x e d v a r i
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 2 -
n o t i o n s w h ic h s u c h a n o t a t i o n w ould e x p r e s s w e r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , w h a t
w o u ld b e t h e u s e o f a w f f ( x ) F x ( f o r e x a m p le) w h ic h c o u l d be
t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f S?
^ S e e th e d e f in itio n of 0 in c h a p te r 3. We c a n e f f e c t i v e l y
such. We j u s t c a n n o t do i t f o r a l l .
a se t i s r . e . , th en th e re i s a n e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e w hich
i d e n t i f i e s a l l members o f t h a t s e t , a n d i f i t i s t h e complement o f a n
r . e . s e t , t h e n t h e r e i s s u c h a p r o c e d u r e w h ic h i d e n t i f i e s a l l n o n
a b o u t w h ic h we w i l l f i n d o u t n o t h i n g , s in c e t h e i r v a lu e u n d er fg i s 1.
®^In g e n e r a l , we s h a l l s a y t h a t t h e f o r m u la Fx d e f i n e s o r
T h i s w i l l o n ly b e a p p l i e d t o r e c u r s i v e f o r m u l a s , h e n c e we w i l l a l s o
have n ^ S i f f -F n .
we saw i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n r e s t s upon a
t r u e , and h e n c e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o u n d .
th e o ry , th en th e r e is a p ro o f of i t in Aq , and h e n c e t h e r e i s a n r
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
-103-
-(Mm n P o ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) i s n o t p r o v a b l e f o r e v e r y m an d r , and s i n c e t h e
fo rm u la i s r e c u r s i v e , f o r a n y c h o i c e o f m an d r f o r w h ic h i t i s
i m p r o v a b l e , i t s n e g a t i o n m u st b e p r o v a b l e .
®®Remember t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e t r a n s f i n i t e p r o g r e s s i o n o f
t h e o r i e s i s t o a c t u a l l y f i n d s t r o n g e r an d s t r o n g e r t h e o r i e s so a s t o
c o n stru c tiv e .
^ C o n c e r n i n g t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f Mwx : y *= jf(w) i s a r e c u r s i v e
re la tio n . So My * (E w )(y Mj ( w ) ) a p p e a r s t o b e o n l y r . e . , b u t s i n c e J
i s a u n i f o r m l y i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n , we c a n p u t a bound on w - e . g . .
w<y. A g a i n , M^x i s t h e e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f a r e c u r s i v e
th e o r e m t h a t t h e d e d u c t i v e o u t p u t o f a r . e . s e t o f axiom s can be
d u p l i c a t e d b y a r e c u r s i v e s e t o f a x io m s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r u s i n g h i s
e f f e c t i v e m ethod o f d e f i n i n g t h e r e l a t e d r e c u r s i v e s e t , we c o u ld
w h ic h g i v e s t h e same s e t o f t h e o r e m s a s d o e s M^x i t s e l f .
b e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e l i m i t t h e o r y Aw .
on ly p ro v id e s n o t a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s .
But s i n c e 0 i s m a x im a l, i t p r o v i d e s a n o t a t i o n f o r a n y o r d i n a l f o r
w h ic h t h e r e e x i s t s a n y s y s te m o f n o t a t i o n s . H e n c e , i n o r d e r t o make
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n c a l c u l a b l e , we w i l l h a v e t o r e s t r i c t t h e
p r o g r e s s i o n t o t h e s e o r d i n a l s anyway*
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-1 0 4 -
i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v in g a m axim al r e c u r s i v e u n i v a l e n t s y s te m o f
f o r l i m i t o r d i n a l s (and t h e l o s s o f r e c u r s i v i t y ) was t h e p r i c e p a i d
f o r a m axim al s y s te m o f n o t a t i o n s . B ut i n o u r c a s e , t h e demand f o r
th e r e c o g n i ti o n of th e n o n -u n iq u e n e ss of t h e fo rm u la d e f i n i n g th e
l i m i t t h e o r y i s more f u n d a m e n t a l : e v e n i f we o n l y w a n t e d t o d e s c r i b e
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n a s f a r a s Aoi+1 we s h o u l d have t o u s e t h e w h o le o f 0 up
t o w+l - t h e u s e o f a s i n g l e b r a n c h ( w h ic h i s e a s y t o g e t ) w o u ld be
in a d e q u a te .
v e r if ia b le p ro g re ssio n s. The r e a s o n i s t h a t s i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n i s
i n t e n s i o n a l - i . e . a p ro c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e fo rm u la s w h ich d e fin e
t h e axiom s o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n - e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a
l e n c e o f two s t a r t i n g f o r m u la s d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a
le n c e even o f t h e i r l o c a l e x t e n t i o n s . F o r e x a m p le , l e t t h e l o c a l
e x t e n s i o n b e F x —^ F x v - ( E y ) P g ( y * x ) a n d s t a r t w i t h ( E y ) P g ( y ; x ) a s M^x:
t h e n Ag a l r e a d y h a s t h e w h o le s e t o f w f f s a s i t s s e t o f a x io m s . But
e q u i v a l e n t t o ( E y ) P o ( y ; x ) - yo\i t h e n g e t f o r l ^ x t h e f o r m u la
(E y )P 0 ( y ; x ) n x / *0=1' . v - ( E y ) P 0 ( y ; x ) , w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
- ( x / , 0 = l , )v- - ( E y ) P o ( y j x ) w h i c h i s n o t p r o v a b l e o f e v e r y n . In p a r tic u
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-105w
^ T h e lo c a l e x te n tio n is s tr o n g e r th a n th e a d d itio n of th e
f o r m u la e x p r e s s i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e t h e o r y t o b e e x t e n d e d , and
t h e G&del f o rm u la f o r t h a t t h e o r y i s p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o i t s
c o n s is te n c y fo rm u la ,
t h e in fo rm a l f u n c t i o n t o w hich s c o r r e s p o n d s . So we w i l l be a b l e t o
p r o v e g3 x © = s ( p , p ) .
5 So we w i l l h a v e :
D - ( x ) - P 3x5e ( x j s ( p , p ) ) ,
w h ic h l a s t i s ” ^ 3x ©» 5
e v e r , s i n c e A0+R i s c o m p le te e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e t o f t r u e w f f s i s n o t
a r i t h m e t i c ( s e e C o n c l u s i o n ) , we s e e t h a t R i s s t i l l v e r y n o n - e f f e c t i v e .
a n s w e r i s t h a t t h o u g h we c a n r e c o g n i z e ( d e f i n i t i o n s o f ) p r i m i t i v e
r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y , we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e
s it u a ti o n w ith 0: th e s e t of p a r t i a l re c u rs iv e fu n c tio n s i s p a r t i a l
r e c u r s iv e , b u t th e s e t o f t o t a l re c u rs iv e fu n c tio n s d e fin in g
in c r e a s i n g sequences o f o r d in a l n o t a t io n s i s n o t .
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x. So th e o re m h o o d i n t h e t h e o r y whose i n d e x i s n i s e x p r e s s e d by
z a t i o n o f a n r . e . r e l a t i o n i s s t i l l r . e . - (E n )(E y )T n y x s h o u ld s t i l l
be r . e .
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