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7 0 -2 4 ,6 3 2

GOTTLIEB, D a le V i c t o r , 1 943-
THE USE OF FORMAL SYSTEMS IN LOGIC AND
MATHEMATICS.

B r a n d e i s U n i v e r s i t y , P h . D . , 1970
P h ilo so p h y

University Microfilms, A XEROXCompany, A nn Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
THE USE OF FORMAL SYSTEMS

IN LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS

A D issertatio n

P resen ted t o

The F a c u l t y o f t h e G r a d u a te S c h o o l o f A r t s and S c i e n c e s

B ra n d sis U n iv e rs ity

D e p a rtm e n t o f P h i lo s o p h y

In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t
o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e D egree
D o c to r o f P h i l o s o p h y

By

D a le V i c t o r G o t t l i e b

J a n u a r y , 1970

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T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , d i r e c t e d a n d a p p ro v e d b y t h e c a n d i d a t e ’ s
C om m ittee, h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d and a p p ro v e d by t h e G r a d u a te
F a c u lty o f B ra n d e is U n i v e r s i ty i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
req u irem e n ts f o r th e d e g re e of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Dean, G r a d u a te S c h o o l o f A r t s
an d S c i e n c e s

JUN 7 1970"

D i s s e r t a t i o n Com m ittee

Chairma:

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-iv -

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T u s h le b a

The a d v i s o r o f a t h e s i s i s u s u a l l y due a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e

from t h e a u t h o r . But I f e e l t h a t i n my c a s e t h e i n d e b t e d n e s s i s

e x tra -o rd in a ry . From i t s in c e p tio n to i t s c o m p le tio n , P ro fe s s o r

v a n H e i j e n o o r t h a s g i v e n u n s t i n t i n g l y o f h i s t i m e , e f f o r t and

encouragem ent. I n s e l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , s u g g e s t i o n o f s o u r c e s , a nd

s t y l i s t i c c r i t i c i s m , h i s a d v i c e h as b e e n t h o r o u g h and s o u n d . His

d ire c tio n of t h is th e s is is g re a tly a p p re c ia te d .

I have a l s o b e n e f i t t e d from d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h R o b e r t Cummins

a n d w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s o f my s e m in a r i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t ic s

a t The J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y , f a l l o f 1 9 6 9 . F i n a l l y , I m ust t h a n k

my w i f e f o r h e r s a c r i f i c e and c o n t i n u o u s e n c o u ra g e m e n t w h ic h e n a b l e d

me t o p u r s u e a nd c o m p le te my g r a d u a t e e d u c a t i o n .

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-V -

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION vi

CHAPTER I 1

CHAPTER II 23

CHAPTER I I I 46

CONCLUSION 74

APPENDIX 82

FOOTNOTES 88

BIBLIOGRAPHY 107

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INTRODUCTION

I n t h e l a s t 70 y e a r s , t h e u s e o f f o r m a l m e th o d s i n l o g i c an d

m a t h e m a t i c s h a s become so e n t r e n c h e d t h a t f o r many, f o r m a l l o g i c jls

l o g i c , a nd t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f v a r i o u s m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e s p l a y s

a n i n t e g r a l r o l e i n t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t . The s t u d y o f f o r m a l s y s te m s

h a s becom e a m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e i t s e l f , a nd p o s s e s s e s n o t a few

deep r e s u l t s . As i n a n y r i c h new f i e l d , s o l i d deep r e s u l t s r a i s e

q u e s t i o n s o f a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In c o n tr a s t to th e

m o d e r n i t y o f F r e g e ' s l e g a c y , t h e s t u d y o f l o g i c and m a t h e m a t i c s i s o f

a n c ie n t v in ta g e . How a r e t h e o l d a nd t h e new r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r ?

F o rm a l t e c h n i q u e s may b e u s e d i n c l a r i f y i n g a nd s o l v i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g

p ro b le m s, b u t a ls o th e y f o r c e us t o r e - c o n c e iv e th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e

a r e a s t o w h ic h t h e y a r e a p p l i e d . C o n tr a s t th e form al tr e a tm e n t o f

q u e s t i o n s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e o f ax io m s w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e new

c o n c e p t o f c o m p l e t e n e s s , f o r e x a m p le . A lthough th e form er a r o s e e a r l y

i n th e s tu d y o f E u c l i d 's a x io m a ti z a t io n o f g eom etry, t h e l a t t e r i s a

c r e a tio n o f t h i s c e n tu ry .

The c e n t r a l p r o b le m w h ic h w i l l o c c u p y u s i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
It
o f G o d e l 's i n c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e o r e m f o r f i r s t o r d e r f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y .

S t r i c t l y , a l l t h a t i s shown b y t h a t t h e o r e m i s t h a t i n c e r t a i n f o r m a l

s y s te m s t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p r e f i x i n g a t i l d a d o e s n o t a lw a y s make a
ii
th eo rem o u t o f a n o n -th e o rem . N a i v e l y , we may w onder how t h i s

c o u l d b e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t number t h e o r y i s

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-v ii-

u n a x io m a tiz ab le . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f G o d e l 's c o m b i n a t o r i a l r e s u l t

i s w a r r a n t e d - i f a t a l l - o n l y when t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s e

f o r m a l s y s te m s and t h e i n f o r m a l dom ains t o w h ic h t h e y a r e a p p l i e d i s

c a re f u lly u n d e rsto o d . F u rth e rm o re , th e c o n cep t o f in fo rm a l a x io m a ti-

z a t i o n i s a l s o i n n e e d o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n , a nd i n one i m p o r t a n t s e n s e

number t h e o r y c a n b e c o m p l e t e l y a x i o m a t i z e d : th ere i s a f in i te s e t of

axiom s w h ic h h a s e v e r y t r u t h o f num ber t h e o r y a s a l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e .

As we s h a l l s e e i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h e i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

G lJ d e l's t h e o r e m i s t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o m p le te a nd e f f e c t i v e

d e fin itio n of p ro o f: i f pro o fs a re to be e f f e c t i v e l y rec o g n ize d , th en

f o r a n y ( r e c u r s i v e ) s e t o f axiom s t h e r e w i l l be t r u t h s l a c k i n g p r o o f s

from t h e a x io m s . Even t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e p e n d s up o n c e r t a i n

g e n e ra l a ssu m p tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n o f fo rm a l t h e o r i e s t o th e

i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e s t h e y f o r m a l i z e , and t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e n o t

u n iv e rs a lly accep ted .

I n t h e se co n d and t h i r d c h a p t e r s we s h a l l g i v e a n e x p o s i t i o n

o f two f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s w h ic h a r e c o m p l e t e . Each w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d

a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s on a x i o m a t i z a t i o n w h ic h a r e

r e v e a l e d b y G o d e l 's t h e o r e m . B o th u s e t h e same s t r a t e g y : s i n c e no

s i n g l e a x i o m a t i c number t h e o r y c a n b e c o m p l e t e , we b u i l d a e m u l a t i v e

se q u e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g e r t h e o r i e s s u c h t h a t e v e r y t r u t h i s

p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y o f t h e s e q u e n c e , t h o u g h no one t h e o r y o f t h e

sequence i s c o m p le te . We s h a l l s e e t h a t t h e p r i c e o f c o m p l e te n e s s i n

b o t h c a s e s i s t h e e x tr e m e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e s e q u e n c e , and

f u r t h e r t h a t t h i s i s a n e c e s s a ry consequence f o r any such seq u en ce.

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-v iii-

The c o n c l u s i o n we s h a l l draw i s t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f s u c h f o r m a l

s t r u c t u r e s i s u n i n t e r e s t i n g from t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f i n f o r m a l number

th e o ry .

F i n a l l y , two s p e c i f i c p ro b le m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f

f o r m a l s y s te m s t o i n f o r m a l dom ains w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . The f i r s t i s

S k o l e m 's " p a r a d o x ’1; we e x p l a i n t h e s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n o f " r e l a t i v e

e n u m e ra b ility ” . The se c o n d i s a new p r o b le m a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e second

i n c o m p l e t e n e s s th e o re m s t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s a m b ig u ity i n th e n o t i o n of

a n open w f f " e x p r e s s i n g ” a p r o p e r t y o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e s y n t a x o f t h e

fo rm al sy ste m . A t e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p ro o le m b a s e d upon t h e

a n a ly s is of fo rm a liz a tio n p resen ted in th e f i r s t c h a p te r i s re se rv e d

f o r th e a p p e n d ix .

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CHAPTER I

F o rm a l l o g i c c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o s y n t a x a n d s e m a n t i c s . The

f o r m e r i s t h e s t u d y o f c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d c l a s s e s o f sym bols

and r e l a t i o n s among th e m . The l a t t e r c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e

f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e t o t h e i n f o r m a l a r e a w here i t f i n d s i t s u s e , and c a n

b e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o m a t h e m a t i c a l a nd l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s . M a th e ­

m a t ic a l se m a n tic s i s th e stu d y o f s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of

t h e f o r m a l s y s te m ; l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s t r e a t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

f o r m a l s y s te m t o n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e . A p a r t from p u r e l y m a t h e m a t i c a l

i n t e r e s t , th e u s e f u ln e s s o f m a th e m a tic a l se m a n tic s i s i n c l a r i f y i n g

l i n g u i s t i c se m a n tic s. F o r, j u s t as t h e f i r s t o rd e r c a lc u lu s w ith o u t

a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s no c la i m on t h e t i t l e " L o g ic ,” so a l s o giv en

t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e we l e f t w i t h o u t an y r e a s o n t o

c a l l t h i s m ath e m a tic a l p a i r "L o g ic ."

I n t h e b e g in n in g ; t h e r e w e re v a l i d a nd i n v a l i d a r g u m e n t s , sound

and f a l l a c i o u s i n f e r e n c e s . * I t i s t o j u d g m e n ts c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e

t h i n g s t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s i s r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y , and i t i s

due t o i t s r o l e i n i m p r o v in g o u r a b i l i t y t o make t h e s e ju d g m e n ts (and

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a s e s up o n w h ic h t h e y a r e m ade) t h a t i t i s c a l l e d

L o g ic. The f o r m a l s y s te m w i t h i t s l i n g u i s t i c se m a n tic s c o n s t i t u t e s a

t h e o r y o f a rg u m e n t a n d i n f e r e n c e , a s w e l l a s a p r a c t i c e f o r d e c i d i n g

p a r t i c u l a r q u e stio n s o f v a l i d i t y . In a d d i t i o n t o th e m ath e m a tic a l

r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g s y n t a x a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l s e m a n t i c s , we s h o u l d e x p e c t

o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s ( i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g tw o)

a n s w e rs t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s s how w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e i s t h e fo rm a l

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-2 -

p r o c e d u r e ? how r e l i a b l e ? how e f f i c i e n t ? and w h a t a r e t h e e s s e n t i a l

f e a t u r e s o f v a l i d a rg u m e n t a nd i n f e r e n c e ?

The l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s o f f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c a r e e x c e e d i n g l y
2
in fo rm a l: th e y c o n s is t of th e a r t of a s s ig n in g t o a se n te n c e a w ff

o f th e form al c a l c u l u s . I n g e n e r a l , we may s a y t h a t t h e l o g i c a l p a r a ­

p h ra s e of a s e n te n c e A i s a s e n te n c e A' such t h a t (a) th e fe a tu re s of

E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s w h ic h a r e e s s e n t i a l t o a t h e o r y o f v a l i d a rg u m e n t

a r e d i s p l a y e d c l e a r l y i n A ' , and (b) A' i s a p a r a p h r a s e o f A. What

p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s A' w i l l ha v e t o d i s p l a y w i l l d e p e n d upon t h e

t h e o r y o f l o g i c e s p o u s e d ; i n o u r c a s e A ' m u s t b e a n e x p l i c i t g ram ­

m a t i c a l c o m b i n a ti o n o f i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , p r e d i c a t e s , t r u t h

f u n c t i o n a l s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e s , and i d io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n . The

r e l a t i o n o f " p a r a p h r a s e " h o l d i n g b e tw e e n A a nd A* i s w h o l l y p r a g m a t i c :

t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h A i s em ployed a nd w h i c h a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n ­

s t r a i n t s o f l o g i c s h o u l d be e q u a l l y s e r v e d ( o r p e r h a p s b e t t e r , due t o

e x p l i c i t n e s s and c l a r i t y ) by A '. (S ee t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n QUINE, 196 4 ,

p p . 1 5 7 -6 1 ) V ia A ' , l o g i c - a t e c h n i q u e o f i d e n t i f y i n g v a l i d a r g u -

m e n ts, p lu s a th e o r y of a rg u m e n ta l v a l i d i t y - can be a p p lie d t o A.

A* i s r e a d i l y s y m b o liz e d by a w f f whose f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e c o r d

o n l y t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f A' - w h i c h t r u t h f u n c t i o n s t h e s e n ­

t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e s e x p r e s s e d , w h e t h e r t h e id io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n

w e r e u n i v e r s a l o r e x i s t e n t i a l , how many d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l

d e s c r i p t i o n s and p r e d i c a t e s A* c o n t a i n e d and w h ic h w ere a s s e r t e d o f

w h ich , e t c . ^ The t e c h n i q u e i s t h e n , i n t h e c a s e o f a p r o p o s e d i n f e r ­

e n c e from A t o B, t o t e s t t h e a s s o c i a t e d p a i r o f w f f s .(WAjWg) f o r some

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-3 -

fo m a l p ro p erty . The c l a i m f o r t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s t h a t (WA,Wg) h a s

t h i s p r o p e r t y , i f f t h e p r o p o s e d i n f e r e n c e i s v a l i d , and i f (W^,Wg) h as

t h i s p r o p e r t y , you w i l l a lw a y s f i n d t h i s o u t . I f i t does n o t have th e

p r o p e r t y you may n e v e r f i n d t h i s o u t. In o th e r w ords, th e tech n iq u e

i s p e r f e c t l y r e l i a b l e w h ile only t o l e r a b l y e f f i c i e n t . I ts a p p lic a ­

b i l i t y i s , a t le a s t a t p rese n t, lim ite d : th e r e i s w id esp read a g re e ­

m ent t o i t s u s e i n m a t h e m a t i c s , an d t o t h e d o u b t f u l n e s s o f i t s u s e f o r

e .g . c o u n te rfa c tu a ls. (More on t h i s b e l o w . ) A th eo ry of v a lid

in fe re n c e (w ith in i t s dom ain o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y ) i s d e r i v e d from t h e

l i n g u i s t i c se m a n tic s by d e f in in g ( in f o r m a lly ) th e l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s

o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o rm a l p r o p e r t y o f t h e

a sso c ia te d p a ir of w ffs. The a d e q u a c y o f t h i s t h e o r y d e p e n d s upon i t s

a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n t h e h a r d - c o r e d a t a , r e s o l v e open q u e s t i o n s i n a n

i l l u m i n a t i n g w ay, do t h e l e a s t v i o l e n c e p o s s i b l e t o b o r d e r l i n e c a s e s

and n a i v e i n t u i t i o n s , a nd p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o r e l a t e d a r e a s . In

sh o rt, i t s a d e q u a c y i s j u d g e d i n t h e same way a s a n y o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c

th eo ry .

The f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s c o n s i s t s o f a f i n i t e s e t o f s y m b o ls ,

and c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e l y s p e c i f i e d i n f i n i t e s e ts o f sequences o f th e s e

s y m b o ls , na m e ly t h e c l a s s e s o f v a r i a b l e s , p red ic ate l e t t e r s , fu n ctio n

le tte rs , i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t s , a nd w e l l form ed f o r m u l a s ( w f f s ) . In

a d d i t i o n t h e r e i s a s e m i - e f f e c t i v e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n

w f f s w h ic h w i l l b e c a l l e d " d e r i v a b i l i t y ” , a nd w i l l b e w r i t t e n

D(W^,Wg). W i t h i n i t s dom ain o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y , t h e c a l c u l u s i s u s e d

t o t e s t a p r o p o s e d i n f e r e n c e fro m A t o B b y t e s t i n g w f f s &nd Wg,

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4'

w h ic h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A a nd B by t h e a r t o f l i n g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s ,

f o r D(WA,W g). T his s u g g e s ts th e f o llo w in g c r i t e r i a o f a d e q u a c y , w h ic h

c r i t e r i a m u st b e m et i f we a r e t o j u s t i f y o u r u s e o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e :

(1) F o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e A w i t h i n t h e dom ain o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y

o f t h e c a l c u l u s , t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one w f f WA a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A.

( 1 ) o n ly s p e l l s o u t w h a t i s m eant b y "dom ain o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y " . But

n o te t h a t th e co nverse need n o t be t r u e : e x tra w ffs a s so c ia te d w ith

no s e n t e n c e s a t a l l n e e d n o t i m p a i r t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e c a l c u l u s i n

any way. In f a c t , th e converse i s f a l s e : ( E x )( F x 3 (x)G x) i s a s s o c i -


g
a t e d w i t h no i d i o m a t i c E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e .

(2 ) F o r an y s e n t e n c e s A a n d B, t h e i n f e r e n c e from At o B is

v a l i d i f f D(lN^,H^).

(2) i s th e req u irem en t o f r e l i a b i l i t y . I f i t is v io la te d , th en th e re

i s some i n f e r e n c e w h ic h w i l l be i n a c c u r a t e l y c l a s s i f i e d b y t h e f o r m a l

tec h n iq u e. But v i a some o f i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s we c a n l e a r n more a b o u t

t h e n a tu r e of an a d e q u ate form al l o g i c . (2 ) i m p l i e s (v ia ( l ) ) :

(3) I f f o r e v e r y w f f W, D(Wa ,W) i f f D(Wg,W), and D(W,Wa ) i f f

D(W,Wg), t h e n f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e C, A i m p l i e s C i f f B i m p l i e s C an d C

i m p l i e s A i f f C i m p l i e s B.

To u n d e r s t a n d ( 3 ) , t h i n k o f t h e s e t o f w f f s a s p o i n t s on one map, w i t h

D - r e l a t i o n s among w f f s shown b y d i r e c t e d p a t h s b e tw e e n them , and t h e

s e n t e n c e s o f t h e dom ain o f a p p l i c a t i o n a s p o i n t s on a n o t h e r map w i t h

i m p l i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s among them shown b y d i r e c t e d p a t h s b e tw e e n th e m .

(2 ) t h e n s a y s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s a n iso m o rp h is m

b e tw e e n t h e two m aps: i n f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s among s e n t e n c e s a r e

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-5 -

m i r r o r e d b y D - r e l a t i o n s among a s s o c i a t e d w f f s , a n d v i c e v e r s a . We may

t h e n d e f i n e t h e e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n D* o n t h e s e t o f w f f s : D*(WpW ) 2

= d f f o r e v e r y w f f W, D(W,W^) i f f ani^ D(W^,W) i f f D(W ,W) - 2

i . e . W^ and a r e e x a c t l y a l i k e i n t h e i r D - r e l a t i o n s t o a l l w f f s (fro m

w hich i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e y a r e p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t : tak e W = and

th en W = W ) . 2 S i m i l a r l y we may d e f i n e t h e r e l a t i o n I * ( " I " f o r

" i m p l i e s " ) on t h e s e t o f s e n t e n c e s . Then (3) s a y s t h a t f o r an y two

s e n t e n c e s , A, B, i f D*(W^,Wg) t h e n I* (A ,B ) - i . e . i f t h e i r a sso c ia te d

w f f s o c c u p y e q u i v a l e n t p l a c e s on t h e "D-map" t h e n A and B o c c u p y e q u i v a l e n t

p l a c e s on t h e " I - m a p " . Of c o u r s e , t h e maps a r e i n f i n i t e , so t h e m e t a ­

phor cannot be tak en to o s e r io u s ly . B ut i t d o e s show u s t h a t a com m it­

m ent t o a m ethod o f e v a l u a t i n g i n f e r e n c e s o ne a t a t im e i s b y i m p l i ­

c a t i o n a comm itm ent t o a c o m p l e te d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n f e r e n t i a l

r e l a t i o n s among a l l s e n t e n c e s w i t h i n t h e dom ain o f a p p l i c a t i o n . ^ Now

l e t u s ex a m in e t h e co n v erse o f (3):

(4) For a l l s e n t e n c e s A, B: i f I * (A ,B ) t h e n D*(W , W ) .


A D

A l t h o u g h we c a n p r o v e t h a t (4) i s s a t i s f i e d b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , i t

h a s a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r from i t s c o n v e r s e ( 3 ) . From t h e a s s u m p t i o n

o f t h e v i o l a t i o n o f ( 3 ) and b y u s e o f (1) we s e e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t

t h e r e m ust b e some i n f e r e n c e w h ic h o u r f o r m a l t e c h n i q u e w i l l m i s -

c la ssify . S i n c e t h e c o n v e r s e o f (1) i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , fro m t h e

a s s u m p t io n t h a t (4) i s v i o l a t e d no su c h c o n s e q u e n c e f o l l o w s : even i f

n o t D*(Wa ,Wb ) - i . e . f o r some W ( s a y ) D(WA,W) b u t n o t D(Wg,W) - we

m ig h t h a v e I* (A ,B ) i f W i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y s e n t e n c e i n t h e

dom ain o f a p p l i c a t i o n . I t seems t h a t we m ig h t h a v e s u c h a W w h ic h was

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6-

e x tra : playing; no r o l e i n t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a l dom ain,

but not in te rfe rin g e ith e r . (O f c o u r s e , n o t o n ly w ould W h a v e t o be

u n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y s e n t e n c e i n t h e dom ain o f a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t so

w ould a l l o f W's p r o v a b l e e q u i v a l e n t s . E . g . , a l t h o u g h ( F x ) ( F x 3 (x)Gx

d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o any i d i o m a t i c E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e , (x)F xD (x)G x

w h ic h i s p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o i t d o e s . T h is i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y . )

B ut i n f a c t , t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e . F or, i f B(W^,W) and n o t D(Wg,W),

t h e n n o t D(Wg,W^), b y t h e t r a n s i t i v i t y o f D. By ( 2 ) we t h e n h a v e n o t

l(B ,A ), c o n t r a d i c t i n g I* (A ,B ). P u t t i n g (3) an d (4 ) t o g e t h e r , we s e e

t h a t i f (2) i s s a t i s f i e d by f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s lin ­

g u i s t i c s e m a n t i c s , t h e n A and B occupy t h e same p o s i t i o n on t h e

" I-m a p " i f f and Wg occupy t h e same p o s i t i o n on t h e "D -m ap." T h is

i s a lm o st, b u t n o t q u i te t r i v i a l . F or, th e r e l a t i o n of a s s o c ia tio n

n e e d n o t b e (and i s n o t , i n f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c ) a o n e -o n e f u n c t i o n .

Each w f f i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h many s e n t e n c e s , e . g . t h e w f f ( x )(E x DH x )

c o r r e s p o n d s e q u a l l y w e l l t o "O n ly men a r e r a t i o n a l , " " A l l r a t i o n a l

b e i n g s a r e hum an," "A b e i n g i s r a t i o n a l o n ly i f i t i s a m an", ..., and

by c h a n g in g o r d e r f o r t h e s e n t e n c e " S m i t h w i l l s e l l u n l e s s J o n e s w in s "

(we can u s e e q u a l l y w e l l a n y o f : (S s n -Wj) v ( - S s n W j) , ( - S s n Wj)

v (Ss n -W j) , ( - S s v -Wj) n (S s v W j)) we s e e t h a t t h e c o n v e r s e a l s o

h o ld s. Thus w hat (3 ) and (4 ) come t o i s t h a t n o n - I * - i d e n t i c a l

s e n t e n c e s c a n n o t b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e same w f f , a n d n o n - D * - i d e n t i c a l

w f f s c a n n o t be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e same s e n t e n c e ( t h o u g h t h e c o n v e r s e s

a r e g e n e r a l l y f a l s e , a s we j u s t s h o w e d ) .

A c c e p ti n g ( l ) and (2 ) a s c r i t e r i a of adequacy f o r f i r s t o rd e r

l o g i c , we m ust now a s k w h a t r e a s o n we have f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e y a r e

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m et. The b r i d g e b e tw e e n t h e f o rm a l s y s te m and E n g l i s h a r g u m e n ts and

i n f e r e n c e s m u st be i n t h e form o f a t h e o r y o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a rg u m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e f o r m a l r e l a t i o n D

p i c k s o u t j u s t t h o s e p a i r s (W^,Wg) f o r w h ic h t h e t h e o r y f i n d s A a n d B

t o ha v e t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f a v a l i d i n f e r e n c e . I n o u r c a s e , we

ha v e t h e e x t e n s i o n a l t h e o r y o f l o g i c , and t h e s o u n d n e s s and c o m p l e t e ­

n e s s th e o r e m s o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e t

t h e o r e t i c a l se m a n tic s.

T a k in g t h e l a t t e r f i r s t : we d e f i n e t h e s e t t h e o r e t i c a l

n o t i o n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s a t i s f a c t i o n a nd c o n s e q u e n c e (U i s a c o n s e ­

q u e n c e o f W = d f U i s s a t i s f i e d by e v e r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h s a t i s f i e s

W) i n t h e u s u a l w a y . Now s o u n d n e s s and c o m p l e t e n e s s g i v e u s : D(W,U)

i f f U i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f W. B u t , we r e p e a t , i f we s t o p h e r e we ha v e

no l o g i c . What m u st b e a d d e d i s a t h e o r y o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e w h ic h

w i l l show t h a t Wg i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f W^ i f f A i m p l i e s B. As a ro u g h

o u t l i n e , t h i s t h e o r y may be d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s . The e s s e n t i a l

f e a t u r e s o f E n g lis h s e n te n c e s f o r th e purpose of i d e n t i f y i n g v a l i d

i n f e r e n c e s a r e id io m s o f t r u t h f u n c t i o n a l s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n and

q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e r e f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n o f d e s i g n a t i o n . (We may

say t h a t an in d iv id u a l d e s c r ip tio n d e s ig n a te s th e in d iv id u a l i t

d e s c r i b e s , and a p r e d i c a t e d e s ig n a te s th e c l a s s o f th o s e th in g s t o

w h ic h i t t r u l y a p p l i e s . ) The t h e o r y h o l d s t h a t i f t h e t r u t h

f u n c t i o n a l a nd q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e n t e n c e s o f a p r o ­

p o s e d i n f e r e n c e fro m A t o B have b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n t h e i n f e r e n c e

i s v a l i d j u s t i n c a s e t h e r e i s no way b y v a r y i n g t h e d e s i g n a t o r s o f A

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and B t o make A t r u e and B f a l s e . I n o th e r w ords, th e proposed i n f e r ­

e n c e from A t o B i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a member o f a c l a s s o f i n f e r e n c e s

w h ic h s h a r e i t s " l o g i c a l form 11 - i . e . t h e i r p r e m i s e s and c o n c l u s i o n s

ha v e t h e same t y p e s o f d e s i g n a t o r s com bined i n t h e same way by t h e

same t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v e s a n d q u a n t i f i e r s - a n d i s c a l l e d

v a l i d i f no i n f e r e n c e i n i t s c l a s s ha s a t r u e p r e m i s s a nd a f a l s e con­

c lu sio n .

(We s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h h e r e b e tw e e n two s i m i l a r - s o u n d i n g b u t

v ery d i f f e r e n t v ie w s. We may r e q u i r e t h a t no E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e

s h a r i n g t h e fo rm o f t h e one we a r e t e s t i n g h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s and

f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n , o r we may r e q u i r e t h a t no m a t t e r w h a t t h e e x t e n s i o n s

( i . e . d e sig n a ta ) o f t h e d e s i g n a t i n g p h r a s e s b e , we c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e ­

o u s l y h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s and f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t

w h i l e t h e c l a s s o f i n f e r e n c e s s h a r i n g a g i v e n l o g i c a l form i s c o u n t a b l e ,

t h e number o f d i f f e r e n t ways t o a s s i g n e x t e n s i o n s t o t h e d e s i g n a t o r s

of a sen te n c e i s n o t: we ha v e a l l t h e s u b s e t s o f ( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s

o f ) t h e n a t u r a l num bers t o c o n t e n d w i t h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n e i t h e r view

is u n p ro b le m atic . I f we u s e t h e n o t i o n o f e v e r y p o s s i b l e s y s te m o f

e x t e n s i o n s f o r t h e d e s i g n a t o r s , t h e n we do f i n d t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r o o f

b a s e d upon t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l s e m a n t i c s d o v e t a i l i n g w i t h t h e n o t i o n

o f v a l i d i t y o f E h g l i s h i n f e r e n c e , a nd t h u s t h a t p r o o f w ould j u s t i f y

(2 ) im m ed ia te ly . However, t h a t means we a r e c o m m itte d t o a v e r y

p o w e r f u l m e t a - t h e o r y i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n an d j u s t i f y o u r s y m b o lic

lo g ic . Q u a n t if i e r s ov er u n c o u n ta b le s e t s ! I n p a r t i c u l a r , we n e e d

t h i s th e o ry to e x p la in th e n o tio n o f v a l i d i t y of E n g lish in fe re n c e , in

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9

O
a d d itio n to s e t- th e o r e tic v a li d it y . T h is i s u n d e s ir a b le : i f no

i n f e r e n c e o f a given- form h a s t r u e p r e m i s s e s and a f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n ,

t h e n by r e l y i n g on t h i s form o f i n f e r e n c e we w i l l n e v e r b e m i s l e d . So

why s h o u ld t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a f a l s i f y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e

u n iv e rse of a l l p o s s ib le a r ith m e tic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n t e r e s t us? T his

n o tio n of v a l i d i t y is n e e d le s s ly r e s t r i c t i v e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o

u s e c l a s s e s o f E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e s does n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e n e e d f o r

u n c o u n t a b l e s e t s i n e x p l a i n i n g s e t - t h e o r e t i c v a l i d i t y , and a l s o l e a v e s

open t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r o o f d o e s n o t f u l l y

ju stify (2 ). F o r , i f t h e r e w e re a s y s te m o f e x t e n s i o n s - s u b s e t s o f

( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f ) II - f o r a c e r t a i n E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e w h ic h

w ould make t h e p r e m i s s e s t r u e and t h e c o n c l u s i o n f a l s e , b u t f o r w h ic h

t h e r e w e re no E n g l i s h d e s i g n a t o r s , i . e . no c o rre sp o n d in g E n g lish

i n f e r e n c e , t h e n w h i l e t h e E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e w o u ld , on t h i s v i e w , be

v a l i d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f s w o u ld n o t b e f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e - t h e

c a l c u l u s w ould m ark t h e i n f e r e n c e i n v a l i d , and t h u s o u r f o r m a l map

w ould b e i n c o r r e c t .

T h e re i s a way o u t o f t h e w oods, b u t we w i l l g i v e o n ly r o u g h

d ire c tio n s. The s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l s e m a n t i c s c a n be p a r e d down t o

c o u n ta b ility . I n p a r t i c u l a r , l e t S b e t h e s e t o f r . e . num ber t h e o ­

r e tic p red ic ate s. S in c e t h e members o f S a r e d e r i v a b l e from t h e s e t

o f r e c u r s iv e p r e d i c a t e s by e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , and s in c e th e

l a t t e r a r e d e f i n a b l e from a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and t r u t h -

f u n c t i o n s a l o n e , we c e r t a i n l y do n o t l a c k d e s i g n a t o r s f o r t h e members

of S. L i k e w i s e f o r S* - t h e c l o s u r e o f S u n d e r t r u t h f u n c t i o n s - we

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-1 0 -

w i l l ha v e s u f f i c i e n t d e s i g n a t o r s i n E n g l i s h . But i t has b e e n proved

t h a t a ny c o n s i s t e n t w f f h a s a m odel i n S * . (See FUTNAm) T h i s means

t h a t i f we d e f i n e v a l i d i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o S* i n s t e a d o f t h e power s e t

o f ( C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f ) N we w i l l n o t i n c r e a s e t h e s e t o f v a l i d

w ffs. Thus p a r i t y i s r e s t o r e d b e tw e e n t h e s e t o f a l l s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d t h e s e t o f a l l E n g l i s h a r g u m e n ts , and we a r e

a s s u r e d t h a t b o t h d e f i n i t i o n s o f v a l i d i t y a s s i g n t h e same i n f e r e n c e s
9
to th e v a lid c l a s s . To o u r p r a g m a t i c b i a s , h o w e v e r, t h e d e f i n i t i o n

i n te r m s o f c l a s s e s o f E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e s seems t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l . )

S in c e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s a s a l o g i c

d e p e n d s f o r i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n upon t h e e x t e n s i o n a l a c c o u n t o f l o g i c a l

r e la tio n s in E n g lish , tro u b le s f o r th e l a t t e r a re a ls o tro u b le s f o r

th e fo rm er. Thus t h e w e l l- k n o w n p ro b le m s c o n c e r n i n g f a i l u r e s o f

r e f e r e n t i a l t r a n s p a r e n c y and s u b j u n c t i v e c o n d i t i o n a l s f u n c t i o n t o

d i s c r e d i t t h e c l a i m o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s t o b e l o g i c by

re fu s in g i t s a p p lic a tio n to c e r t a i n p o rtio n s of E n g lis h . The i m p o r t a n t

consequence f o r f i r s t o rd e r l o g ic o f th e la c k o f e x te n s io n a l a n a ly s e s

o f t h e s e E n g l i s h id io m s i s t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s w i l l make

m is ta k e s in ju d g in g th e v a l i d i t y o f in fe r e n c e s i f th e y a r e t r e a t e d

l i k e e x te n s io n a l id io m s. F o r e x a m p le , w h i l e t h e law o f c o n t r a p o s i t i v e

h olds f o r s u b ju n c tiv e c o n d it io n a l s , th e n e g a tio n o f th e a n te c e d e n t

d oes n o t im p ly s u c h a c o n d i t i o n a l , b u t i f we u s e t h e h o r s e s h o e , b o t h

in fe re n c e s w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d as v a l i d . A g a in , t o a n a l y z e " J o h n l i t

h i s c i g a r i n t e n t i o n a l l y " a s we do " J o h n i s h o l d i n g h i s c i g a r " i s t o

commit o u r s e l v e s t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t J o h n l i t t h e bomb

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-1 1 -

i n t e n t i o n a l l y ( s i n c e h i s c i g a r was t h e bom b), w h ic h may b e f a l s e (if

J o h n d i d n o t know t h a t h i s c i g a r was t h e bom b), b u t t o t r e a t i t l i k e

"John i s t a l l " p r e v e n t s u s fro m v a l i d a t i n g t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t J o h n l i t

so m e th in g .^ ® The s i t u a t i o n i n g e n e r a l may be n e a t l y i l l u s t r a t e d b y

t h e c a s e o f m odal l o g i c . We ha v e b e e n p r o v i d e d (KRIPKE) w i t h t h e s e t -

t h e o r e t i c a l s e m a n t ic s a n d b o t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d p r o o f o f c o m p l e t e ­

n ess of a p a r t i c u l a r fo rm a liz a tio n w ith re s p e c t to th e s e se m a n tic s.

( i n a d d i t i o n , t h e form o f t h e s e s e m a n t i c s c a r r i e s n o t a l i t t l e in tu i­

t i v e w eig h t i n l i g h t of th e an a lo g y t o t h e n o t io n o f " p o s s ib le

w o rld s." ) S in c e t h e r e i s no d i s p u t i n g K r i p k e 's w o rk , how i s i t t h a t

t h e d i s p u t e r a g e s on? B e c a u se t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e d i s p u t e i s t h e

in fo rm a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e fo rm a l sy ste m . QUINE ( 1 9 6 3 ) , Chap. 8

a r e u e s t h a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n - i . e . E n g l i s h id io m s o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n -

p ro d u c e n o n s e n s e w hen combined w i t h m o d al c o n t e x t s - i . e . m odal id ic m s

o f E n g lish . T h e r e i s no q u a r r e l w i t h fjj NFab D (Ex)NFxb, n o r w i t h t h e

a rg u m e n t sh ow ing t h a t a ny K rip k e m odel o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t i s a K rip k e

m odel o f t h e c o n s e q u e n t . I t i s " S o m e th in g i s n e c e s s a r i l y g r e a t e r t h a n

7" and s i m i l a r s e n t e n c e s w h i c h c a u s e d e b a b e . To a t t e m p t t o a p p l y t h e

f o rm a l s y s te m w i t h a n y e x t e n s i o n a l s e m a n t i c s i s t o im ply a t h e o r y o f

E n g l i s h m o d a l i t y , and i t i s t h i s t h e o r y w h ic h i s d i f f i c u l t f o r many t o

s w a l lo w .

So t h e p o r t i o n o f E n g l i s h f o r w h ic h t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s

c a n be a c c e p t e d a s l o g i c i s q u i t e r e s t r i c t e d . Even t h e l e a s t c o n t r o ­

v e r s i a l a r e a - th e language of m ath em atics - i s s t i l l q u ite c o n tr o ­

v e rsia l. The i n t u i t i o n i s t s o b j e c t t o c e r t a i n law s on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
12-

t h e y a r e f a l s e f o r c e r t a i n m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , a nd t h e r e a r e

t h o s e who o b j e c t t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d " p a r a d o x e s o f i m p l i c a t i o n " show

t h a t fo rm al d e r i v a b i l i t y does n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y m ir r o r o ur in fo rm a l

i n t u i t i o n s co n c ern in g i m p l i c a t i o n . S i n c e we a r e c o n c e r n e d i n p a r t i c u ­

l a r w i t h t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , we m u s t exam ine t h e s e

o b jec tio n s to i t s adequacy.

We may d i s t i n g u i s h two i n d e p e n d e n t com ponents i n t h e e f f o r t t o

sy ste m atiz e th e d i s c i p li n e of m ath e m a tic s, ( l ) A x io m atiz a tio n : th e

c h o i c e o f c e r t a i n t r u t h s a s s t a r t i n g p o i n t s i n a rg u m e n ts i n

e s ta b lis h in g o th er t r u t h s . T h i s am o u n ts t o t h e commitment t o a

s t a n d a r d form f o r p r o o f s : e v e ry s t e p i n a p ro o f m ust e i t h e r be an

axiom o r j u s t i f i a b l e b y l o g i c a l o n e from p r e c e d i n g s t e p s . The b e n e ­

fits o f a x i o m a t i z i n g a r e w e l l- k n o w n : i n t e r n a l l y , t h e axiom s p r o v i d e a

summary o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l a p p a r a t u s and a s s e r t i v e c o n t e n t o f t h e

d i s c i p l i n e ; e x t e r n a l l y , w h a te v e r c o u n ts as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e

axiom s c o u n ts a l s o a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e w h o le d i s c i p l i n e , and

s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f one d i s c i p l i n e t o a n o t h e r . (2 ) F o r m a l i ­

z a tio n : th e a p p lic a tio n of ( in our case) th e f i r s t o rd er c a lc u lu s t o

t h e la n g u a g e o f m a t h e m a t i c s a_£ i t s lo g ic . T h is means p r o v i d i n g a

v o c a b u l a r y o f sym bols a nd a m eans o f c o r r e l a t i n g w f f s and s t a t e m e n t s

o f m a t h e m a t ic s w i t h one a n o t h e r s o t h a t c r i t e r i a ( l ) and (2 ) a b o v e a r e

m et, i . e . s o t h a t t h e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y p r o v i d e s a f o r m a l map o f t h e

l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h o ld in g i n t h e lan g u ag e o f m a th e m a tic s . C learly ,

a x i o m a t i z a t i o n a nd f o r m a l i z a t i o n a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f one a n o t h e r . The

f i r s t a t t e m p t (See KLEENE, p . 60) a t t h e f o r m e r i s o v e r 2400 y e a r s

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-1 3 -

o l d , p r e d a t i n g b y more t h a n 2400 y e a r s t h e f i r s t f o r m a l s y s t e m . L ik e­

w i s e t h e l a t t e r , a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n ie d b y t h e f o r m e r , i n no way

presupposes i t . H ow ever, a l t h o u g h i n d e p e n d e n t o f one a n o t h e r , t h e i r

co -in c id e n c e is e s p e c ia lly f r u i t f u l . F or, in o rd er f o r th e b e n e f its

o f a x io m a tiz a tio n to a c c ru e , i t m u s t b e c o m p l e te : t h e a x io m s by them ­

s e l v e s m u st b e s u f f i c i e n t t o s e t t l e e v e r y q u e s t i o n o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e -

t o im p ly e v e r y t r u t h o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . O th e r w is e t h e y do n o t c o n t a i n

t h e w h o le o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . How d o u b t s a s t o t h e

c o m p l e t e n e s s o f a g i v e n i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n c a n a r i s e i n tw o w a y s :

firs t, r e g a r d i n g a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g p r o o f s o f t h e o r e m s , we may a s k f o r

some a s s u r a n c e t h a t p u r e l o g i c o n l y i s a l l o w e d ( b e s i d e s a x io m s ) i n t h e

p ro o fs - i . e . t h a t t h e r e a re no su p p re sse d p rem isses in our d e d u c tio n s

( a s t h e r e w e re i n E u c l i d u n t i l t h e l a s t c e n t u r y ) ; second, as re g a rd s

a s y e t u n s o l v e d p r o b le m s (known a n d unknow n), we may a s k f o r some

a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e s e axiom s a l o n e w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o s o l v e th e m .

F o r m a l i z i n g p r o v i d e s a m ethod o f a t t a c k f o r b o t h p r o b l e m s . I f our

fo rm al l o g i c m eets c r i t e r i a ( l ) and ( 2 ) , t h e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r

a g i v e n p r o o f o f B from t h e i n f o r m a l axiom s A was a p u r e l y l o g i c a l one

can be re -a s k e d in p u re ly fo rm al te rm s: i s Wg f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from

WA? T h i s q u e s t i o n a d m i t s a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r ( t h o u g h we may n o t b e a b l e

t o fin d i t ) . L ik ew ise, i f c r i t e r i o n ( l ) i s m et, th e n e v e ry s ta te m e n t

i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a t l e a s t one w f f . T hus, t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i ­

z a t i o n w i l l be c o m p le te i f f f o r e v e r y t r u t h T o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e , Wip i s

f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from WA . T h i s means t h a t a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r

in fo rm a l co m p leten ess i s fo rm a l c o m p le te n e ss: f o r e v e r y w f f W w h ic h

c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s e n t e n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e , e i t h e r W o r -W

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 4 -

i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from W^. F o r we assum e t h a t e v e r y s e n t e n c e o f

th e d is c ip lin e is e it h e r tru e or f a ls e , i n w h i c h c a s e one o f t h e

s e n t e n c e s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h W o r -W i s t r u e . T h i s c o n d i t i o n w ould

become s u f f i c i e n t i f we a d d e d t h e p r o v i s o t h a t f o r no f a l s e h o o d F was

WF f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from W&.) Now t h i s l a t t e r p r o b le m i s a g a i n a

p u r e l y f o r m a l one w h ic h a d m i t s a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r . Thus, f o r m a l i z a t i o n

e n a b l e s u s t o a s k a n d (s o m e tim e s ) a n s w e r i n a p r e c i s e f a s h i o n q u e s t i o n s

w h ic h a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e a d e q u a c y o f i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n . But

we have made a p p e a l t h r o u g h o u t t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g

l o g ic of a f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y m eets c r i t e r i a ( l ) and ( 2 ) - a n a t t a c k

on t h a t a s s u m p t io n may v e r y w e l l b e a n a t t a c k upon t h e w h o le j o i n t

p ro je c t.

I n tu itio n is m i s j u s t such a r a d i c a l a t t a c k . I t brands a rg u ­

m e n ts m arked v a l i d b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c a s f a l l a c i e s . In o th e r w ords,

f i r s t order lo g ic is to o s tro n g f o r in tu itio n is m . T h i s means t h a t a

c o m p l e te n e s s r e s u l t o f t h e s o r t o u t l i n e d i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h would

be o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t t o an i n t u i t i o n i s t : i f you u s e f i r s t o r d e r

l o g i c i n p r o v in g a l l t h e t r u t h s from t h e a x io m s , you a r e n o t t h e r e b y

show ing t h e axiom s c o m p l e t e . On t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h e i n t u i t i o n i s t may

a l s o r a i s e an o b j e c t i o n t o th e d e m o n s tra tio n o f in fo r m a l inadequacy

v ia form al in c o m p le te n e s s . He may c o n te n d t h a t t h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n

assum es t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d v a l i d i t y o f t h e law o f t h e e x c l u d e d m i d d l e ,

w h i c h he r e j e c t s . F o r , from t h e f o r m a l u n d e r i v a b i l i t y o f b o t h W and

-W i t f o l l o w s t h a t some t r u t h o f num ber t h e o r y i s n o t a l o g i c a l c o n s e ­

q u e n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a l axiom s o n l y i f we know t h a t one o f t h e s e n t e n c e s

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 5 -

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e i t h e r W o r -W i s t r u e . T h i s may n o t he t h e c a s e :

b o t h s e n t e n c e s may f a i l t o be t r u e . Thus t h e u s e o f a f i r s t o r d e r

t h e o r y t o f o r m a l i z e i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y may be w i t h o u t i n f o r m a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r an i n t u i t i o n i s t . Only b y p r o d u c i n g a n u n d e r i v a b l e

w f f whose c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e i s i n t u i t i o n i s t i c a l l y t r u e c a n we

c o n v in c e t h e i n t u i t i o n i s t , and i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h i s c a n be d o n e .

By c o n t r a s t , t h e d o u b t s r a i s e d by t h e ’’p a r a d o x e s o f i m p l i ­

c a t i o n ” ( s e e , e . g . ANDERSON a nd BELNAP) do n o t a f f e c t o u r c o n c l u s i o n s

at a ll. A l t h o u g h t h e y c la im t o c a s t d o u b t upon t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f

c r i t e r i o n ( 2 ) b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e problem o f

t h e i n f o r m a l a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n t o t h e f o rm a l

p ro b le m s o f i d e n t i f y i n g f o r m a l l y c o r r e c t d e r i v a t i o n s , and a r g u i n g t h a t

f o r e v e r y w f f W,. e i t h e r W o r -W i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from W^, s t i l l

h o ld s. F o r , t h e k i n d s o f a rg u m e n t w h i c h , t h o u g h v a l i d a c c o r d i n g t o

f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c , a r e f e l t t o b e p a r a d o x i c a l - A and n o t A, t h e r e f o r e

B* A, t h e r e f o r e B o r n o t B; n o t A, t h e r e f o r e i f A t h e n B; B, t h e r e f o r e

i f A t h e n B - a r e n o t f a l l a c i o u s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y c o u ld l e a d

from a t r u e p r e m i s s t o a f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n , b u t o n l y anam olous i n t h a t

t h e y do n o t a c c o r d w i t h o u r n o r m a l u s e o f s u c h p h r a s e s a s ’’i m p l i e s , ”

" th e re fo re ,” "it"fo llo w s th a t," e tc . I n t h e f i r s t two c a s e s i t i s

o b v io u s t h a t no f a l l a c y i s i n c u r r e d . The l a s t tw o may b e s e t t l e d by

th e fo llo w in g c o n s id e r a tio n s . I f A a nd B a r e t r u e t h e n t h e i n d i c a t i v e

" I f A, t h e n B" i s t r u e , and i f A i s t r u e and B i s f a l s e , t h e n i t is

false . If A is fa ls e , i t has no t r u t h v a lu e . By r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t

two t y p e s o f i n f e r e n c e v a l i d , we a r e t r e a t i n g t h i s i n d i c a t i v e

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-1 6 -

c o n d i t i o n a l a s i f i t had t h e t r u t h v a l u e t r u e i n t h i s c a s e . If th is

i s u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n why we

s h o u ld n o t do s o . ^ But t h e s e form s o f a rg u m e n t c e r t a i n l y do n o t

p re ju d ic e our r e d u c tio n o f th e in fo rm a l adequacy o f th e in fo rm al

a x i o m a t i z a t i o n t o t h e f o r m a l p ro b le m o f t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f a f i r s t

order th e o ry . F o r, in o rd e r t o f u l f i l l th e purposes of a x io m a tiz a tio n ,

we n e e d o n ly d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e S o f t h e i n f o r m a l

t h e o r y w h ic h i s i n f a c t t r u e , i t i s im p o ssib le ( c o n tr a d ic to r y ) t h a t th e

axiom s be t r u e and S f a l s e . Once t h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d , t h e u s e o f t h e

a x i o m a t i z a t i o n b o t h i n f o u n d a t i o n s and i n p r o o f t h e o r y i s j u s t i f i e d ;

g i v e n t h e a x io m s , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t S ’ s c o n t r a d i c t o r y i s i n c o n ­

s i s t e n t w i t h t h e axiom s i s a p r o o f t h a t S i s t r u e , and t h a t a n y t h i n g

w h ic h j u s t i f i e s t h e axiom s a l s o j u s t i f i e s S, e v e n i f t h a t d e m o n s t r a t i o n

does n o t s u f f i c e t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e axiom s ’’im p ly " S i n some s u p p o s e d

id io m a tic sen se o f t h a t w ord. S i n c e t h e anom olous a rg u m e n ts do n o t

p r e j u d i c e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t no f a l s e S i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e

a x io m s , t h e y do n o t p r e j u d i c e t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l

a x i o m a t i z a t i o n . 12

A i l o f t h e p r e c e d i n g m ust b e k e p t i n m ind i f we a r e t o u n d e r -

s t a n d t h e e x a c t s i g n i f i c a n c e o f G B del’ s i n c o m p l e t e n e s s th e o r e m . H is

arg u m e n t shows d i r e c t l y o n l y t h a t a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f f o rm a l ( f i r s t

o rd er) t h e o r i e s a re fo rm a lly in c o m p le te . What h a s t h i s g o t t o do w i t h

number t h e o r y ? A f te r a l l , th e f i r s t o rd e r c a lc u lu s i s a ls o fo rm a lly

i n c o m p l e t e , a nd t h i s i s d e s i r a b l e ( n e c e s s a r y , a c t u a l l y ) , c o n s i d e r i n g

i t s fu n ctio n . G f td e l's r e s u l t becomes o f i n f o r m a l i n t e r e s t o n l y when

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-17'

we assum e t h a t ( a ) t h e f o r m a l l o g i c u n d e r l y i n g t h e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y

i s a d e q u a t e i n g e n e r a l , an d (b ) o u r p a r t i c u l a r f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y i s

a n a d e q u a t e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y . The l a s t p a r a ­

g r a p h d e a l t w i t h d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g ( a ) ; l a t e r we s h a l l have t o s e t t l e

some d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g ( b ) .

L e t u s now s k e t c h how G f t d e l 's t h e o r e m i s p ro v e d f o r a g i v e n

f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r y H. We n e e d assum e o n l y ( l ) among t h e sym bols o f H

t h e r e i s an i n f i n i t e s e t of in d iv i d u a l c o n s ta n ts i^ ,. . .,i ,.. • ;

(2 ) we h a v e a n o r d e r i n g w ^ , . . .,w n , . . . o f t h e o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e fo rm u ­

l a s o f H; ( 3 ) t h e r e i s a o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e f o r m u la o f H - Y (x) - s u c h

t h a t , f o r ev ery n:

(I) I f[ g Y ( in), th e n [lw n ( in )

(II) I f fn "Y( i n )> t h e n n o t [H wn ^ n ) *

(The s u b s c r i p t "E" w i l l b e u n d e r s t o o d t o a p p l y t o a l l o c c u r a n c e s o f

"{_ 11 t o t h e end o f t h i s c h a p t e r . ) C on sid er th e w ff -Y (x ). I t is a

o n e - f r e e - v a r i a b l e w f f , and s o i n t h e o r d e r i n g r e q u i r e d by (2 ) - l e t i t

be wjj. Now c o n s i d e r t h e w f f - Y ( i k ) :

a) I f | Y (ijj.), t h e n b y ( I I ) , n o t wjc( i j £) , i . e . n o t (— - Y ( i k ) .

T h e r e f o r e n o t j— ~Y(i-K) .

b) I f Y ( i k ), th e n by ( l ) , [ — w ^ (ik ) , i . e . J - - Y ( ik ) . B ut b y

( a ) , t h i s is im p o ssib le . So n o t |— Y ( i ] c ) . So we s e e t h a t i f H

fu lfills ( l ) - ( 3 ) , t h e r e m u st b e a w f f - n a m e ly , Y( i^-) - s u c h t h a t

n e ith e r i t not i t s n e g a tio n a re fo rm a lly d e riv a b le . S in ce any f i r s t

o r d e r num ber t h e o r y w i l l o b v i o u s l y f u l f i l l ( l ) and ( 2 ) , t h e pow er o f

G i i d e l 's th e o r e m i s i n t h e a rg u m e n t t h a t s u c h a t h e o r y m u st l i k e w i s e

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18-

fu lfill (3 ). N ote t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y r e s t r a i n t up o n t h e f o r m a l

a p p a r a t u s o f H. In p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s n o t n e c e ssa ry t h a t p ro o fn ess in

H be re c u rs iv e , o r t h a t th e o re m h o o d f o r H b e r . e . f o r t h e i n c o m p l e t e ­

n e s s a rg u m e n t t o go t h r o u g h , ( i n f a c t , ROSSER h a s d e r i v e d G5Jdel-type

in co m p le te n ess f o r c o m p le te ly n o n - c o n s tr u c tiv e l o g i c s . ) These l a t t e r

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p l a y a r o l e o n l y i n t h e a rg u m e n t t h a t a l l f i r s t o r d e r

th e o rie s o f a c e r ta in ty p e f u l f i l l ( 3 ) , t o w h ic h a rg u m e n t we now t u r n .

We s h a l l s a y t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t i n and t h e num ber n

" c o r r e s p o n d " t o one a n o t h e r , a n d a b b r e v i a t e i n b y n . G iv e n a n y

n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c r e l a t i o n R m ^ ...m n , we s h a l l s a y t h a t R i s r e p r e s e n t ­

a b le i n H i f f th e r e i s a w ff W x ^ ...x n such t h a t :

(i) I f Rm . . . m n t h e n j— Wm-^. . .ii^ , &nd


2

(ii) I f n o t Rm ^...m n , t h e n ) W m -^ ...!^ .

We may th e n e x te n d our te rm in o lo g y as f o llo w s : l e t R a ^ . . . a n be any

r e l a t i o n on any s e t A. (R i s a s u b s e t o f An . ) L e t f : A—?N b e 1 -1
13
and s u f f i c i e n t l y n i c e - i . e . d e c i d a b l e . Then we may s a y t h a t R i s

r e p r e s e n t a b le i n H i f f t h e r e i s a w ff W x ^ ...x n in H such t h a t :

(i) I f R f ” 1 ^ ) . . . f “ 1 (mn ) , t h e n \ ~ Wm^.. .i i^ , and

(ii) I f n o t R f " 1 (m-^). . . f ^ ' n ^ ) , t h e n


'Wm^ . . .m^ •

( N o te : on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t H i s c o n s i s t e n t , t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f ( i )

and ( i i ) i m p l i e s t h e c o n v e r s e s o f e a c h o f ( i ) and ( i i ) . P ro o f:

s u p p o s e H i s c o n s i s t e n t and)— Wmi^...mn . Then n o t J— -Wm^ • . . n ^ , and by

( i i ) we ha v e R f - '- ( m j ) . . . f " ^ ( m n ) . T h e re fo re th e converse o f ( i ) h o ld s .

L ik ew ise f o r ( i i ) . ) We s h a l l c a l l t h e s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n " . . . i s a

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-1 9

p r o o f ( i . e . f o r m a l d e r i v a t i o n ) i n H o f t h e w f f ___ of H" H 's p r o o f

p re d ic a te . Now G l l d e l 's m ethod i s t o show t h a t i f H m e e ts a v e r y

m in im a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c s t r e n g t h , t h e n H 's p r o o f

p r e d i c a t e i s r e p r e s e n t a b l e i n H. (The v e r y m in im a l r e q u i r e m e n t may be

e x p la in e d t h i s way. I n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y , we w i l l c a l l a n y

p r o p o s i t i o n w h ic h c a n b e v e r i f i e d o r f a l s i f i e d b y a d d i n g , m u l t i p l y i n g ,

an d r e s o l v i n g t r u t h f u n c t i o n s a n e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n . The m in im a l

re q u ire m e n t f o r H i s th e n t h a t e v e ry w f f w h ich c o rre sp o n d s t o a t r u e

e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n s h o u l d b e f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from t h e w f f s

w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m s . ) How t h i s i s done i s t o o

c o m p lic a ted t o r e h e a r s e h e re ; s u f f i c e i t t o s a y t h a t GBdel g i v e s a

c o o k -b o o k r e c i p e f o r f i n d i n g a w f f Pxy, a n d a f u n c t i o n f fro m t h e

f o r m a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f H ( i . e . s y m b o ls , w f f s , and s e q u e n c e s o f w f f s )

i n t o N and 1 -1 s u c h t h a t :

(i) I f f “ l (m ) i s (a s e q u e n c e o f w f f s o f H w h ic h i s ) a p r o o f i n

H whose l a s t l i n e i s f “ -*-(n), t h e n K Enin.

(ii) I f f " ^ ( m ) i s n o t a p r o o f w hose l a s t l i n e i s f “ * ( n ) , t h e n

j— -H nn.

T h e n , b y a s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f Pxy, we can g e t a w f f Qxy w h ic h w i l l

r e p r e s e n t t h e m ixed r e l a t i o n 11 . . . i s a proof of th e r e s u lt of s u b s ti­

t u t i n g t h e n u m e ra l ____ f o r t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e o f t h e - th one-free-

v a r i a b l e w f f H” ( b r i e f l y , ” . . . i s a p r o o f o f w_ ( _ ) ” ) , h o l d i n g b e tw e e n

s e q u e n c e s o f w f f s o f H and n a t u r a l n u m b e r s . That i s :

(i) I f f " ^ ( m ) i s a p r o o f o f wn ( n ) , t h e n |— Qmn.

(ii) I f f “ *(m) i s n o t a p r o o f o f wn ( n ) , t h e n |— -Qmn.

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-2 0 -

F i n a l l y , i n o r d e r t o show t h a t H f u l f i l l s ( 3 ) , we n e e d t o assume t h a t

H i s o m e g a - c o n s i s t e n t ( > w - c o n s i s t e n t ) , i . e . , w h e n e v e r j— Wn f o r e v e r y n ,

i t i s n o t t h e c a s e t h a t {— (Ex)-VIx. The p r o o f i s a s f o l l o w s :

a ) w - c o n s i s t e n c y i m p l i e s s im p l e c o n s i s t e n c y , s i n c e t h e r e a r e

many w f f s W(x) s u c h t h a t f o r a l l n , j— Wn, a nd t h u s n o t J— (Ex)-Wx, and

t h e n o n - p r o v a b i l i t y o f a n y f o r m u la i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s im p le c o n s i s t e n c y .

b) S in ce H i s c o n s i s t e n t , ( i ) and ( i i ) t o g e t h e r g iv e t h e

co n v erse of e a c h .

c) The w f f (Ey)Qyx i s t h e Y (x) we n e e d , (i): Suppose

[- (Ey)Q yn. Then by ^ - c o n s i s t e n c y , i t cannot be th e case t h a t f o r

e v e r y m ,j— -Qmn; i . e . t h e r e i s some m s u c h t h a t n o t ) — Qmn. By t h e

converse o f ( i i ) , f ^ G n ) m u st b e a p r o o f o f wn (n ) - so wn (ii) i s

p ro v ab le, (ii): Suppose] (E y)Q yn. So |— ( y ) - Q y n , w h ic h g i v e s us

]— -Qmn f o r e v e r y m. S i n c e H i s c o n s i s t e n t , we may c o n c lu d e t h a t f o r

e v e r y m, n o t j- Qmn. By t h e c o n v e r s e o f ( i ) , f o r e v e r y m, f"^ (m ) i s

n o t a p r o o f o f wn (n ) - i . e . wn ( n ) i s n o t p r o v a b l e .

We s h a l l now c o n s i d e r i n d e t a i l t h e i n f o r m a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

t h e f o r m a l i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e o r i e s s u c h a s H. F o l lo w in g t h e a r g u ­

m ent on p . 1 7 3 we have n o t j— (Ey)Qyk a n d n o t ] — -(E y ) Q y k (w here

-(E y )Q y x i s wfc) , t h a t i s , n e i t h e r f o r m u l a i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e from

t h e f o r m a l ax io m s o f H . ^ I f we assum e t h a t H i s a n a d e q u a t e f o r m a l i ­

z a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y - t h a t H i s a c o r r e c t and c o m p le te

l o g i c a l map o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y - t h e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a l axiom s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t c a n b e j u s t i f i e d a s

fo llo w s. The two u n d e r i v a b l e w f f s c o r r e s p o n d t o tw o c o n t r a d i c t o r y

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21-

s t a t e m e n t s o f num ber t h e o r y . One o f t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s i s t r u e . But

n e i t h e r i s a l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e a x io m s . Hence t h e s e axiom s

a r e n o t s t r o n g enough t o s e t t l e e v e r y pro b le m i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e . Thus

t h e a d v a n t a g e s w h i c h we d e s i r e d f ro m a x i o m a t i z i n g - c a p t u r i n g t h e w hole

c o n c e p t u a l an d a s s e r t i v e c o n t e n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e axiom s -

w i l l n o t be r e a l i z e d . But now, t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f o u r a s s u m p t i o n s

may come i n t o q u e s t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w ay.

d) Suppose f o r seme n , QnE. Then b y t h e c o n v e r s e o f ( i ) ,

f “ *(n) i s a p ro o f o f w ^ (k ), i . e . o f -(Ey)Qyic, b u t t h i s w f f i s n o t

p ro v ab le. So, f o r a l l n , n o t (- Qnk. Now t h e w f f Qnk c o n t a i n s n o

q u a n t i f i e r s and no v a r i a b l e s , I t c a n b e shown t h a t i f H f u l f i l l s t h e

" v e r y m inim al r e q u i r e m e n t " t h e n f o r e v e r y s u c h w f f , e i t h e r i t o r i t s

n e g a t i o n i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e fro m t h e f o r m a l axiom s o f H . ^ T here­

f o r e , f o r ev ery n , \ - -Q n k . B u t , a s shown a b o v e , -(E y)Q yE , i . e . (y)-Q yE ,


16
is n o t fo rm a lly d e r i v a b le . T h is i s a c a se of what i s c a l l e d

^ /-in c o m p le te n e ss: e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f a w f f Wx i s d e r i v a b l e , b u t (x)Wx

is n o t. O b v i o u s ly , t h i s t y p e o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s can b e r e p a i r e d i f we

a d d t o H w hat i s c a l l e d t h e u / - r u l e ( t h u s f o r m in g H ^ ) : i f fo r a l l n,

I— Wn, t h e n j— (x)Wx, In f a c t , H i s a l s o sim p ly c o m p l e t e . ^ Now t h e

f o rm a l u / - r u l e i n H c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e form o f a rg u m e n t: " 0 i s F, 1 i s

F, 2 i s F , t h e r e f o r e e v e r y num ber n i s F" i n i n f o r m a l number

th eo ry . But i n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y , i t seems t h a t we a r e p r e p a r e d

t o a d m it su c h a r g u m e n ts : i f each o f th e prem isses i s t r u e , can t h e

c o n c l u s i o n be f a l s e ? And i f s u c h a rg u m e n ts a r e c o r r e c t i n i n f o r m a l

number t h e o r y t h e n d o e s n o t t h e ^ - i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f H d i s q u a l i f y i t a s

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 2 -

a c o r r e c t l o g i c a l map o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y ? That i s , sin c e H

c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e a rg u m e n t " 0 i s F , 1 i s F , t h e r e f o r e every

number n i s F " , i f we have a p a r t i c u l a r F f o r w h ic h e a c h o f t h e

p r e m i s s e s f o l l o w s fro m a s e t o f a x io m s , t h e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n w i l l a l s o

f o l l o w from t h o s e a x io m s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e r i v a t i o n i s

n o t a v a i l a b l e i n H. Then we may a r g u e t h a t t h e f o r m a l i n c o m p l e t e n e s s

o f H i s n o t a p r o o f t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l axiom s a r e i n a d e q u a t e . In f a c t,

from t h e s im p l e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f we c a n draw t h e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n :

i f t h e a d d i t i o n o f a v a l i d mode o f a r g u m e n t s u f f i c e s t o show t h a t t h e

axiom s do s e t t l e e v e r y q u e s t i o n , t h e n t h e axiom s a r e a d e q u a t e !

I n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h i s a r g u m e n t, l e t us d i s t i n g u i s h two

d i f f e r e n t purposes of a x io m a tiz a tio n . ( l ) To p r o v i d e a m ethod f o r

s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s . An a d e q u a t e a x i o m a t i z a t i o n p r o v i d e s a " n o rm a l form "

fo r pro o fs: e v e r y l i n e i s e i t h e r a n axiom o r f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y from

p rev io u s l i n e s . Such a n o r m a l fo rm f a c i l i t a t e s r e c o g n i t i o n o f p r o ­

p o s e d p r o o f s a s v a l i d o r n o t , and may e v e n s u g g e s t a m ethod o f p r o o f

d isco v ery . (2 ) E n c a p s u l a t i o n o f c o n c e p t u a l and a s s e r t i v e c o n t e n t i n

t h e a x io m s . I f th e a x io m a ti z a t io n i s co m p le te , th e n a l l c o n cep ts n o t

m e n tio n e d i n t h e axiom s m u st be d e f i n e d from t h o s e t h a t a r e so

m e n t io n d , a n d a l l t r u t h s o f t h e t h e o r y m u st f o l l o w l o g i c a l l y from t h e

a x io m s . T h is f a c i l i t a t e s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n a n d / o r j u s t i f i ­

c a tio n : e i t h e r p r o c e s s n e e d be c a r r i e d t h r o u g h o n l y f o r t h e axiom s t o

have e f f e c t f o r t h e w h o le d i s c i p l i n e . Now we may e v a l u a t e H , a s

opposed t o H, in t h e l i g h t o f ( l ) an d ( 2 ) . .

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-2 3 -

(l): I n o r d e r t o a p p l y t h e w - r u l e i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , we

m u st somehow b e a s s u r e d t h a t i t s p r e m i s s e s h o l d . But t h e r e a r e an

i n f i n i t e number o f th e m . Such a s s u r a n c e c a n n o t b e t h e p r o d u c t o f a

c h e c k o f e a c h p r e m i s e ; we m u st have seme a rg u m e n t t h a t , f o r ev ery n ,

"n i s F" f o l l o w s from t h e a x i o m s . But t h i s a rg u m e n t w i l l b e f i n i t e -

a few E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s . I f s o , t h e n we may s i m p l y make t h e t r a n ­

s i t i o n from t h i s a rg u m e n t t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t e v e r y n i s F w i t h o u t

t h e m i d d l e s t e p o f a p p e a l i n g t o t h e t r u t h o f a n i n f i n i t e num ber o f

se n te n c es. I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e two s u c h p a t t e r n s o f a rg u m e n t t y p i c a l l y

u s e d i n number t h e o r y : "a f r e e v a r i a b l e " a r g u m e n t, and m a t h e m a t i c a l

in d u c tio n . I n e a c h c a s e a n a rg u m e n t i s g i v e n w h ic h c o n v i n c e s u s t h a t

f o r a n y n we can p ro v e t h a t n i s F . I n f a c t , t h e s e a r g u m e n ts c a n b e

tak en as in s tru c tio n s fo r fin d in g such p ro o fs . W ith a f r e e v a r i a b l e

a r g u m e n t, j u s t p l u g n i n f o r t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e and y o u have a p r o o f

th a t n is F. I n t h e c a s e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n , t h e a rg u m e n t

i t s e l f shows t h a t 0 i s F, a n d t h a t i f n i s F t h e n n+1 i s F . So f o r

a n y n , t h e p r o o f t h a t i t i s F i s j u s t n modus po n e n s s t e p s a w a y . Now

in b o t h t h e s e c a s e s we n e e d no a p p e a l t o t h e w - r u l e ; t h e a rg u m e n t

i t s e l f w a rra n ts th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t every n i s F. On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

su p p o s e t h e r e a r e s i t u a t i o n s i n w h ic h , a l t h o u g h i t i s tru e t h a t each n

i s F , an d e v e n t h a t t h i s c a n b e p r o v e d f o r e a c h n , t h e r e i s n o a r g u ­

m e n t w h ic h c a n e s t a b l i s h t h i s f a c t . T hen we w i l l n e v e r b e a b l e t o

em ploy t h e u j - r u l e t o p r o v e t h a t e v e r y n i s F , s i n c e we w i l l n e v e r know

t h a t i t s prem isses a r e f u l f i l l e d . Thus no e s s e n t i a l a p p e a l t o t h e

u / - r u l e can b e p a r t o f a p r o o f r e c o g n i t i o n p r o c e d u r e o r a p r o o f

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24-

disco v ery p rocedure. In t h i s r e s p e c t, i s n o t a t a l l s u p e r i o r t o H.

(2 ): However, t h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s do n o t t o u c h t h e c l a i m

th a t i s s u p e r io r to H i n th e second r e s p e c t . F or, in o rd er t o

s u p p o rt th e cla im o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n a n d /o r r e d u c tio n , i t need o nly be

shown t h a t t h e a xiom s do l o g i c a l l y im p ly e v e r y t r u t h o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .

The f a c t t h a t we c a n n o t f i n d t h e p r o o f s i n p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s i s i r r e l e ­

v a n t. T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y H a s a l o g i c a l map w i t h r e s p e c t

t o ( 2 ) , we m u s t a r g u e t h a t t h e ‘" - r u l e i s n o t a v a l i d mode o f a r g u m e n t .

B u t i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t i t i s i n f a c t e n th y m e m a tic : th e in feren ce

o f " E v e ry num ber n i s F" from " 0 i s F , 1 i s F , 2 i s F , . . . " depends

upon t h e s u p p r e s s e d p r e m i s s " 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . a r e a l l t h e n u m b e r s ," i . e . up o n

" F o r e v e r y num ber n , n * 0 o r n = l o r n=2 o r . . . " On t h e f o r m a l s i d e ,

t h e '•'“■ ru le f a i l s t o b e v a l i d i n t h e s e t - t h e o r e t i c s e n s e : th ere is a

w f f Wx s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n w h ic h f o r e a c h n , Wn i s

t r u e , b u t (x)Wx i s f a l s e . (P ro o f: s i n c e n o t g - ( E y ) Q y k , t h e axiom s

r e m a in c o n s i s t e n t upon t h e a d d i t i o n o f i t s n e g a t i o n (Ey)QyE, even

t h o u g h [■§ -Qplc f o r e v e r y n , and b y t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e o r e m f o r f i r s t

o r d e r l o g i c , t h e r e i s a m odel f o r t h e new s e t o f a x io m s . T h is m odel

w ould be a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n w h i c h -QnR i s t r u e f o r a l l n , b u t

(x)-^ixE i s f a l s e . ) Thus t h e f a c t t h a t H i s c u -in c o m p le te d o e s n o t im p ly

t h a t i t i s n o t a n a c c u r a t e l o g i c a l map o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y : even

i n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y , u ^ - r u l e t y p e a r g u m e n ts a r e n o t l o g i c a l l y

v a lid .

But now i t may b e a r g u e d t h a t i f c r i t e r i o n (2 ) o f a d e q u a c y

( p . 4) i s m e t , s t i l l (l) is n o t: i n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y we do g e t

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-2 5 -

a v a l i d a rg u m e n t i f we s u p p l y t h e m i s s i n g p r e m i s s , b u t t h e r e i s no w f f

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s e n t e n c e o f i n f o r m a l number t h e o r y . A lthough

t h e map i s r e l i a b l e , i t d o e s n o t c o v e r t h e w h o le o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .

To g e t a c o m p l e te map, we w o u ld h a v e t o r e c o r d t h e d e d u c t i v e pow er o f

t h a t s u p p r e s s e d p r e m i s s " 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . a r e a l l t h e n u m b e rs " (A) f o r m a l l y ,

e . g . b y a d d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n f i n i t e w f f ( x )( x = 0 v x = 0 ' v . . . ) .

B u t i f we do t h i s , a n d do n o t a l t e r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p r o o f f o r H,

t h e n H w i l l f a i l t o b e a c o r r e c t l o g i c a l map. F o r, any (in fo rm a l)

a rg u m e n t i n w h ic h e s s e n t i a l u s e i s made o f A t o p a s s fro m "0 i s F ,

1 i s F . . . " t o " E v e ry number n i s F " w i l l b e i n f i n i t e l y l o n g , w h i l e

a l l p ro o fs in H are by d e f in itio n f i n i t e . The i n f o r m a l l y v a l i d

a rg u m e n t "0 i s F , 1 i s F , . . . , and 0 , 1 , . . . a r e a l l t h e n u m b e r s ,

t h e r e f o r e e v e r y number n i s F" w i l l n o t h a v e a c o u n t e r p a r t i n H.

One way t o s t r e n g t h e n H so a s t o r e c o r d f o r m a l l y t h e d e d u c t i v e

s t r e n g t h o f A i s t o add t h e W - r u l e - n o t a s a n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

u n d erly in g lo g ic , b u t as a non- lo g ic a l r u le . I t th en p la y s a r o le

s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e w f f s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i n f o r m a l a x io m s:

i t s u s e i n a f o r m a l d e r i v a t i o n w i l l map t h e i n f o r m a l u s e o f A i n

n u m b e r - th e o r e tic arg u m e n ts. So c o n c e i v e d , i s an a d e q u a te l o g i c a l

map o f t h e e x te n d e d number t h e o r y : S f o l l o w s fro m t h e i n f o r m a l axiom s


18
s u p p le m e n te d b y A i f f I—„ W . B ut now from t h e f o r m a l c o m p l e t e n e s s
HW S
of i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e new s e t o f axiom s i s i n f o r m a l l y c o m p l e t e , a t
19
l e a s t w ith r e s p e c t to th e second p u rp o se o f a x io m a tiz a tio n . That i s ,

e v e r y t r u t h o f number t h e o r y f o l l o w s fro m t h e new s e t o f a x io m s . T h is

m eans t h a t t h e p r o j e c t o f c a p t u r i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f num ber t h e o r y b y

a x i o m a t i z i n g c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e te d b y t h e new s e t o f a x io m s .

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2 6 -

To t h i s a rg u m e n t we s e e no r e p l y . The i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e f a r - r e a c h i n g :

G lSdel's t h e o r e m show ing t h e f o r m a l i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f H i s i r r e l e v a n t

t o t h e second p u r p o s e o f a x i o m a t i z i n g . T h u s , f o r e x a m p le , F r e g e ' s

pro g ra m c a n n o t be c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t h a v i n g shown t h a t m a t h e m a t ic s i s

a p a r t o f l o g i c by a p p e a l t o i n c o m p l e t e n e s s ; i f h i s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e

axiom s w e re c r e d i b l e , i t would s u f f i c e f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f number

th eo ry as a w h o l e T h e c o n t e n t o f G B d e l's t h e o r e m - i . e . o f i t s

i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e - s h o u ld t h e n b e e n t i r e l y i n t e r m s o f l i m i ­

ta tio n s of proof p ro ce d u re s. I t may b e p u t t h u s : i f th e n o tio n of

p r o o f i s d e c i d a b l e , t h e n t h e r e a r e t r u t h s o f number t h e o r y w h ic h ,

t h o u g h t h e y may f o l l o w l o g i c a l l y from t h e a x io m s , l a c k p r o o f s show ing

them t o b e l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e a x io m s .

Summary. We may f o r m u l a t e t h e i n f o r m a l e f f e c t o f G B d e l's

t h e o r e m by s a y i n g t h a t i t shows t h e f o l l o w i n g t o be i n c o m p a t i b l e :

( i ) The i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e : f o r every

s e n t e n c e S o f number t h e o r y , e i t h e r S o r i t s c o n t r a d i c t o r y f o l l o w s

l o g i c a l l y from t h e i n f o r m a l a x io m s .

( i i ) The p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H i s r e c u r s i v e ,

( i i i ) As a l o g i c a l map, H i s a d e q u a t e - i . e . c o m p le te and

a c c u ra te : ev e ry se n te n c e o f t h e in fo rm a l th e o r y has a co rre sp o n d in g

w f f , and a s e n t e n c e S f o l l o w s from a s e t o f axiom s A i f f (“jj

Now we d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n : ( l ) t h e use o f f o r m a li z a t io n i n red u c in g

t h e i n f o r m a l c o m p l e te n e s s p ro b le m t o a p r e c i s e c o m b i n a t o r i a l q u e s t i o n ;

(2 ) t h e u s e o f f o r m a l i z a t i o n i n d e c i d i n g i f a g i v e n s e n t e n c e f o l l o w s

l o g i c a l l y from t h e a x io m s ; (3 ) t h e u s e o f ( i n f o r m a l ) a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i n

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-2 7 -

e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f c o n t e n t ; a n d (4 ) t h e u s e o f ( i n f o r m a l ) a x i o m a t i z a t i o n

i n in fo rm a l p ro o f t h e o r y . The s u c c e s s o f ( l ) d e p e n d s upon ( i i i ) , and

h e n c e H i s a d e q u a t e f o r number t h e o r y w i t h o u t t h e s e n t e n c e A, and Hw

i s a d e q u a t e ( u s i n g t h e w - r u l e i n s t e a d o f a new w f f ) f o r num ber t h e o r y

w i t h A. The s u c c e s s o f (2 ) d e p e n d s up o n ( i i ) and ( i i i ) , and h e n c e H

i s a d e q u a t e f o r number t h e o r y w i t h o u t A, b u t H^. i s n o t a d e q u a t e f o r

number t h e o r y w i t h A, s i n c e ( i i ) is v io la te d . The s u c c e s s o f (3 )

d e p e n d s upon ( i ) , an d h e n c e number t h e o r y w i t h o u t A a s axiom i s

( i n f o r m a l l y ) i n a d e q u a t e , a nd number t h e o r y w i t h A a s axiom i s a d e q u a t e .

The s u c c e s s o f (4) d e p e n d s upon a l l o f ( i ) , (ii) a nd ( i i i ) - we n e e d

e v e r y t r u e s e n t e n c e t o have a r e c o g n i z a b l e p r o o f - and h e n c e i s

im p o ssib le .

The n e x t tw o c h a p t e r s a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e e x p o s i t i o n and e x a m i­

n a t i o n o f tw o c o l l e c t i o n s o f f o r m a l t h e o r i e s e a c h o f w h ic h i s , in a

c e r t a i n se n se , c o m p le te . Our i n t e r e s t i n th em w i l l b e t o u n d e r s t a n d

how t h e y f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y . In p a r t i c u ­

l a r , t h e i r co m p leten ess needs d i s c u s s i o n ; i n t h i s c h a p t e r we saw t h a t

G B d el-in cam p leten ess o f f i r s t o r d e r num ber t h e o r y makes i n f o r m a l p r o o f

t h e o r y i m p o s s i b l e , and makes t h e p r i c e o f i n f o r m a l c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e

n o n -e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f p ro o f. The q u e s t i o n we s h a l l ha v e t o a n s w e r i s :

what does t h e co m p leten ess o f t h e s e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e o r i e s c o n t r i b u t e

t o w a r d t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i s u n d e r t a k e n ?

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-2 8 -

CHAFTEft I I

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d W ang's s y s te m sigm a (S) ( p r e s e n t e d i n

WANG, c h a p s . 23 and 2 4 ) , we m u s t d i s c u s s S k o l e m 's " p a r a d o x ” ( i n

SKOLEM, and KLEENE, p p . 4 2 5 - 7 ) , f o r t h e u n i q u e f e a t u r e s o f S depend

u p o n h i s u s e o f t h e axiom s o f " l i m i t a t i o n " w h ic h im p ly a c e r t a i n a t t i ­

t u d e t o w a r d s t h e " p a r a d o x , " i f t h e y a r e n o t ( p a r t i a l l y ) d e r i v e d from

it.

I n h i s i n f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y C a n t o r p r o v e d a t h e o r e m T w h ic h

s a y s t h a t t h e power s e t o f a g i v e n s e t h a s h i g h e r c a r d i n a l i t y t h a n

t h a t o f th e g iv en s e t . G iven e l e m e n t a r y s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l n o t i o n s s u c h

as u n io n , i n t e r s e c t i o n , s u b s e t , and o r d e r e d p a i r s , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

t h e c o n c ep ts used i n T i s a s f o llo w s : a 1-1 f u n c t i o n i s a s e t of

o r d e r e d p a i r s s u c h t h a t i f ( a , b ) a nd ( c . d ) a r e members o f t h e s e t ,

th en a * c i f f b * d. Two s e t s a r e e q u in u m e ro u s i f t h e r e i s a 1 -1

f u n c t i o n w h ic h h a s one s e t a s i t s dom ain a n d t h e o t h e r a s i t s range.

(The dom ain o f a f u n c t i o n i s t h e s e t o f f i r s t members o f i t s ordered

p a irs, i ts r a n g e i s t h e s e t o f s e c o n d m e m b e rs .) A s e t A i s of h ig h er

c a r d i n a l i t y t h a n a s e t B i f f B i s e q u in u m e ro u s w i t h some s u b s e t o f A

and n o t v ic e v e r s a . The pow er s e t o f a g i v e n s e t i s t h e s e t o f a l l

s u b s e ts of th e g iv en s e t . So w h a t T s a y s i s t h a t f o r a n y s e t A, t h e r e

i s a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n A and some s u b s e t o f i t s power s e t P (A ), b u t

n o t b e tw e e n A and t h e f u l l P ( A ) . The c l a i m e d f u n c t i o n i s e a s i l y

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-2 9 -

d e f i n e d , and t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t A and P(A) a r e e q u in u m e ro u s i s shown

t o b e c o n t r a d i c t o r y v i a C a n t o r ' s famous d i a g o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . Now

s u p p o s e we f o r m a l i z e s e t t h e o r y i n a f o r m a l s y s te m F, t h e n t h e w f f o f

F w h ich c o rresp o n d s t o T w i l l lo o k l i k e t h i s :

(Tw) (x )((E y )(E f)(y cp (x ) n 0 (f) n D (f)-x n R (f)-y )

n - ( E f ) ( 0 ( f ) n D (f)= x n R ( f ) « p ( x ) ) )

w here p(x) i s d e fin e d a s ( i y ) ( z ) ( z e y s z c x ) . ( " x " , "y " e t c . ra n g e

o v e r s e t s ; " f " r a n g e s o v e r s e t s o f o r d e r e d p a i r s , ” 0 , ” "D ," " R ," and

" p " a r e t h e f o r m a l c o u n t e r p a r t s o f " i s a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n , " " t h e dom ain

o f , " " t h e ranece o f , " a nd " t h e power s e t o f " r e s p e c t i v e l y . ) Now t h e

"paradox" i s t h i s : t h e s e t N o f n a t u r a l num bers i s a c o u n t a b l y i n f i ­

n ite s e t. Then T i m p l i e s t h a t P(N) i s n o n - c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e - i . e .

t h e r e i s a 1 -1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n a s u b s e t o f P(N) and N b u t n o t b e tw e e n

t h e f u l l P(N) and N. C a ll t h i s in s t a n c e o f T i n C a n to r 's in fo rm a l s e t

t h e o r y T (N ). L e t ti n g t be th e term in F w h ich c o rre sp o n d s t o N ( to be

w ritte n : C ( t ) = N ) , ^ t h e n a w f f o f F c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o T(N) i s

T(N)W ( E y ) ( E f ) ( y c p ( t ) n 0 ( f ) n D (f) = t n R (f) - y)

n - ( E f ) ( 0 ( f ) n D (f) * t n R (f) * p ( t ) ) .

T(N)W i s a f o r m a l th e o r e m o f F . Thus i n t h e f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y F t h e

e x is t e n c e o f n o n c o u n ta b ly i n f i n i t e s e t s w i l l be p r o v a b le . But by t h e

Lowenheim-Skolem (L -S ) m e t a - t h e o r e m , e v e r y f o r m a l i z e d t h e o r y h as a

c o u n t a b l e m o d e l, i . e . t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y i n

w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e o v e r a u n i v e r s e w h ic h i s c o u n t a b l e and i n

w h ic h a l l t h e t h e o r e m s o f t h e f o r m a l i z e d t h e o r y a r e t r u e . T h is seems

t o be a c o n tr a d ic tio n : we c a n p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f C ( p ( t ) ) and t h e

f o r m a l th e o r e m T(A)W s a y s t h a t i t i s n o t c o u n t a b l e ; how t h e n c a n t h i s

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-3 0 -

22
fo rm al th e o r y have a c o u n ta b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ? Now l e t us com pare

t h i s s i t u a t i o n w i t h one more f a m i l i a r . The L -S m e t a - t h e o r e m c a n b e

u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t a m odel i n t h e n a t u r a l num bers f o r a n y c o n s i s t e n t

f o r m a l t h e o r y - i . e . t h e u n i v e r s e o v e r w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e may

be t a k e n t o be t h e n a t u r a l n u m b e rs , t h e n - a r y p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r s a s

s e t s o f n - t u p l e s o f n a t u r a l n u m b e rs , e t c . , and a l l t h e f o r m a l th e o r e m s

a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s ( t r u e ) s e n t e n c e s o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y . Now

s u p p o s e we f o r m a l i z e some n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , e . g . b i o l o g y . W i l l an y o n e

b e t r o u b l e d by t h e f a c t t h a t , in a d d it io n t o th e in te n d e d i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l t h e o r y a s b i o l o g y , i t w i l l a l s o have a n i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n a s some p a r t o f num ber t h e o r y ? Why s h o u l d i t b e a n y more

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t F a l s o p o s s e s s e s s u c h a m o d el? I n s u c h a m o d e l, Tw

w i l l n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s T, n o r T(N) w a s T (N ), b u t r a t h e r a s

s e n t e n c e s o f number t h e o r y , s i n c e t h e s i n g l e t w o - p l a c e p r e d i c a t e

l e t t e r o f F w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e l a t i o n i n NxN. Hence i n t h i s

m o d e l, t h e r e w i l l b e no t h e o r e m o f F i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s s e r t i n g t h e

e x i s t a n c e o f a n o n - d e n u m e ra b le s e t . A l l we n e e d remember i s t h a t th e

w f f s o f a f o rm a l s y s te m have no m ea n in g a t a l l u n t i l a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

i s p ro v id e d : Tw c o r r e s p o n d s t o T a n d T(N)W t o T(N) i n one m odel and

i n t h a t model t h e r e a r e n o n - d e n u m e r a b l e s e t s ; Tw and T(N)W c o r r e s p o n d

t o e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e n t e n c e s i n t h e d e n u m e r a b le m odel p r o v i d e d by

t h e L-S m e t a - t h e o r e m .

Of c o u r s e , n o t a l l t h e d e n u m e ra b le m o d els o f F a r e num ber

th e o re tic a l. I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e s u c h m o d e ls i n w h ic h t h e u n i v e r s e

o v e r w h ic h t h e q u a n t i f i e r s r a n g e i s a u n i v e r s e o f s e t s , and t h e tw o -

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
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p l a c e p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s c l a s s m e m b e rs h ip . Hence t h e

"paradox" ap p e ars r e - i n s t a t e d : s u r e l y i n s u c h a m odel Tw and T(N)W

w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s I and T(N )? But a g a i n t h e a n s w e r i s t h e same -

a l t h o u g h Tw and T(N)W w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s th e o r e m s o f s e t t h e o r y ,

t h e y w i l l n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s T and T ( N ) . To s e e t h i s , c o n sid e r th e

d e fin itio n of p(x ), i . e . ( i y ) ( z ) ( z £ . y S- z c x ) • I f V i s th e u n iv erse

o f t h e d e n u m e ra b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n t h e q u a n t i f i e r " ( z ) " r a n g e s

o v e r V i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and C ( p ( x ) ) w i l l ha v e a s members a l l

t h e s u b s e t s o f C (x) w h ic h a r e i n V. L ikew ise t h e q u a n t i f i e r " ( f ) " of

t h e s e c o n d c l a u s e o f Tw r a n g e s o v e r V. So, w h a t i s a s s e r t e d b y Tw i n

t h i s i n t e r p r e t s t i on i s t h a t t h e r e i s no 1 -1 f u n c t i o n i n V whose dom ain

i s C(x) and r a n g e i s t h e s e t whose members a r e t h e s u b s e t s o f C (x) i n V.

Now s i n c e V i s c o u n t a b l e , c e r t a i n l y i t i s n o t t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s

w i t h w h ic h C a n t o r o p e r a t e d i n a s s e r t i n g T . Thus Tw i s a g a i n n o t b e i n g

i n t e r p r e t e d a s T, and t h e same r e a s o n i n g a p p l i e s t o T(N)W. In

p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h r e s p e c t t o T(N)W, C a n t o r ' s u n i v e r s e U i s r i c h e r t h a n

V i n tw o w a y s: U d oes c o n t a i n a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) and t h e s e t

w h ic h was t a k e n a s p ( t ) i n V* and i n U, C ( p ( t ) ) i s a d i f f e r e n t s e t

( s i n c e t h e r e a r e s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) w h ic h a r e i n U and n o t i n V) s u c h

t h a t II does n o t c o n t a i n a 1 - 1 f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) a n d i t s ( U 's )

in te rp re ta tio n of p ( t ) . Thus i n t h e c o u n t a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Tw i s

n o t i n t e r p r e t e d a s C a n t o r ' s th e o r e m T, n o r T(N)W a s T (N ), and we may

s t i l l s a y t h a t i n : a n y s e t t h e o r y i n w h ic h T i s a t h e o r e m t h e r e w i l l be

n o n -c o u n ta b le s e t s . The " p a r a d o x " i s s e e n t o r e s t upon a n e q u i v o c a l

u s e o f t h e p h r a s e s " C a n t o r ’ s th e o re m " a nd " n o n - c o u n t a b l e " : a

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 2 -

fo rm a liz e d th e o ry says w h atev er i t say s v ia a p r e s c r ib e d i n t e r p r e -


23
t a t i o n and i n d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i t w i l l s a y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s .

Of c o u r s e , we know a C a n t o r i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f s e t s d e t e r m i n e d

by p r o p e r t i e s ( e x p r e s s e d b y a n u n r e s t r i c t e d c o m p r e h e n s io n axiom ) i s

i n c o n s i s t e n t as i t im p lie s R u s s e l l 's p a ra d o x . I t h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by

t h e so f a r t r o u b l e - f r e e n o t io n o f s t a r t i n g w i t h a w e l l - d e f i n e d t o t a l i t y

of th in g s ( s e t s o r n o t ) and a d o p t i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f e x t e n t i o n w h e re b y

members o f t h e o r i g i n a l t o t a l i t y a r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r t o form s e t s

w h ic h a r e t h e n added t o t h e t o t a l i t y an d become m a t e r i a l f o r f u r t h e r

ex te n tio n s. D i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n abound c o n c e r n i n g w h ic h p r i n c i p l e s

o f e x t e n t i o n a r e t o be a l l o w e d ; f o r o u r p u r p o s e s t h e i m o o r t a n t

p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t o f fo rm in g t h e power s e t . G iv e n a t o t a l i t y o f sefcs

some o f w h ic h a r e c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e , a r e we t o r e c o g n i z e a p r i n c i p l e

w h i c h a d d s t h e power s e t o f e a c h t o t h e t o t a l i t y ? (l) I f we do ( e . g .

f o l l o w i n g GBdel i n BENACERAFF a n d FUTNAM, p p . 2 5 8 - 7 3 , e s p . 2 6 3 - 4 and

2 7 0 - 2 ) , t h e n t h e a rg u m e n t above w i t h r e s p e c t t o 1^ s t i l l a p p l i e s . For

Tw t h e r e a r e s t i l l two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e : one i n a u n i v e r s e

i n w h ic h t h e power s e t p r i n c i p l e i s e m p lo y e d , and t h u s t h e r e a r e n o n -

d e n u m e r a b le s e t s and Tw i s i n t e r p r e t e d ( s u b s t a n t i a l l y ) a s T and T(U)w

a s T ( U ) , a n d one i n a u n i v e r s e i n w h ic h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f pow er s e t s i s

n o t em ployed and i n w h ic h Tw i s n o t i n t e r p r e t e d a s T n o r T(N)W a s T(N)

s i n c e t h e f o rm a l e x p r e s s i o n " ( i y ) ( z ) (z c y s z c x ) " w i l l n o t correspond

t o t h e r e a l power s e t o f x - i . e . t o t h e s e t o f a l l s u b s e t s o f x - b u t

r a t h e r t o t h e p o o re r s e t o f a l l s u b s e ts o f x found i n t h i s u n i v e r s e .

(2 ) I f we do n o t ( e . g . f o l l o w i n g Putnam i n SHOENKAN, c h a p . 1 8 , e s p .

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-3 3

p p . 2 7 5 - 8 1 ) , t h e n t h e p h r a s e s " t h e r e a l pow er s e t o f x" an d " t h e s e t

o f a l l s u b s e t s o f x" w i l l have n o c l e a r m e a n i n g . The b e s t we w i l l

h a v e , s t a r t i n g from a g i v e n u n i v e r s e V, i s t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e s e t o f

a l l s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) w h i c h a r e a l r e a d y i n V. By t h i s an d o t h e r

e x t e n t i o n s we may r e a c h a r i c h e r u n i v e r s e V* i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e new

s u b s e t s o f C ( t ) , i n w h ic h c a s e we c a n form a l a r g e r s e t o f s u b s e t s o f

C (t) - i . e . a l l th o se i n V '. I n no s u c h u n i v e r s e w i l l t h e r e b e a 1-1

f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n C ( f ) an d i t s "pow er s e t " o f C ( t ) , b u t fro m t h i s we

w i l l o n l y be a b l e t o draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n t h i s u n i v e r s e C ( t )

a n d i t s " p o w e r s e t " a r e n o t e q u in u m e r o u s . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o

s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e i s n o r i c h e r u n i v e r s e i n w h ic h t h e y a r e e q u in u m e r ­

ous. Thus i n e v e r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F t h e r e w i l l b e s e t s w h i c h a r e

n o t c o u n t a b l e i n t h e u n i v e r s e o f t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and we may v e r y

w e l l b e a b l e t o form new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n w h ic h t h a t s e t becom es

c o u n ta b le . Wang’ s s y s te m i s s o d e s i g n e d t h a t we a lw a y s h a v e s u c h new

i n te r p r e ta t io n s a t hand.

What w i l l t h e c o u n t a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F l o o k l i k e ? The

key i s t o l i m i t t h e u n i v e r s e t o s e t s w h ic h w i l l b e u s e d a s t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f theorem s e x p l i c i t l y s t a t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s e t s .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n e v e r t h e r e i s a th e o r e m o f t h e fo rm " ( E y ) ( y = x F x )"

t h e r e i s s o m e th in g i n t h e u n i v e r s e t o c o r r e s p o n d t o x F x , an d o n l y s u c h

s e t s a r e a llo w e d i n th e u n i v e r s e . From s u c h a l i m i t a t i o n t h e

fo llo w in g v e s u lts a re fo rth co m in g : ( l ) t h e u n i v e r s e i s e n u m e r a b le

s i n c e t h e e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e f o r m a l s y s te m a r e e n u m e r a b l e , a n d t h e r e ­

f o r e C ( p ( t ) ) w i l l be c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e ; (2 ) s i n c e Tw an d T(N)W a r e

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s t i l l fo rm a l theorem s t h e r e w i l l n o t be a 1-1 f u n c tio n i n t h e u n iv e r s e

o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e tw e e n C ( t ) a nd C ( p ( t ) ) , and t h e r e f o r e (3) th e

f u n c t i o n w h ic h i s c l a i m e d t o e x i s t i n ( l ) when i t i s s a i d t h a t C ( p ( t ) )

i s c o u n t a b l e m u st b e l o n g t o a r i c h e r u n i v e r s e o f s e t s t h a n t h a t o f t h e

g iv en i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h is s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f i n i n g a

s t r o n g e r f o r m a l t h e o r y whose i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l i n c l u d e t h i s r i c h e r

u n i v e r s e , and i n w h ic h t h e c o u n t a b i l i t y o f C ( p ( t ) ) i s p r o v a b l e . The

r e a s o n t h a t Tw and T(N)W w i l l n o t b e c o n t r o v e r t e d i n t h e s t r o n g e r

th eo ry is t h is : t h e q u a n t i f i e r s o f Tw and T(N)W w i l l b e i n d e x e d t o

show w h e t h e r t h e y a r e m eant t o r a n g e o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e o f t h e w e a k e r

or s tro n g e r th e o ry . The t e r m p ( t ) was d e f i n e d i n t h e w e a k e r t h e o r y ; in

t h e s t r o n g e r t h e o r y t h e t e r m p ( t ) no l o n g e r d e f i n e s t h e power s e t o f

C (t): i n t h e s t r o n g e r t h e o r y i t s e l f t h e power s e t o f C ( t ) i s o f

co urse n o t c o u n ta b le . Now t h i s p r o c e s s may be i t e r a t e d a n y num ber o f

tim e s: ta k e - i t i n t o t h e t r a n s f i n i t e v i a c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s and you

have W a n g 's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s S .

S i m p l i f y i n g somewhat, we may d e s c r i b e S a s f o l l o w s : th e

in d ic e s of v a ria b le s are c o n s tru c tiv e o r d in a ls . The o r d e r o f a v a r i ­

a b l e i s i t s i n d e x : t h e o r d e r o f a w f f w i t h no q u a n t i f i e r s i s t h e o r d e r

o f th e h ig h e st v a ria b le in th e w ff; th e order of a q u a n tifie d w ff is

a t l e a s t one h i g h e r t h a n t h e o r d e r o f t h e q u a n t i f i e d v a r i a b l e , and t h e

same f o r t e r m s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a t o r ; t h e o r d e r o f

a t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l compound o f w f f s i s t h e o r d e r o f t h e h i g h e s t w f f i n

t h e compound. The e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e abo v e a r e t h e t e r m s w h ic h d e f i n e

t h e empty s e t , i t e r a t i o n s o f b r a c k e t i n g t h e empty s e t , a nd a l l f i n i t e

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
■35-

unio n s t h e r e o f ; t h e s e term s a re d e fin e d t o be o f o r d e r z e r o . A set

i s s a i d t o b e o f o r d e r a i f some te r m t o w h ic h i t c o r r e s p o n d s i s o f

order a . A t e a c h o r d e r t h e s e n t e n c e s ( c l o s e d w f f s ) o f t h a t o r d e r make

up t h e s e t t h e o r y o f t h a t o r d e r . Sin ce a l l s e n te n c e s in v o lv e q u a n ti ­

f i e r s a n d /o r a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a to r s , th e s e t th e o r y o f a giv en o rd e r i s
24
t h e t h e o r y o f s e t s o f lo w e r o r d e r s o n l y . S i n c e a t o r d e r 0 we have

a l l f i n i t e c o m b i n a ti o n s o f b r a c k e t i n g s o f t h e em pty s e t , in p a r tic u la r

we have a l l t h e f i n i t e o r d i n a l s a l a von Neumann f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

num ber t h e o r y . However, t h e s e t o f a l l t h e f i n i t e o rd in a ls (or

" n a t u r a l n u m b e r s " ) ^ i s i n f i n i t e , and h e n c e o f o r d e r 1 . Now i n o r d e r

t o s t a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n we n e e d t o q u a n t i f y

o v e r i n f i n i t e s e t s , h e n c e we m u st b i n d a v a r i a b l e x-^. So e l e m e n t a r y

number t h e o r y f i r s t a p p e a r s a t o r d e r 2 , i n S g . A g a in , n - t u p l e s (n

fin ite ) o f f i n i t e o r d i n a l s can be d e f in e d of o r d e r 0 , b u t r e a l

n u m b e rs , w h ic h a r e i n f i n i t e s e t s o f f r a c t i o n s ( i . e . ordered p a ir s ) a re

o f o r d e r 1 , and so t h e t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers a l s o f i r s t em erges a t

l e v e l S g,

Now t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r e n l a r g i n g t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s

beyond Sg i s t w o f o l d ; first, g i v e n t h e a t t i t u d e d e s c r i b e d above t o

t h e Skolem " p a r a d o x , " we a r e c o m m itted t o e n v i s i o n i n g e v e r r i c h e r

u n iv erse s of s e t s . T h a t i s , f o r any g i v e n f o r m a l t h e o r y , we w a n t t o

a d o p t a m in im a l m o d e l , and t h e n u s e a m ore p o w e r f u l t h e o r y w i t h a

r i c h e r m odel t o p r o v e t h e e n u m e r a b i l i t y o f t h e pow er s e t s o f t h e f i r s t

m o d el. However, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f h i g h e r t y p e s e t t h e o r i e s i s n o t

s u f f i c i e n t to express t h is a t t i t u d e ; e v e n Sg a s a f o r m a l s y s te m i s

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-36.

open t o d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s : in a d d it io n to th e c o u n ta b le

u n i v e r s e , t h e r e i s t h e n o n - c o u n t a b l e one g i v e n b y t h e pow er s e t

p r i n c i p l e ( f o r t h o s e t o whom i t i s i n t e l l i g i b l e ) and o t h e r s . If a

s u f f i c i e n t l y r i c h m odel f o r S£ i s c h o s e n , t h e r e may b e no f o r m a l

t h e o r y whose m odel i s r i c h enough t o p r o v i d e t h e e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e

s e ts of S 's u n iv e rs e .
2 The s t r a t e g y o f l i m i t i n g t h e u n i v e r s e t o t h o s e

s e t s whose e x i s t e n c e can be p ro v e d m ust b e f o r m a l l y im p l e m e n te d . T his

i s a c c o m p li s h e d r o u g h l y a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) t h e r e i s a t h e o r e m on r e c u r ­

siv e d e f i n i ti o n s ( g o in g b a c k t o D edekind) w h ic h s a y s t h a t i f a s e t o f

o r d e r a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d r e c u r s i v e l y i n Sa , t h e n a s e t o f o r d e r a + 1

c a n b e d e f i n e d s u c h t h a t when i t r e p l a c e s t h e f i r s t s e t i n t h e

r e c u r s i o n , t h e l a t t e r becomes a th e o r e m o f Sa+ ^ . (2) T here a r e o n ly

tw o axiom s i n e a c h Sa w h ic h p r o v i d e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s e t s (asid e

from t h e axiom w h ic h makes t h e h i e r a r c h y c u m u l a t i v e ) . One i s t h e

axiom o f c o m p r e h e n s io n : f o r e v e r y open s e n t e n c e F ( x a _ i ) t h e r e e x i s t s

t h e s e t o f a l l s e t s o f o r d e r a - 1 w h ic h s a t i s f y t h e open s e n t e n c e - i . e .

xa _ ^ (x a _ ) e x i s t s .
2 2 The o t h e r i s t h e axiom o f p a i r s e t s : g iv e n any

two s e t s t h e r e e x i s t s a s e t h a v in g e x a c t l y t h o s e tw o a s i t s members -

i.e . g i v e n s e t s s ^ and sg o f o r d e r a —1 , ^ a «.^(~a .. 1™®1 ^ a —1*'‘^2^

e x ists. Thus f o r e a c h s e t w h ic h c a n be p ro v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa t h e r e
a , »
w i l l b e a t e r m xa - l F ( xa - l ) naming i t . Now t h e s e t o f s u c h t e r m s i s

r e c u r s i v e ; v i a t h e a r i t h m e t i z a t i o n o f s y n t a x we c a n g i v e a r e c u r s i v e

d e f i n i t i o n i n Sa + ^ o f t h i s s e t , and t h e n o f a f u n c t i o n whose dom ain i s

t h e s e t o f n a t u r a l num bers and whose r a n g e i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f s e t s

w h i c h c a n b e p r o v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa . By ( l ) , in S a + 2 we can d e f i n e

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
■37-

t h i s fu n ctio n o u tr ig h t. Wang c a l l s t h i s f u n c t i o n Efl. Now i n Sa+2 we

may add a s a n axiom t h e s e n t e n c e ( x a ) (Em) (Ea (m) ■ xa ) (w h e r e "m” r a n g e s

over n a tu r a l num bers). T h i s axiom r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e o n ly s e t s o f

o r d e r a w h ic h e x i s t a r e t h o s e w h ic h c a n b e p r o v e d t o e x i s t i n Sa .

Thus i n a n y m odel o f Sa + 2 , t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o f o r d e r a w i l l be

c o u n t a b l e , a n d c a n b e p r o v e d t o b e c o u n t a b l e i n Sa + 2 .

An i n t e r e s t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e ax io m o f l i m i t a t i o n i n Sa+2

i s t h a t t h e u n d e c i d a b l e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa g i v e n b y G B d e l's i n c o m p l e t e ­

n e s s th e o r e m become d e c i d a b l e i n Sa + 2 . R o u g h ly , t h e p r o c e d u r e i s t o

d e f i n e i n Sa+2 t h e n o t i o n o f a f i n i t e sequence o f s e ts of o r d e r a

( u s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t Ea e n u m e r a t e s t h e s e t s o f o r d e r a ) , and t h e n t o

g i v e a d e f i n i t i o n o f T a r s k i ' s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e l a t i o n (TARSKI, c h a p . 8 ,

e s p . p p . 1 9 0 -5 ) b e tw e e n f i n i t e s e q u e n c e s o f s e t s o f o r d e r a a n d t h e

se n te n c e s o f o rd e r a . From t h i s t h e s e t o f t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa can

be d e f i n e d i n Sa+2 a n d i t c a n b e p r o v e d t h a t a l l t h e th e o r e m s o f Sa

are tr u e . Hence t h e n o n - t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f Sa w i l l n o t be t h e o r e m s :

t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Sa i s p r o v a b l e i n Sa+ 2 . S i n c e t h e GBdel s e n t e n c e s

o f Sa a r e p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s e n t e n c e a s s e r t i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y
2S
o f Sa , t h e y t o o w i l l b e p r o v a b l e i n Sa + 2 . T h u s , i f we c o n s i d e r t h e

u n i o n o f a l l Sn f o r n f i n i t e , i t seems t h a t a l l t h e u n d e c i d a b l e

s e n t e n c e s o f t h e GBdel t y p e w i l l be d e c i d a b l e i n t h e u n i o n , and t h e

c o n s i s t e n c y o f e a c h s y s te m i n t h e u n i o n w i l l b e p r o v a b l e i n t h e u n i o n .

However, U Sn , n f i n i t e , i s s t i l l a f o r m a l s y s te m ; i t s proof p re d ic a te

is s t i l l re c u rsiv e . F o r , t o b e a p r o o f o f U Sn i s t o b e a p r o o f i n

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-3 8 -

some Sn j and s i n c e w f f h o o d i s r e c u r s i v e f o r t h e w hole U Sn , when

p r e s e n t e d w i t h a p u t a t i v e p r o o f , we know i m m e d ia te ly i n w h ic h Sn i t

c o u l d b e a p r o o f , and t h e n c a n a p p l y t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p r o o f f o r t h a t
27
Sn t o t e l l w h e t h e r i t i s r e a l l y a p r o o f . Thus i n S g , s i n c e we have

number t h e o r y , we c a n r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f t h e w h o le U Sn .

I f we t h e n a p p l y G B d e l's c o n s t r u c t i o n t o t h i s p r o o f p r e d i c a t e , t h e

re s u ltin g ; w ff i s n ot pro v ab le in S^. In g e n e ra l: th e u n d e c id a b le

p r o p o s i t i o n s o f Sa w h ic h become d e c i d a b l e i n Sa + g by W a n g 's enum er­

a t i o n a xiom a r e t h o s e b a s e d up o n t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f Sa , o r o f

lo w e r s y s t e m s , and o n l y t h o s e . We s e e t h e n t h a t U Sn a d e q u a t e l y

e x p r e s s e s t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f " r e l a t i v e e n u m e r a b i l i t y " t o w a r d s

Skolem ’ s " p a r a d o x , " b u t i s o n l y a p a r t i a l a n s w e r t o i n c o m p l e t e n e s s .

However, i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f read, number t h e o r y we a r e

faced w ith a f a m ilia r d i f f i c u l t y : same t h e o r e m s a s s e r t i n g t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f c e r t a i n r e a l num bers c a n o n ly be f o r m a l i z e d by t a k i n g

i n t o a c c o u n t more t h a n one o r d e r o f s e t s . E .g ., fo r th e l e a s t upper

bound t h e o r e m , g i v e n a s e t o f r e a l num bers whose members a r e o f o r d e r

a, its l e a s t u p p e r bound i s a r e a l num ber o f o r d e r a + 1 . Thus t h e

t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers o f o r d e r a c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y f o r m a l i z e d i n

Sa+ i ; t h e l e a s t u p p e r bound t h e o r e m f o r s u c h r e a l num bers can o n l y b e

p ro v e d i n Sa + g . 28 But now r e a l num bers o f o r d e r a+1 and h e n c e w f f s o f

o r d e r a+2 p l a y a n i n d i s p e n s i b l e r o l e i n t h e t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers of

order a . A new l e a s t u p p e r bound t h e o r e m f o r t h e combined f i e l d of

r e a l num bers o f b o t h o r d e r s i s n e e d e d , and c h i s i s o n l y a v a i l a b l e i n

Sa + , and so o n .
3 So, i n o r d e r t o g e t a u n i f i e d t h e o r y o f r e a l n u m b e rs ,

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■39-

we n e e d some way o f t a l k i n g : a b o u t a l l t h e f i n i t e o r d e r s a t o n c e : we

p a s s on t o t h e f i r s t t r a n s f i n i t e s y s te m (V a ria b le s of o rd e r w

ranee ov er s e ts o f a l l f i n i t e orders; s in c e any se n te n c e c o n ta in in g a

bound v a r i a b l e o f o r d e r eu> i s a t l e a s t o f o r d e r oj-+l, Sw h a s no

s e n t e n c e s beyond t h o s e o f t h e Sn f o r n f i n i t e and t h e r e a r e n o new

s e t s o f o r d e r ^ w hich a r e n o t o f some f i n i t e order. i s th e u nion

o f Sn f o r n f i n i t e an d h e n c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t

p u rp o se .) In th e t h e o r y o f r e a l num bers c a n be u n i f i e d : is

th e th e o ry of a l l s e ts o f f i n i t e o rd e r, th u s ev ery s e t of r e a l num bers

of order w i l l a l s o b e o f some f i n i t e o r d e r , and h e n c e w i l l have a


pQ
l e a s t u p p e r bound o f some f i n i t e o r d e r w h ic h w i l l be a l s o o f o r d e r u r f.

H ow ever, i n o r d e r t o r e i n f o r c e o u r a t t i t u d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o u n t a b i l i t y

of th e u n iv erse of th e i n t e r p r e ta t io n o f we a r e f o r c e d t o c o n t i n u e

th e h ierarch y . (We w o u ld a l s o l o s e e v e n t h e l i m i t e d r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e p r o v a b i l i t y o f c o n s i s t e n c y a n d GBdel s e n t e n c e s i f we s t o p p e d a t

S +- . )
1 B u t a s s o o n a s we t a k e one m ore s t e p i n t h e h i e r a r c h y t h e u n i f i -
\Jj J.

c a t i o n o f r e a l num ber t h e o r y i s l o s t : a g a i n we m u st t a k e t h e u n i o n o f

a l l Siu+n. But t h e a rg u m e n t g i v e n a b o v e c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f

nTJ Sr\ w i l l h o l d a s w e l l f o r t h e u n i o n o f a n v- i n f i n i t e h i e r a r c h v o f

t h e o r i e s w h e re no one t h e o r y " i n c l u d e s ” t h e r e s t . Thus TJ Sj + n - o r

a Ub Sa f o r an y l i m i t o r d i n a l b - w i l l s u f f e r t h e same d e f e c t a s nUw Sn .

W ang's m ethod f o r a c co m m o d a tin g b o t h d e s i d e r a t a i s t o c o n t i n u e t h e

h i e r a r c h y a l l t h e way up t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s and t h e n t a k e t h e

u n i o n S o f a l l t h e s y s te m s t h u s g e n e r a t e d .

L e t us now e v a l u a t e t h e f u l l S w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t h r e e

issu es: ( l ) t h e Skolem " p a r a d o x , " ( 2 ) GBdel i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , (3 ) r e a l

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-40.

num ber t h e o r y , (l): The f u l l S i s j u s t a s s a t i s f a c t o r y a s S w as.

S i n c e f o r e v e r y s y s te m S& t h e r e i s Sa + g i n w h ic h t h e e n u m e r a b i l i t y o f

t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o f t h e m odel o f Sa c a n b e p r o v e d , S f o r m a l l y

enforces th e a tt it u d e of r e l a ti v e e n u m e ra b ility . (2 ): Only t h e f u l l

S i s f r e e from G B d e l's c o n s t r u c t i o n s , (in fa c t, on ly i n th e f u l l S can

a l l t h e G B d e l-ty p e s e n t e n c e s o f Sg b e p r o v e d . ) A l l p r o p e r s u b s y s te m s

a r e G B d e l-in c o m p le te . Hence t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f S ' s fre e d o m from G B del’ s

c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i l l dep en d upon j u s t how t h e f u l l S° w i l l fu n c tio n as a

t o o l i n f o r m a l i z i n g m a t h e m a t i c s , and i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e f u l l S

fu n c tio n s o d d ly , t o say th e l e a s t . F o r , S i s f a r from b e i n g i t s e l f a

form al sy ste m . T h i s i s n o t due t o i t s c h a ra c te r as a t r a n s f i n i te

u n io n o f fo rm al sy ste m s: S^, S ^ g , e t c . a re a l l form al s y ste m s. But

th e s e t of c o n s tru c tiv e o rd in a ls is n o t re c u r s iv e . S in c e th e y a r e to

b e t h e i n d i c e s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f S, e v e n t h e s e t o f sym bols o f S i s

not re c u rsiv e . T h i s means t h a t we c a n n o t g i v e a r e c u r s i v e c h a r a c t e r i ­

z a t i o n o f t h e w h o le h i e r a r c h y S, b u t o n l y o f p r o p e r s u b s y s te m s o f i t .

Now l e t us r e c a l l t h e d i s t i n c t i o n made i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r b e tw e e n t h e

use of a x io m a tiz in g a g iv en d i s c i p l i n e i n th e p ro o f th e o r y o f th e

d i s c i p l i n e , and i t s u s e i n r e d u c i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e t h e o r y . A.s we

saw t h e r e , b o t h f o r t h e s a k e o f r e d u c t i o n o f c o n t e n t , a nd f o r t h e s a k e

o f p r o o f t h e o r y , t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n m u st b e c o m p l e t e . T his

means t h a t e a c h t r u e s e n t e n c e o f t h e t h e o r y m u st f o l l o w b y l o g i c a l o n e

from t h e axiom s o f t h e t h e o r y . F o r m a l i z a t i o n i s a m eth o d o f r e s o l v i n g

two d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g i n f o r m a l c o m p l e t e n e s s : in any p a r t i c u l a r case

w h e re we a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a n a rg u m e n t fro m t h e axiom s t o a c o n c l u s i o n ,

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4 1 -

we may w onder w h e t h e r o n l y l o g i c i s em ployed - i . e . t h e r e a r e no

s u p p r e s s e d p r e m i s s e s , a n d i n g e n e r a l we may w onder i f t h e axiom s

l o g i c a l l y im p ly a l l t h e t r u e s e n t e n c e s o f t h e t h e o r y . By f o r m a l i z i n g

t h e t h e o r y i n t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s we o b t a i n a n o rm a l form f o r

l o g i c a l l y v a l i d p r o o f s w h ic h i s r e c u r s i v e , and so e n a b l e s us t o d e c i d e

c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u n d n e s s o f a ny g i v e n p r o o f ( o f t h a t f o r m ) , and t h e

i n f o r m a l c o m p l e te n e s s p ro b le m i s r e d u c e d t o a c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o b le m .

G B d e l-ty p e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s shows u s t h a t t h e f i r s t r e s u l t hoped f o r

from f o r m a l i z i n g i s i n f a c t u n a t t a i n a b l e : i f we r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o

a no rm a l form f o r p r o o f s i n w h i c h t h e s e t o f p r o o f s i s r e c u r s i v e , t h e n

t h e s e t o f s e n t e n c e s f o r w h ic h t h e r e a r e p r o o f s from t h e axiom s i s

a lw a y s a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f t h e s e t o f t r u e s e n t e n c e s . The q u e s t i o n f o r

S t h u s b e com es: how w i l l t h e f o r m a l c o m p l e t e n e s s o f S a i d us i n t h e

p ro o f th eo ry of th e in fo rm al d i s c i p li n e ? In p a r t i c u l a r , w i l l th e

w ild ly n o n -c o n stru c tiv e c h a ra c te r of S ren d er i t s c o m p le te n e s s

i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r o j e c t o f h a v in g p r o o f s f o r a l l t h e t r u e s e n t e n c e s ?

The i n f o r m a l s e t t h e o r y w h ic h S f o r m a l i z e s i s " c o n s t r u c t i v e ” :

i t s g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t t h e r e i s no c l o s e d t o t a l i t y o f a l l s e t s

w h ic h c a n n o t b e e x te n d e d by new c o n s t r u c t i o n . E ach tim e a t o t a l i t y i s

fo rm e d , t h e m ethods o f c o n s t r u c t i o n may b e r e a p p l i e d and t h u s new

e x te n sio n s of th e t o t a l i t y p o s s ib le . Thus t h e id io m s o f q u a n t i f i ­

c a t i o n i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e n t e n c e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e s e t t h e o r y m u st

b e r e l a t i v i z e d t o t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e t s o v e r w h ic h t h e y r a n g e , ( i t is

t h i s r e l a t i v i z a t i o n w h ic h t h e o r d i n a l i n d i c e s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f S

re fle c t. T h is th e n i s th e answ er t o ( 3 ) : R e a l number t h e o r y c a n n o t

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-4 2 -

b e -wholly u n i f i e d ; i t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e f u l l S s u f f e r s t h e f r a g ­

m e n t a t i o n o f r e a l num ber t h e o r y j u s t a s e a c h l i m i t s y s te m d o e s ; t h i s

i s a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e w h ich e x p re s s e s th e c o n s t r u c t i v i s t v ie w p o in t.

Now s u p p o s e we h a v e s u c h a s e n t e n c e and we w i s h t o e i t h e r p ro v e o r

d isp ro v e i t . I f we c a n f i n d t h e w f f o f S t o w h ic h i t s h o u ld c o r r e s p o n d ,

t h e n we w i l l have l o c a t e d i t i n seme s u b s y s t e m o f Sj and h e n c e w i l l

have t h e t y p i c a l p ro b le m o f f i n d i n g a p r o o f i n a f o r m a l s y s te m w i t h a

rec u rsiv e proof p r e d ic a te . Of c o u r s e , t h e p a r t i c u l a r s u b s y s te m o f S

t o w h ic h t h i s w f f b e l o n g s i s G'6del i n c o m p l e t e , so we m u st a t l e a s t

p a s s t o t h e s y s te m tw o l e v e l s h i g h e r b e f o r e we s t a r t h u n t i n g f o r a

pro o f. B u t , a s we saw a b o v e , s u c h p a s s a g e o n l y c u r e s t h e i n c o m p l e t e ­

n e s s b r o u g h t on b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e ( f o r m a l i z e d ) p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r

t h a t s y s te m ; b u t we c a n f o r m a l i z e i n a n y s y s te m Sa , a 2 th e proof

p r e d i c a t e s o f e a c h o f t h e s y s te m s o f jS. T h u s , i f we p i c k an y p a r t i c u ­

l a r s y s te m o f S f o r o u r s e a r c h f o r a p r o o f o f o u r c h o s e n w f f , o u r

p r o o f p r o c e d u r e s u f f e r s from p r e c i s e l y t h e same i n c o m p l e t n e s s t h a t

f i r s t o r d e r num ber t h e o r y d o e s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f we t a c k l e t h e

f u l l S, we m u st f a c e i t s w i l d n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y . L e t us s e e e x a c t l y

w h a t i t t a k e s t o r e c o g n i z e a p r o o f o f S ; a n d w h e re t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f

S ’ s c l a s s o f p r o o f s b r e a k s down. I n o r d e r t o s p e c i f y S ' s sym bols we

s h a l l have t o c h o o s e a n o t a t i o n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s ; l e t u s

use a s u b s e t 0 o f th e n a t u r a l num bers. I t i s w e l l known ( s e e ROGERS,

p p . 2 0 5 -1 3 ) t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e ( a t b e s t ) a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n f g s u c h

t h a t i f n i s a member o f a c e r t a i n s u b s e t O' o f 0 , t h e n f g ( n ) = 0 , ^

and i f n i s a member o f a c e r t a i n s u b s e t P o f t h e com plem ent o f 0 ,

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■43

th en f(n ) = 2 . B u t i f n i s i n n e i t h e r O' n o r P, t h e n f g ( n ) = 1 .

Thus i f , f o r a p a r t i c u l a r n , f()(n ) = 1 , we do n o t know a n y t h i n g a b o u t

i t s m em b e rsh ip i n 0 . So f a r from b e i n g r e c u r s i v e , t h e s e t 0 i s

n e i t h e r r . e . , n o r e v e n t h e com plem ent o f a n r . e . s e t : we have no p r o ­

c e d u r e f o r g u a r a n t e e i n g a n y r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t m em bership i n
•2*2

0, Thus i f we a r e g i v e n a f i n i t e s e t o f num bers w h ic h we know a r e

n o t a t i o n s f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s , t h e n we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y d e c i d e

f o r a n y s e q u e n c e o f sym bols i n w h ic h o n l y t h e members o f t h i s s e t a r e

u s e d a s s u b s c r i p t s f o r v a r i a b l e s w h e t h e r o r n o t i t i s a w f f , and f o r

a n y s e q u e n c e o f s u c h s e q u e n c e s o f sym bols w h e t h e r o r n o t i t i s a

p ro o f. In o th e r w ords, th e s e t o f p r o o fs , l i k e th e s e t o f w f f s , i s

r e c u r s i v e _in t h e s e t o f s y m b o l s . But th e s e t o f p ro o fs i s n o t r e c u r ­

siv e a b s o lu te ly . F or, i f i t w ere, th e s e t o f n o ta tio n s of c o n s tru c tiv e

o r d i n a l s w ould a l s o be r e c u r s i v e , t h u s : f i r s t , to t e s t a s trin g X of

sym bols ( i n c l u d i n g num bers o f w h i c h i t i s n o t known w h e t h e r o r n o t

th ey are n o ta tio n s fo r c o n stru c tiv e o rd in a ls) fo r w ffity , ju s t te s t

X 3 (XdX) f o r p r o o f n e s s ; s e c o n d , t o t e s t a num ber n f o r n o t a t i o n h o o d ,

s im p l y t e s t ( x ^ (x-fj *= x ^ ) f o r w f f i t y . So t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r

S - X i s a p r o o f o f I i n S, i . e . t h e s e q u e n c e X o f w f f s o f S i s a

p r o o f i n S and W i s t h e l a s t member o f X - i s l i k e w i s e n o t r e c u r s i v e .

Thus e v e n i f we c a n f i n d a w f f i n S c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s e n t e n c e o f

in fo rm a l c o n s tr u c tiv e s e t th e o r y , a s e a rc h f o r a form al d e r i v a t i o n o f

t h i s w f f i n t h e f u l l S i s n o t a t a l l l i k e s u c h a s e a r c h i n some s u b ­

s y s te m o f S: i n t h e l a t t e r we s e a r c h t h r o u g h a n i n f i n i t e r e c u r s i v e

c l a s s , w h i l e i n t h e f o rm e r we s e a r c h t h r o u g h a c o m p l e t e l y

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-4 4

n o n -c o n stru c tiv e c la s s . Thus t h e o r i g i n a l power o f G B d e l's t h e o r e m i s

s till fe lt: i f we l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o a r e c u r s i v e p r o o f - r e c o g n i t i o n

p r o c e d u r e , t h e n we c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e c l a s s o f w f f s h a v i n g p r o o f s

w ith th e c la s s of w ffs c o rre sp o n d in g t o in fo rm a l t r u t h s .

The p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n was b a s e d upon t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t S

i s a n a d e q u a t e l o g i c a l map o f t h e i n f o r m a l t h e o r y . But from t h e c o n ­

s t r u c t i v i s t p o i n t o f v ie w , e v e n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . Of

S ’ s a c c u r a c y we may be s u r e ; it i s S ' s c o m p l e t e n e s s ( a s a map) w h ic h

i s open t o d o u b t . What e v i d e n c e do we ha v e t h a t S f u l f i l l s c r i t e r i o n

(l) of adequacy: t h a t f o r ev ery se n te n c e o f th e in fo rm al th e o ry th e re

i s some w f f o f S w h ic h p l o t s i t s lo g ic a l p o sitio n ? Sin ce th e t o t a l i t y

o f c o n s t r u c t i v e m ethods c a n n o t be c h a r a c t e r i z e d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , if

o n e 's c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n (a n d n o t j u s t a

m a t h e m a t i c a l s t r a t e g y ) t h e n i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o be s u r e t h a t S

c o m p le te ly co v e rs in fo rm a l c o n s t r u c t i v e s e t t h e o r y . We may have

s t r o n g i n d u c t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h a t h y p o t h e s i s - a nd i t i s t o s u c h e v i ­

d e n c e t h a t Wang m akes a p p e a l (WANG, p . 5 8 2 ) i n d e f e n d i n g t h e a d e q u a c y

o f S - b u t t h a t i s t h e b e s t we c a n g e t . Some p a r a l l e l s w i l l b e

in stru c tiv e here. For th e c l a s s i c i s t , th e s e n te n c e s o f e le m en tary

number t h e o r y can b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n a n e a t w ay: th e y a re sta n d a rd

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f w f f s o f f i r s t o r d e r number t h e o r y - i . e . gram­

m a t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f i d io m s o f a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , q u a n t i f i ­

c a t i o n , and t r u t h f u n c t i o n s . The c o n f i d e n c e i n f i r s t o r d e r number

t h e o r y a s a c o m p le te l o g i c a l map o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y is - b a s e d

upon ou r r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s s e t o f s e n te n c e s as adeq u ate t o e x p re ss

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45 -

t h e w h o le c o n t e n t o f a d i s t i n c t m a t h e m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e - t h e t h e o r y

o f w h o le n u m b e r s . By c o n t r a s t , f o r th e i n t u i t i o n i s t , i t is a m a tte r

o f p r i n c i p l e t h a t no f o r m a l i z a t i o n c o u l d be known t o b e a c o m p le te

l o g i c a l map: c o r r e c t m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a s o n i n g i s r e a s o n i n g w h ic h m a t h e ­

m a t i c i a n s a c c e p t , a nd a t b e s t a n y f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t l o g i c

o f m ath em atics i s o n ly an e d u c ate d guess v ia i n d u c t io n a t w hat th e y

w ill accept in th e fu tu r e . Now a c o n s t r u c t i v i s t ’ s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d S -

o r any f o r m a l i z a t i o n , f o r t h a t m a t t e r - s h o u ld b e c l o s e t o t h a t o f t h e

in tu itio n ists.

To sum m arize o u r e v a l u a t i o n o f S: s i n c e e a c h s u b s y s te m i s

i n c o m p l e t e e x c e p t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e f u l l S, and s i n c e t h e f u l l S

i s n o t r e c u r s i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z a b l e , t h e dilemma f o r i n f o r m a l a d e q u a c y -

e i t h e r th e p ro o f re c o g n itio n procedure i s n o t r e c u r s iv e , o r i t is n o t

c o m p le te - i s s t i l l a p p l i c a b l e t o S . In a d d it io n , even S 's adequacy

a s a l o g i c a l map i s o pen t o d o u b t .

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- 46 -

CHA.FTER III

The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r a p p l i e s t o a n y o f t h e s t a n d a r d

p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f f i r s t o r d e r num ber t h e o r y - s e e , e . g . KLEENE, c h a p .

IV. We u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s : i f F i s a ny

fo rm u la, ' F ' i s t h e f o r m a l n u m e r a l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o F ' s GBdel nu m b er.

I f n i s t h e number o f a n y f o rm u la F t h e n n # i s F . F o r any n a t u r a l

number n, n i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m a l n u m e r a l ( u s u a l l y 0 f o l l o w e d b y

n stro k e s). V ia t h e G&del n u m b e r in g , n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c o p e r a t i o n s c o r ­

r e s p o n d t o s y n t a c t i c o p e r a t i o n s - e . g . p r e f i x i n g a t i l d a t o a f o rm u la

m ig h t c o r r e s p o n d t o m u l t i p l y i n g by t h r e e . So t h e r e i s a p r i m i t i v e

r e c u r s i v e 1 -1 f u n c t i o n N(m) s u c h t h a t i f m# i s F, N(m)# i s - F . ( i f nr$

i s n o t a f o r m u l a , t h e n i t makes n o d i f f e r e n c e w h a t N(m) i s . ) Now

su p p o s e n ( x ) i s a f o r m u l a t i o n o f N(m); i n p a r t i c u l a r we have |— n(m) = r

i f f N(m) = y*. I f given- a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m u la F we c a n r e f e r t o t h e

n u m e ra l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o i t s GBdel number m i n v a r i o u s w ays: N(m) o r

* - F '. But i f we w i s h t o f o r m a l i z e a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e

n e g a tio n s o f fo rm u la s, th e form al fu n c tio n n i s i n d i s p e n s i b l e . For

e x a m p le , t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f "No f o rm u la s t a r t i n g w i t h a t i l d a h as

GBdel number 65" i s ( x ) ( F x O - ( n ( x ) = 65)) (where )— Fn i f f n | i s a

fo rm u la ). I n g e n e r a l , w hen we s p e a k o f " t h e f o r m a l s u c h and s u c h

f u n c t i o n " w h e re " s u c h a n d s u c h " i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f some

s y n t a c t i c o p e r a t i o n l i k e n e g a t i o n , c o n j u n c t i o n , s u b s t i t u t i o n e t c . , we

a re r e f e r r i n g t o th e f o r m a liz a tio n of th e n u m b e r-th e o re tic f u n c tio n

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-4 7

w hich c o r r e s p o n d s v i a t h e G&del n u m b e rin g t o t h a t s y n t a c t i c o p e r a t i o n .

The same p h r a s e o l o g y a p p l i e s t o p r e d i c a t e s ( i n c l u d i n g r e l a t i o n s ) , e . g .

" t h e f o rm a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e " r e f e r s t o t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e nu m b er-

t h e o r e t i c r e l a t i o n w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s v i a t h e GlJdel nu m b erin g t o t h e

s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n "A i s a p r o o f o f W." " F o r m a l i z a t i o n " can b e t h o u g h t

o f a s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n - f ( x i , . . . , x n ) * xn+ i r e p r e s e n t s t h e n u m b er-

t h e o r e t i c f u n c t i o n F (m ^ ,. . . , ^ ) i f f f o r e v e ry m ^ , . . . , ! ! ^ ,
11 i f F (m ^ ,...,m n )

= r , t h e n (— f ( m i , . . . , m n ) “ r - p e n d in g o u r d i s c u s s i o n b e lo w . F o rm al

f u n c t i o n s o f more t h a n one a rg u m e n t w i l l b e w r i t t e n f ( x ^ , . . . , x n ) ; f o r m a l

p red ic ate s ( r e l a t i o n s ) w i l l be w r i tt e n H (x ^ ;. . .; x n ) , w ith p a re n th e se s

om m itted when t h e r e i s j u s t one v a r i a b l e . C o n c e r n in g u s e and m e n t i o n :

a s i s c u s to m a r y , we w i l l o f t e n u s e w f f s .- " a u to n o m o u s ly " - i . e . a s names

of th em se lv e s. Thus we d i s p l a y t h e w f f i t s e l f , b u t u s e i t a s i f i t

w ere i n q u o t e s . I n a d d i t i o n , o f c o u r s e , we have some names o f w f f s

w h ic h do n o t c o n s i s t o f t h e w f f s t h e m s e l v e s .

F o rm al i n c o m p l e t e n e s s means t h a t t h e r e i s same w f f W s u c h t h a t

n e i t h e r W n o r -W i s p r o v a b l e . The i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s situ ­

a t i o n i s t h a t t h e r e i s some p r o b le m w h ic h c a n n o t b e s o l v e d u s i n g t h e

axiom s and l o g i c a l o n e . However, a t l e a s t i n t h e c a s e o f G '6dal-type

i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , t h e p ro b le m i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y u n s o l v a b l e : we know t h e

so lu tio n . The u n d e c i d a b l e w f f h a s t h e fo rm (x )G x . But we know t h a t

f o r a l l n , J— Gn. Thus i f we ha v e f a i t h t h a t i n t h e s t a n d a r d i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n t h e axiom s a r e t r u e and t h e l o g i c f a u l t l e s s , we know t h a t f o r

a l l n , Gn c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c t r u t h . L e ttin g S be th e

s e t o f n a t u r a l num bers w h i c h i s d e f i n e d * ^ b y Gx, we know t h a t " 0 £ S ,"

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-4 8 -

" l £ S ," e t c . a r e a l l t r u e . I n f o r m a l l y , we may t h e n c o n c lu d e t h a t " F o r

a l l n , n £ S" i s t r u e , i . e . t h a t (x)G x (an d n o t i t s n e g a t i o n ) c o r -


35
responds to a n u m b e r-th e o re tic t r u t h . So t h e i n f o r m a l p ro b le m d o e s

have a s o l u t i o n . Thus i f we s o u g h t t o s t r e n g t h e n o u r a x i o m a t i z a t i o n s -

f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l - w i t h minimum r i s k o f a r r i v i n g a t f a l s e t h e o r e m s ,

one r e a s o n a b l e p l a c e t o s t a r t i s t o a dd (x)Gx t o t h e f o r m e r and " F o r

a l l n , n tS " t o th e l a t t e r . Of c o u r s e t h e r e s u l t on t h e f o r m a l s i d e ,

b e i n g a f o rm a l s y s te m , i s s t i l l s u b j e c t t o G B d e l’ s c o n s t r u c t i o n .

F u r t h e r p r o g r e s s i s a lw a y s p o s s i b l e . The q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r i t i s

p o s s i b l e , by a n e x t e n t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e , t o a c h i e v e c o m p l e t e n e s s ,

a n d t h e a n s w e r i n FEFEHMAN (1 9 6 2 ) i s : y e s, under c e r ta in p e c u lia r

co n d itio n s. But b e f o r e we d e s c r i b e how t h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d , we m ust

m e n t io n two a m b i g u i t i e s w h i c h i n f e c t a l l a c c o u n t s o f G B d e l's w o rk -

e s p e c i a l l y t h e se c o n d t h e o r e m .

We s a i d t h a t we may a d d (x)G x t o t h e f o r m a l axiom s s i n c e i t ,

a n d n o t i t s n e g a t i o n , c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f number t h e o r y . T h is

was a r g u e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f a c t t h a t f o r a l l n , |— Gn. Now how do

we know t h i s l a t t e r ? The p r o o f l o o k s l i k e t h i s (see chap. l ) : If

jr- -Gn f o r some n t h e n ( x )G x . But t h e n we w ould have {- Gn and t h e

form al a x ia m a tiz a tio n i s i n c o n s i s t e n t . But t h e f o r m a l axiom s a r e c o n ­

s i s t e n t - i . e . we assum e t h a t t h e y a r e , b u t n o one h as a n y r e a l

d o u b t s - and b y c o n t r a p o s i t i o n we g e t n o t [— -G n . S ince th e fo rm al

t h e o r y i s c o m p le te f o r q u a n t i f i e r l e s s f o r m u l a s , ]— Gn. So o u r c o n f i d e n c e

i n th e t r u t h o f (th e n u m b e r-th e o re tic s ta te m e n t c o rre sp o n d in g t o ) (x)G x

i s u l t i m a t e l y b a s e d upon o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e

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form a 1 a x io m s . (From now on s u c h p a r e n t h e t i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e

o m itte d .) B u t t h e r e a r e o t h e r w f f s w hose t r u t h i s e q u a l l y b a s e d upon

t h i s c o n fid en ce, ( x ) ( y ) - P ( x j j ( y , n ( y ) ) ) f o r exam ple (w here j ( x , y ) is

t h e f o r m a l c o n j u n c t i o n f u n c t i o n a n d P ( x ; y ) i s t h e f o rm a l p r o o f

p re d ic a te ).. F u r t h e r m o r e , i f we a r e p r e p a r e d t o w ork s e r i o u s l y w i t h a

s e t o f a x io m s , we s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e a d d i t i o n o f new

a xiom s b a s e d n o t o n l y on o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e

o rig in a l s e t, b u t a lso i t s t r u t h . Thus e v e n su c h w f f s a s ( E y ) P ( y ; ti ) D W

(w here n#7 i s W) have a r i g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s a m b is ru ity i s m e t

b y F e fe rm a n b y c o n s i d e r i n g v a r i o u s c l a s s e s o f l i k e l y f o r m u l a s and t h e

r e s u l t o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e f o r m a l ax io m s by e a c h .

The s e co n d a m b i g u i t y i s m ore s e r i o u s and l e s s e a s i l y m e t . We

s poke o f P ( x ; y ) a s t h e f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f t h e f o r m a l s y s te m .

What e x a c t l y d o e s t h i s mean? The q u e s t i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y p r e s s i n g

s i n c e t h e o b v io u s a n s w e r , n a m e ly j— P ( m ; n ) i f f 4 i s a p r o o f o f raff-- a n d

|— - P (m ;n ) i f f m# i s n o t a p r o o f o f n # , i s w r o n g . V a r io u s f o rm a l

r e l a t i o n s c a n b e d e f i n e d w h ic h m e e t t h i s c o n d i t i o n w h ic h do n o t

e x p r e s s t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e a n d s o c a n n o t be t h e , o r e v e n a_, f o r m a l

proof p re d ic a te . To s e e t h i s , n e t s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g h e l d : ( l) Pat

v e r y r o u g h l y ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e a p p e n d i x ) , G’6 d e l ' s s e c o n d t h e o r e m

shows t h a t t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f a n a x i o m a t i c s y s te m c a n n o t b e a t h e o r e m

o f t h a t s y s te m , (2) t h e s e n t e n c e "W i s u n p r o v a b l e i n F" i m p l i e s t h e

c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n F, and (3 ) i f a n y f o r m u la

R (x jy ) e x p re s s e s th e p ro o f p r e d i c a t e o f F , th e n th e w ff - (E x ) R ( x ;n ) ,

w h e re n # i s W, e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n t e n c e "W i s u n p r o v a b l e i n Fw. Now i n

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i

-5 0 *

M0ST0WSKI, p p . 2 3 -4 we f i n d t h e f o r m a l r e l a t i o n R ( x ; y ) = d f P ( x ; y ) n - P ( x ; m ) ,

w h e re m# i s 0 / 0, w h i c h f u l f i l l s t h e above c o n d i t i o n . (F o r, sin c e

0 / 0 i s n o t p r o v a b l e , we w i l l n e v e r ha v e P (n;m ) p r o v a b l e , and s i n c e

P ( x ; y ) i s r e c u r s i v e , we have - P ( n ; m ) p r o v a b l e , f o r a l l n . So i f n# i s

a p ro o f o f r $ , th e n R (ii;r) i s p ro v a b le . And i f n ^ i s n o t a p r o o f o f

r # , t h e n - P ( n ; r ) i s p r o v a b l e , and h e n c e - R ( n ; r ) i s a l s o p r o v a b l e . ) But b y

( 3 ) , - ( E x ) R ( x ;m ) e x p r e s s e s " 0 / 0 i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n F " . And - (E x ) R ( x ;m )

i s - ( E x ) ( P ( x ; m ) n - P ( x ; m ) ) w h ic h i s p r o v a b l e i n F b y f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c

alo n e I By ( 2 ) t h i s w f f o u g h t t o e x p r e s s a s t a t e m e n t w h ic h i m p l i e s F ' s

c o n s is te n c y , b u t th e n ( l ) w i l l be f a l s e . So t o m a i n t a i n ( l ) we m ust

deny ( 3 ) , and we s e e t h a t t h e abo v e c o n d i t i o n i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o

in s u r e t h a t a fo rm al p r e d i c a t e R (x ;y ) i s a form al p ro o f p r e d i c a t e .

W hether i t i s n e c e s s a r y and w h a t c o n d i t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t w i l l b e c o n ­

s id e re d in th e a p p e n d ix . M eanw hile we w i l l o p e r a t e w i t h G f td e l's p r o o f

p red icate P (x ;y ).

The i d e a o f a d d i n g new a xiom s w h i c h o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e o l d

axiom s c a n j u s t i f y seems r e a s o n a b l e e n o u g h . H ow ever, i f we p r o c e e d one

a t a t i m e , o r e v e n a r e c u r s i v e b a t c h a t a t i m e , we know t h a t G f td e l's

c o n stru c tio n s s t i l l a p p ly . We w i l l g e t s t r o n g e r b u t s t i l l i n c o m p le t e

th e o rie s. F u rth e rm o re , an i n f i n i t e r e p e t i t i o n of su ch a d d itio n s w i l l

not su ffice : a s l o n g a s e a c h a d d i t i o n oan b e made r e c u r s i v e l y , t h e

mode o f a d d i t i o n c a n b e f o r m a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d and u s e d t o make G f td e l's

c o n s tru c tio n a p p ly . (See b e lo w .) Thus some s t r o n g e r m ethod o f a d d in g

axiom s i s n e e d e d : t r a n s f i n i t e p ro g re ssio n s o f th e o r ie s . We s t a r t w i t h

a t h e o r y A = Aq , w h i c h c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e s e t o f i t s a x io m s .

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(B a s ic a lly , a th e o ry i s i t s s e t of th eo rem s. But s i n c e a l l t h e

t h e o r i e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a r e f i r s t o r d e r t h e o r i e s w i t h t h e same

u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c , a n y d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e o r i e s i s t r a c e a b l e t o a

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r s e t s of ax io m s.) L et us suppose t h a t th e p ro ­

c e d u r e o f p a s s i n g from t o A j , ^ i s t o a d d a w f f e x p r e s s i n g t h e c on­

s i s t e n c y o f An . Thus we h a v e d e f i n e d a n i n f i n i t e s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s

{ An*S# n f i n i t e . S i n c e t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s w h ic h a r e n o t p r o v a b l e i n

any o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s we w a n t t o _go _on. We do t h i s by t a k i n g t h e u n i o n

of a l l th e th e o rie s in t h e s e q u e n c e - g An - a s a new t h e o r y , and

proceed as b e f o r e . We may now t h i n k o f o u r p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e o r i e s a s

b u i l t by f i r s t d e f i n i n g a l o c a l e x t e n t i o n - i . e . some r e c u r s i v e c l a s s

of w f f s t o be added t o a n y g i v e n t h e o r y - and t h e n a l t e r n a t i n g t h e u s e

o f t h i s l o c a l e x te n tio n t o g e n e ra te a n i n f i n i t e sequence o f t h e o r i e s

w ith th e c o l l e c t i o n o f th e t h e o r i e s in th e sequence by u n io n . We may

d i s t i n g u i s h i n a n a t u r a l way b e tw e e n s u c c e s s o r t h e o r i e s w h ic h r e s u l t

from a l o c a l e x t e n t i o n o f a p r e v i o u s t h e o r y a nd l i m i t t h e o r i e s w h ic h

r e s u l t from u n i o n s . We may t h e n n o t e t h a t a n i n f i n i t e r e p e t i t i o n o f

t h e a l t e r n a t i o n of l o c a l e x t e n t i o n and u n io n w i l l produce an i n f i n i t e

s e q u e n c e o f l i m i t t h e o r i e s , whose u n i o n c a n a g a i n b e t a k e n t o form a

su p e r-lim it th eo ry . And s o on t o a s e q u e n c e o f s u p e r - l i m i t t h e o r i e s ,

t h e i r u n io n in a s u p e r - s u p e r - li m i t t h e o r y . . . . Of c o u r s e , t h e s t r u c t u r e

o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n e x a c t l y m im ics t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r d i n a l n u m b e rs .

Thus we may i n a n a t u r a l way a d o p t t h e o r d i n a l num bers a s t h e i n d i c e s

of th e th e o rie s o f th e p ro g re ssio n . Thus A^ f o r n f i n i t e i s th e

i n i t i a l i n f i n i t e se q u e n c e o f l o c a l e x t e n t i o n s , Aw i s t h e f i r s t l i m i t

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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th eo ry , \o x n ^o r n f i r s t sequence o f l i m i t t h e o r i e s ,

AJ> i s t h e f i r s t s u p e r - t h e o r y , an d s o o n . So we may t h i n k o f o u r p r o ­

g r e s s i o n a s a f u n c t i o n F whose dom ain i s some d e n u m e r a b le i n i t i a l

segm ent o f t h e o r d i n a l num bers a n d whose r a n g e i s a c l a s s o f s e t s o f

w f f s o f t h e i n i t i a l t h e o r y A, e a c h s e t o f w f f s b e i n g t h e s e t o f axiom s

o f some t h e o r y o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n , s u c h t h a t f o r a l l o r d i n a l s o , o ' ,

i f o < o ' th en F ( o ) c F ( o ') . S tu d y o f t r a n s f i n i t e p r o g r e s s i o n s o f

t h e o r i e s c e n te r s around d e f i n i n g f u n c tio n s l i k e F .

L e t u s exam ine F m ore c l o s e l y . F ( 0 ) * [ x s u c h t h a t x i s an

axiom o f A * Aq ^ . F ( l ) = F ( 0 ) U { c o n g \ , w h e re ConQ i s a w f f

e x p r e s s i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Aq . T h i s p re s u m e s t h a t we h a v e overcome

t h e two a m b i g u i t i e s n o t e d : we h a v e c h o s e n a s t a n d a r d way o f d e f i n i n g

t h e f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r an y e i v e n f o r m a l t h e o r y , and we have

c h o s e n a p a r t i c u l a r w f f b a s e d upon t h a t f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e t o

ex press t h e c o n s is te n c y o f t h a t th e o r y . At t h i s s ta g e t h i s i s r e l a ­

t i v e l y ea sy t o a c co m p lish : we may co p y G ftd e l’ s c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e

f o rm e r a n d u s e (xX(-{(&y) P(_y ; x ) n ( E y ) P ( y ; n ( x ) ) ) f o r t h e l a t t e r . As

l o n g a s n i s f i n i t e , t h i s c a n b e r e p e a t e d f o r a l l An . F(w) * U An , n

fin ite . B ut how a r e we t o f i n d F ( w + l ) ? We h a v e F (w + i) -= F(w) U (Conw^ .

b u t w hat w f f i s Conw? I t o u g h t t o b e (x)~ ((E y) P ( y ; x ) n ( E y )P j ( y ; n ( x ) ) ,


0

b u t how a r e we t o a p p l y G ftd e l’ s c o n s t r u c t i o n t o A ^ t o f i n d i t s form al

p r o o f p r e d i c a t e P ^ C x jy )? I n t h e f i n i t e c a s e t h e r e i s n o p ro b le m : th e

g e n e r a l form o f a n y f o r m a l p r o o f p r e d i c a t e P ( x ; y ) i s

Sx n ( z ) ( L ( z ; x ) D (Mz v ( E w ) ( E u ) ( L ( w * x ) n L ( u ; x ) n D (w ;u ;z)) n L ( y ; x ) ,

w here Sx, L ( z ; x ) , ULz, a n d D ( w ;u ;z ) e x p r e s s f o r m a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g

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s y n ta c tic p red ic ate s re s p e c tiv e ly : X i s a sequence o f w f f s , Z i s a

w f f o f X, Z i s a n axiom ( o f w h a t e v e r t h e o r y i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d ) ,

e i t h e r Z i s a modus ponens c o n s e q u e n c e o f W and U o r a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n

c o n s e q u e n c e o f W. F o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y An we n e e d o n l y p u t a

f o r m u la Mnx w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f a xiom s o f AQ . i . e . [— Mjjin i f f m

i s a n axiom o f (A ll u ses o f 11 J—** a nd " i s p r o v a b l e " c a r r y a t a c i t

referen ce to th e th eo ry Aq , u n le s s o th erw ise s p e c i f ie d .) (Not q u i t e :

some o f t h e q u e e r p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y u s i n g q u e e r ax io m

p red ic ate s ( s e e e . g . FEFEKMAN 1 9 6 0 - 1 , p p . 6 8 - 7 0 ) , b u t a g a i n we can

r e l y on G S d e l 's c o n s t r u c t i o n t o k e e p u s o u t o f t r o u b l e . ) G iven Mnx ,

Mn+ i x c a n b e form ed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w ay: t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Conn

fro m Pn ( x ; y ) i s a m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s . V ia t h e GSdel n u m b e r in g , t h e r e

i s a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n C(m) s u c h t h a t i f ffij$ i s Pn ( x ; y ) t h e n C(m)$ i s

C o r^ . L e t c ( x ) b e t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f C(m ). T hen Mn+ ^x=Mnx v x * c (P n ) ,

w h e re Pn# i s Pn ( x ; y ) . So f o r t h e i n i t i a l f in ite , of

t h e p r o g r e s s i o n we p r o c e e d a s f o l l o w s : g i v e n Aq an d MqX we fo rm

PQ( x ; y ) b y p l u g g i n g MqX i n f o r Mnx i n t h e a b o v e f o rm , and t h e n Mjx by

t h e above e q u a t i o n , a n d t h e n P ^ ( x ; y ) , e t c . , so t h e sequence lo o k s l i k e

( z ) | ^ L ( z ; x ) D (Mqx v (Ew) (Eu) ( L ( u ; x ) n L (w ;x ) n

n D (w ;u;x))J n L (y ;x ) w h i c h i s PQ( x ; y )

Mqx v x = c (P q ) w h i c h i s Mjx

( z ) ^ L ( z ; x ) 3 (Mjx v ( E w ) ( E u ) ( L ( u ; x ) n L (w ;x ) n

n D (w ;u ;x ))j n L (y ;x ) w hich i s P j ( x ; y )

e tc .

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54-

The f i r s t s p o t w h ic h t h i s p r o c e d u r e f a i l s t o h a n d l e i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n

o f M, x - t h e f o r m u la w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f axiom s o f AUJ .

B e f o r e we a t t a c k M^x, n o t i c e w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d . We s t a r t e d

t h i n k i n g o f F a s a f u n c t i o n fro m o r d i n a l num bers t o s e t s o f axiom s o f

th e o rie s in th e p ro g re ssio n . B ut now w i t h e a c h s e t o f axiom s An h a s

b e e n a s s o c i a t e d a f o r m u la En x w h i c h d e f i n e s t h a t s e t . In f a c t i t is

f o r l a c k o f one s u c h f o r m u la - M^x - t h a t we f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o go

on d e f i n i n g F b e y o n d t h e f i n i t e o r d i n a l s . Thus t h e a b i l i t y t o d e f i n e

F d e p e n d s u p o n t h e p r i o r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n F ' w h ic h a s s i g n s

t h e f o r m u la Mn x t o e a c h o r d i n a l n . Once F ' i s d e f i n e d , F i s a u t o ­

m a tic a lly d e fin e d . So we may a s w e l l c o n c e n t r a t e on F ' .

What do we w a n t o f M^x? We w a n t i t t o d e f i n e t h e s e t o f

axiom s o f A^,, i . e . of U n fin ite . T h a t i s , we w a n t j - M^n i f f f o r

some i , j— M^n. (S o m e th in g l i k e t h e i n f i n i t e d i s j u n c t i o n Mg* v M^x v ...,

b u t o f c o u r s e we have no i n f i n i t e f o r m u l a s . ) What we n e e d i s a

v a r i a b l e and a q u a n t i f i e r t o r a n g e o v e r t h e s e t o f f o r m u l a s , n

fin ite . T h i s c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t a k i n g i n s t e a d t h e s e t o f GBdel

numbers o f t h e f o r m u l a s Mnx a n d u s i n g t h e o r d i n a r y q u a n t i f i e r . A l l we

n e e d i s a f o r m a l p r e d i c a t e My s u c h t h a t Mn i f f n # i s one o f t h e

f o r m u la s M^x. Then we c o u l d t a k e f o r t h e f o r m u la (Ey)(My n

(E z)(P ( z ; s ( y , x
0 ) ) 3 6 (w h e re s ( x , y ) i s a f o r m a l s u b s t i t u t i o n f u n c t i o n ,

i . e . a form al f u n c t i o n c o rre s p o n d in g t o th e s y n t a c t i c o p e r a tio n o f

r e p l a c i n g ( a l l t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f ) t h e f r e e v a r i a b l e o f a fo rm u la

( h a v i n g o n l y one f r e e v a r i a b l e ) w i t h a f o r m a l n u m e r a l . Thus i f m# i s

Fx, t h e n r # i s Fn i f f s ( m ,n ) ■ r . ) We w i l l t h e n h a v e M^n i f f n#

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-55-

i s a n axiom o f g Afl n f i n i t e . F o r ( a ) i f My i s r e c u r s i v e (as i t w i l l

b e ) t h e n My n P g ( z ; s ( y , x ) ) i s a l s o r e c u r s i v e . So i f f - ( E y ) ( E z ) ( M y *
3*7
P g ( z ; s ( y , n ) ) t h e n t h e r e a r e m , r s u c h t h a t |— Mm n P g ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) .

S i n c e j- Mm, nft i s one o f t h e f o r m u l a s M ix, and s i n c e (— P g ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) ,

r# is a proof of th e r e s u l t o f s u b s t i t u t i n g n f o r th e f r e e v a r ia b le of

m# - i . e . o f M^n, s o M^n. Thus n $ i s a n axiom o f some A^, and

h e n c e o f U An , n f i n i t e , ( b ) C o n v e r s e l y , i f vfe i s a n axiom o f some

t h e n j- M j5, and so t h e r e i s some r s u c h t h a t r # i s a p r o o f o f M^n, i . e .

j- P ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) i f m# i s MjX.
0 By e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n we g e t

Mwn . So t h e o n l y o u t s t a n d i n g t a s k i s t o f i n d a s u i t a b l e f o r m u la My.

T h a t t h e r e i s s u c h a f o rm a l p r e d i c a t e My i s c l e a r : sin c e th e

p r o c e s s o f p a s s i n g f r a n M^x t o M^+^x i s m e c h a n i c a l , t h e c l a s s o f G&del

num bers o f f o r m u la s M^x i s r e c u r s i v e and h e n c e r e p r e s e n t a b l e i n Aq .

B u t f o r o u r p u r p o s e s i t i s n o t eno u g h t o know t h a t My e x i s t s , we m u st
•ZQ
show how t o c o n s t r u c t i t i n o r d e r t o g e t t h e f o rm u la M jx. L et us

f i r s t d e s c r i b e i n t u i t i v e l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f G' d e l
6

num b ers o f t h e f o r m u la s [ m ^ x ] . We a r e g i v e n Mq X , an d h e n c e we know

how t o fo rm P g ( x ; y ) . From t h e l a t t e r we c a n f i n d t h e f o rm u la e x p r e s s i n g

t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f A0 , n a m e ly Cong, a n d t h e n t a k e f o r M^x t h e f o rm u la

Mq x v x ■ ’ Cong1 . I n o t h e r w ords, th e p ro g re s s of t h e c o n s tr u c ti o n

lo o k s l i k e t h i s :

G(M x) ------ P — ^ G(P ( x ; y ) ) ------ C _ ^ G ( C o n 0 )


0 0

w h e r e G i s t h e Gfidel n u m b e rin g f u n c t i o n , P t h e f u n c t i o n t a k i n g Gftdel

num bers o f p r e d i c a t e s d e f i n i n g s e t s o f a xiom s i n t o G 'idel num bers o f

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s , a nd C t h e f u n c t i o n w h i c h t a k e s

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-56-

GBdel num bers o f p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s i n t o GBdel num bers o f t h e c o r ­

res p o n d in g ; c o n s i s t e n c y f o r m u l a s . F u r t h e r , l e t D b e t h e tw o - a r g u m e n t

f u n c t i o n w h i c h , when g i v e n t h e GBdel num bers o f tw o f o r m u la s A and B,

giv es ok t h e G&del number o f t h e f o r m u la A v xe(5{#). So f o r a l l

f o r m u l a s A? B: D(G(A), G(B)) * G(A v x *> G (B )) . I t is c le a r th a t

t h e s e f u n c t i o n s e x i s t and a r e p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e . Now we g i v e a

re c u rsiv e d e f in itio n of th e fu n ctio n J:

J ( 0 ) = G(Mqx )

J(n+ 1) - D ( j ( n ) , C ( P ( j ( n ) ) ) ) .

Now J ( n ) i s t h e GBdel number o f Mnx . S in ce i t i s c l e a r how t o f i n d t h e

f u n c t i o n s C, D, and P, i t s h o u l d a l s o be c l e a r how t o f i n d t h e f o r m a l

f u n c t i o n s w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e m . ( F o r t h e g-eneral p r o c e d u r e , s e e

MENDELSON, p p . 1 3 5 - 4 2 . ) We a l s o ha v e a n e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e f o r

r e p l a c i n g r e c u r s i v e d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n s i n num ber

th eo ry . From s u c h a d e f i n i t i o n o f J i n t e r m s o f C, D, and P and t h e

f o r m a l r e p r e s e n t i n g f u n c t i o n s o f t h e l a t t e r , we c a n c o n s t r u c t t h e

form al r e p r e s e n tin g fu n c tio n j o f J . We may t h e n t a k e

My - d f (E w )(y « j ( w ) ) .

L e t us now summ arize t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f

t h e o r i e s - t h e f u n c t i o n F ' - up t o Aw+ i * We s t a r t w i t h a g i v e n s e t o f

w f f s - t h e ax io m s o f Aq - a nd a r e c u r s i v e p r o c e s s o f a d d i n g new axiom s

to any e x i s t i n g b a tc h - th e lo c a l e x te n t io n . T h is g iv e s a sequence o f

s e t s o f w f f s Ag, A ^ , • • . w h ic h we t a k e a s t h e s e t s o f axiom s o f t h e s e

th e o r ie s of th e p ro g re ssio n . S in c e t h e p r o c e s s o f p a s s i n g from An t o

An+^ i s r e c u r s i v e , we can g i v e a m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e d u r e f o r g e n e r a t i n g a

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-57

s e t o f w f f s ( M j x j s u c h t h a t e a c h w f f M^x r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

s e t o f w ffs A^. A g a in , s i n c e { m ^ x| is e f f e c ti v e l y g e n e ra te d , th e s e t

o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g GBdel num bers i s r e c u r s i v e , a nd we c a n d e f i n e a

f o r m a l p r e d i c a t e My t o r e p r e s e n t i t . S i n c e t o b e a n axiom o f A^ i s t o

b e a n axiom o f some A ^ t h e f o r m u la M^x = (Ey)(My n (Ez) P ( z ; s ( y , x ) ) 0

r e p r e s e n t s t h e s e t o f GBdel num bers o f axiom s o f A . Then Mwx c a n be

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s t a n d a r d GBdel c o n s t r u c t i o n t o g e t P ^C xjy) a nd
39 /
Conw and t o c o n ti n u e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n . (We s a i d a b o v e t h a t we have

t o go on i n t o t h e t r a n s f i n i t e b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s n o t p r o v a b l e

i n a n y o f An , n f i n i t e . We now s e e why: s i n c e we c a n d e f i n e Pw( x ; y ) ,

we c a n f o l l o w G B d e l's c o n s t r u c t i o n t o f i n d a w f f s u c h t h a t n e i t h e r i t

n o r i t s n e g a tio n i s p rovable in ■ U An n f i n i t e . )

Now l e t u s n o t e t h a t our n o tio n of th e f u n c t i o n d e f i n i n g th e

p r o g r e s s i o n - F ' - h a s u n d e rg o n e a n o t h e r s h i f t . In fo rm a liz in g th e

n o t i o n " f o r some i , | - M jx ," we have i n e f f e c t r e p l a c e d t h e f o r m u l a s M^x

b y t h e i r GBdel n u m b e rs . So we may now t h i n k o f F ' a s a f u n c t i o n from

t h e o r d i n a l numbers t o t h e GBdel num bers o f f o r m u l a s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t

t h e s e t s o f (GBdel num bers o f ) axiom s o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n .

But a more r a d i c a l s h i f t i s y e t t o come, ( l) In o rd e r f o r th e pro­

g r e s s io n t o a c t u a l l y be used t o b u i ld s tr o n g e r t h e o r i e s , th e f u n c t i o n

d e f i n i n g i t w i l l have t o e x i s t a s more t h a n a s e t o f o r d e r e d p a i r s :

we m u s t ha v e a r u l e e n a b l i n g u s t o c a l c u l a t e i t . The u s e o f s u c h a

r u l e d e p e n d s upon t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a n o t a t i o n f o r t h e dom ain and

f o r t h e r a n g e o f t h e f u n c t i o n ( s e e ROGERS, p . 28 , t h e f i r s t f o o t n o t e ) ,

a nd t h e dom ain o f o u r F ' so f a r l a c k s a n o t a t i o n . The s t a n d a r d m ethod

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
— 58 "«

i s t o u s e a s u b s e t 0 o f N c a l l e d t h e s e t o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s w h ic h

m i r r o r s i n a somewhat r e d u n d a n t f a s h i o n ( s e e d e f i n i t i o n b e lo w ) t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f a segm ent o f t h e o r d i n a l n u m b ers.^ ® ( S t r i c t l y sp eak in g ,

t h e members o f 0 a r e n u m b ers, b u t s i n c e we h a v e a n o t a t i o n f o r u s e i n

c a l c u l a t i n g n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c f u n c t i o n s , i f o u r f u n c t i o n i s d e f i n e d on

0 we a r e a s s u r e d o f h a v i n g a n o t a t i o n f o r i t s d o m a i n .) (2) In

d e f i n i n g M^x we r e a s o n e d i n f o r m a l l y t h a t s i n c e Aw * U a n y axiom o f

A, . i s a n axiom o f some A* a nd h e n c e t h e t r i c k was t o f o r m a l i z e t h e

n o t i o n " f o r some i , M ^x." B ut s i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n i s c u m u l a t i v e ,

t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o t h e e n t i r e sequence o f

fo rm u la s^ M ^ x ^ . Any i n f i n i t e s u b s e q u e n c e .x jw o u ld do a s w e l l .

Even i f some i s l e f t o u t , a l l t h e ax io m s i t w o u ld ha v e i n c l u d e d i n

Aw w i l l b e s u p p l i e d by a n y M j. w h e re i ^ > k . Thus i n f o r m a l l y i t is of
J J

n o i m p o r ta n c e w h ic h s e q u e n c e we c h o o s e . How ever, t h e f o r m u la Mwx does

d e p e n d upon w h ic h s e q u e n c e we p i c k : we w i l l w a n t Mn i f f n # i s one

F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n g i v e n a p a r t i c u l a r s e q u e n c e , we may

c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s e q u e n c e i n f o r m a l l y i n a num ber o f d i f f e r e n t w ays,

a n d e a c h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i l l l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a s My and Mjjx.

These d i f f e r e n c e s need n o t be t r i v i a l . To g i v e a c r u d e a n a l o g y ,

su p p o s e i t i s t r u e t h a t e v e r y e v e n num ber i s t h e sum o f two p r i m e s ,

b u t t h i s i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n o r d i n a r y num ber t h e o r y . We may t h e n

c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e v e n num bers i n tw o w a y s : t h o s e num bers d i v i s i b l e b y

tw o , and t h o s e num bers w h ic h a r e sums o f tw o p r im e s e a c h o f w h ic h i s

g r e a t e r th a n tw o . B u t o n l y t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i l l a l l o w us

t o p r o v e t h a t a l l num bers d i v i s i b l e b y two a r e e v e n . L ik e w ise , even

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-59'

g iven a p a r t i c u l a r sequence, d i f f e r e n t in fo rm a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s of

i t w i l l l e a d t o f o r m u l a s w h ic h w i l l d i f f e r e v e n e x t e n s i o n a 1l y , i . e .

w i l l r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f axiom s f o r t h e s u c c e s s o r o f t h e l i m i t

t h e o r y A^. T h a t i s , we c a n f i n d two f o r m u l a s Ky and M 'y s u c h t h a t b o t h

a re th e fo rm a liz a tio n o f in fo rm al c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s o f t h e same

s e q u e n c e o f GBdel num bers of^Mj x^ -we may e v e n c h o o s e t h e s e q u e n c e

o f a l l t h e GBdel num bers o f t h e s e f o r m u la s - w h ic h y e t d i f f e r so

r a d i c a l l y t h a t when we fo rm t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ^ + 1 x and th ere

w i l l b e some num ber n s u c h t h a t j- M^+^n b u t n o t (- M*w+^ n . Thus one

c h o i c e w i l l make n# a n axiom o f and t h e o t h e r w i l l n o t . We c a n n o t

i n a n o n - a r b i t r a r y way d e t e r m i n e w h ic h i n f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , and

h e n c e w h ic h o f t h e many e l i g i b l e f o r m u l a s , we s h o u l d a d o p t t o r e p r e s e n t

t h e s e t o f a x io m s o f t h e l i m i t t h e o r y . The p o i n t o f t h i s o b se rv a tio n

i s t h a t e v e n i f we s u b s t i t u t e a s e t o f n a t u r a l n um bers f o r o r d i n a l s i n

o r d e r to p ro v id e a n o t a t i o n f o r t h e p r o g r e s s io n f u n c t i o n , t h i s s e t of

n a t u r a l num bers m u s t n o t h a v e e x a c t l y t h e same s t r u c t u r e a s t h e s e t o f

o r d i n a l s f o r w h ic h i t s t a n d s i n : we n e e d a s e t o f i n d i c e s w h ic h w i l l

r e f l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t a t e a c h l i m i t p o s i t i o n we h a v e n o t one b u t many

( i n f a c t /V q ) T i m i t t h e o r i e s = one f o r e a c h f o r m u l a . In e t h e r w ords,

th e s tr u c tu r e of th e p ro g re ssio n i s n o t:

0 , 1 , . • •,w,w’+ l , • . • ,wx2,w x2+ 1 , . . . ,w x3, . . . , , u p " - - _-__,

e t c . , b u t r a t h e r t h a t o f an i n f i n i t e l y b ran ch in g t r e e :

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-60'

e tc .

.» •

\
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n d i c e s a t t h e l i m i t p o i n t s

m u st r e f l e c t t h e way i n w h ic h t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a s w h i c h c o u ld b e

u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e l i m i t t h e o r y become a v a i l a b l e . T h e s e f o r m u la s a r e

a r r i v e d a t by f o r m a l i z i n g i n f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f s e q u e n c e s o f

Glldel numbers o f t h e f o r m u la s M^x. M a th e m a tic a lly , a sequence i s a

s e t o f o r d e r e d p a i r s s u c h t h a t e a c h n a t u r a l num ber o c c u r s e x a c t l y once

a s t h e f i r s t member o f some p a i r - i . e . a f u n c t i o n w hose domain i s N.

So, t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a s e q u e n c e o f num bers i s t o d e f i n e a f u n c t i o n on

N. F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , t h e f u n c t i o n m u st b e r e c u r s i v e i n o r d e r f o r t h e

f o r m u la M^x b a s e d upon i t t o s u c c e e d i n d e f i n i n g t h e l i m i t t h e o r y Aw .

( R e c a l l t h a t t h e p r o o f o f t h e a d e q u a c y o f M^x d e p e n d e d upon a p p l i c a t i o n

o f t h e c o m p l e te n e s s o f Aq w i t h r e s p e c t t o q u a n t i f i e r - l e s s f o r m u la s t o

t h e f o r m u la Mm n P o ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) . I f J i s n o t r e c u r s i v e , t h e n Mm - i . e .

(Ew)(m “ j(w )) - w i l l n e e d q u a n t i f i e r s , and h e n c e w i l l n o t b e d e c i d a b l e

in g en eral in Aq . ) I t is l e s s c l e a r w hat t o co u n t as an a c c e p ta b le

d e f i n i t i o n o f a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n on N, b u t i t i s p l a u s i b l e t o

r e s t r i c t o u rselv es to s e ts of d e fin in g e q u a tio n s . Thus we may u s e a s

o u r " i n f o r m a l 1' a p p a r a t u s f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e s e q u e n c e s t h e s y s te m o f

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
'61-

e q u a t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e s r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s . Each s e t o f e q u a tio n s ,

e v e n th o u g h t h e r e i s r e d u n d a n c y i n t h e f u n c t i o n s d e f i n e d , w i l l d e t e r ­

m ine a d i f f e r e n t f o r m u la My. C o n v e r s e l y , a n y f o rm u la My w h ic h i s t o

b e u s e d i n Mwx t o d e f i n e t h e s e t o f axiom s o f A.w - i . e . f o r w h ic h we

h a v e }- Mwn i f f t h e r e i s a n i s u c h t h a t [- M^n - m u st b e b a s e d upon a

re c u rsiv e fu n ctio n J . Thus w h a t we n e e d f o r t h e i n d i c e s o f t h e p r o ­

g r e s s i o n i s a s e t h a v in g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n i n f i n i t e t r e e w here t h e

p r o l i f e r a t i o n of i n d ic e s a t e a ch l i m i t p o in t i s d e te rm in e d by th e s e ts

o f e q u a t i o n s p r o v i d i n g r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e i n c r e a s i n g

s e q u e n c e s o f i n d i c e s up t o t h a t p o i n t . T h is i s p r o v i d e d by u s i n g t h e

s y s te m ^ 0 , o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i n s t e a d o f t h e o r d i n a l num bers a s

in d ic e s. 0 c o n s i s t s o f a s u b s e t o f N an d a r e l a t i o n w h ic h a r e

d e f i n e d ( f o l l o w i n g ROGERS, p p . 2 0 8 - 9 ) t h u s : t h e o r d i n a l number z e r o

re c e iv e s th e n o ta tio n 1 ; i f t h e o r d i n a l number o r e c e i v e s x a s a

n o t a t i o n t h e n t h e o r d i n a l o+ l r e c e i v e s 2 X a s a n o t a t i o n , and f o r a l l

z , i f z=x o r z < q x t h e n z < q 2x ; i f o i s a l i m i t o r d i n a l number a nd e

i s t h e GBdel num ber o f a s e t o f e q u a t i o n s d e f i n i n g a r e c u r s i v e

f u n c t i o n f ( i n t h e f o r m a l i s m o f t h e s y s te m o f e q u a t i o n s w h ic h d e f i n e s

r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s ) and f ( ) , 0 f(l),... i s a sequence of o rd in a l

n o t a t i o n s such t h a t t h e l i m i t of t h e c o rre s p o n d in g sequence of o r d in a l s

i s o and f o r a l l i , j £ N , i f i < j t h e n f ( i ) * ^ o f ( 3 )» t h e n 0 re c e iv e s

3x5® a s a n o t a t i o n , and f o r a l l z s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s a n n £ N f o r w h ic h

z <^ ) f ( n ) , z<^Q3x5e . Thus 0 h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n i n f i n i t e l y r a m i ­

f y i n g t r e e i n w h ic h e a c h b r a n c h i s w e l l - o r d e r e d b y ^ Q , b u t n o t a t i o n s on

d i f f e r e n t b ran c h e s a r e in co m p arab le w i t h r e s p e c t t o < ^ . For our

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-62-

p u rp o se s, th e im p o rta n t f e a t u r e o f 0 is t h a t f o r each s e t of e q u a tio n s

d e f i n i n g a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n on N whose r a n g e i s a s e t o f o r d i n a l

n o ta tio n s such t h a t th e l i m i t o f th e c o rre sp o n d in g sequence of

o r d i n a l s i s o, t h e r e i s a u n iq u e n o t a t i o n f o r o . ^ Thus t h e f i n a l

s h i f t in th e n o tio n of a p ro g re ssio n of th e o r ie s is t o a fu n c tio n F ' '

w h ic h i s w h o l l y n u m b e r - t h e o r e t i c . The dom ain o f F ' ' i s a s u b s e t o f N,

nam ely 0 , a n d i t s r a n g e i s t h e s e t o f GBdel num bers o f f o r m u la s

Now F e fe rm a n p r o v e s t h a t we can a lw a y s f i n d s u c h a n F * ’ r e c u r s i v e ,

p r o v i d e d t h a t Aq i s r e c u r s i v e a nd t h e l o c a l e x t e u t i o n s a r e made r e c u r ­

siv e ly . To summ arizes th e n o tio n of a t r a n s f i n i t e p ro g re s s io n of

t h e o r i e s h a s now become t h a t o f a f u n c t i o n F 1' h a v in g t h e f o l l o w i n g

fea tu re s: (l) F 1 1 is rec u rsiv e ; (2 ) F ' * h a s 0 a s dom ain a nd t h e s e t

o f GBdel num bers o f t h e f o r m u la s M^x a s r a n g e ; (3 ) i f we l e t

F ’ ' ( n ) * * £m s u c h t h a t F " i s p r o v a b l e i n A q| ( i . e . i f r # i s

Qx t h e n r* * £m s . t . |— ^ t h e n f o r a l l m,mj.£ 0 , i f m<^Qm',

F " ( m ) * C F " ( m ' ) * . 42

A t t h i s p o i n t we m u st t a k e n o t e o f tw o f e a t u r e s o f 0 w h ic h w i l l

e v e n t u a l l y b e i m p o r t a n t i n m ak in g t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s r e s u l t p o s s i b l e and

in e v a lu a tin g i t s sig n ific a n c e . F i r s t , a s we m e n t io n e d i n c h a p t e r tw o ,

th e s u b s e t 0 o f N i s co m p le te ly n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e . A l th o u g h we m ay, i n

p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s , f i n d o u t t h a t some num bers a r e i n 0 and o t h e r s n o t ,

t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e e i t h e r f o r i d e n t i f y i n g members o r f o r

i d e n t i f y i n g non-mem bers o f 0 . Second, t h e b ra n c h e s o f th e t r e e have a

h ig h m o r t a li ty r a t e . C onsider t h e t r e e o n ly a s f a r as The t r e e

branches i n f i n i t e l y a t each p re c e d in g l i m i t o r d in a l , i . e .

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63

o
uj , iwx2, . . . , w x n , . . . . Thus b e f o r e you g e t t o uj th e t r e e has

X 0 *X o"* = ^ ^ ^ tra n c h e s.
0 Up t o t h i s p o i n t t h e r e i s n o p r o b le m ;

h a v in g an u n c o u n t a b l e number o f b r a n c h e s i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h - h a v i n g a

c o u n t a b l e num ber o f n o d e s . B ut e a c h b r a n c h i s s u p p o s e d t o d e t e r m i n e

(at le a st) one ( i f n o t A g ) n o t a t i o n s f o r t h i s w o u ld mean t h a t

h a s a n u n c o u n t a b l e number o f n o t a t i o n s w h ic h i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
o
fa c t th a t 0 is a subset of N. So m o st o f t h e b r a n c h e s d i e b e f o r e uj .

Thus f o r e v e r y l i m i t o r d i n a l o+w 11 t h e r e w i l l be an u n c o u n ta b le

i n f i n i t y o f p a t h s w h ic h w i l l be d e f i n e d up t o b u t n o t f o r o+w11. Thus

t h e s e p a t h s w i l l b e m ax im a l - i . e . n o t c o n t a i n e d i n a n y l a r g e r p a t h -

b u t w i l l not s t r e t c h th e le n g th of th e t r e e .

We may now d e s c r i b e F e f e m a n ' s w o rk i n m ore d e t a i l . F i r s t , he

s p e c i f i e s s i x d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f f o r m u la s w h i c h o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n

t h e g i v e n axiom s w o u ld j u s t i f y i n adding:: ( l ) any fo rm u la L su ch t h a t

( - ( E x ) P q ( x ; 'L * ) ; (2 ) t h e f o rm u la c h o s e n a b o v e a s e x p r e s s i n g c o n ­

siste n c y : (x )-((E y )P g (y jx ) n (E y)P g(y*n(x))); (3) a l l fo rm u la s o f th e

form ( E x ) P q ( x ; ’ L ' ) 0 L; (4) a l l f o r m u la s o f t h e form (x )L x s u c h t h a t

|~ ( x ) ( E y ) P ( y ; s ( ' L x , , x ) ) ;
0 (5 ) a l l f o r m u la s o f t h e fo rm

( x ) ( E y ) ? o ( y ; s ( : L x : x ) ) D (x )L x ; (o ) a l l f o r m u l a s o f t h e form

( x ) ( ( E y ) P ^ ( y ;s ( * L x ',x ) ) D L x ). The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s a r e p r o v e d

among th em ; g i v e n an y i n i t i a l t h e o r y A;

A = A + ( l ) c A + ( 2 )C A + (3 )C A+(4) * A+(5) * A + ( ) . 6 A ll s ix c la s s e s of

f o r m u la s a r e r e c u r s i v e , an d w h e n e v e r t h e l o c a l e x t e n t i o n up o n w h ic h

th e p ro g re ssio n fu n c tio n F ' 1 i s b a s e d i s r e c u r s i v e , t h e n F* 1 c a n be

chosen r e c u r s i v e . F ’ ' i s th u s d e fin e d so t h a t : (a) i f n = 1 or

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64-

n / 2® o r n / 3x5® f o r a l l m, e , t h e n F " ( n ) # i s MQx ; ( b ) i f n * 2m

a n d n t 0 t h e n F ( n ) $ i s t h e f o r m u l a Mn x w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f axiom s

w h i c h r e s u l t s fro m a l o c a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a x io m s d e f i n e d b y F (m )$;

( c ) i f n *= 3x5® an d n t O , t h e n F ( n ) $ i s a f o r m u l a w h ic h d e f i n e s t h e

u n i o n o f t h e s e t s o f f o r m u la s d e f i n e d by F M ( f ( k ) ) $ , k e N , w h e re e i s

t h e GBdel num ber o f a s e t o f e q u a t i o n s d e f i n i n g t h e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n

f. (N o tatio n : A r e c u r s iv e f u n c tio n i s g iv en by a s e t o f e q u a tio n s in

a c e r t a i n fo rm a lism . (See KLEENE, pp.. 2 6 2 - 7 4 ) The GBdel num ber o f a

re c u rsiv e fu n c tio n i s , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , t h e GBdel num ber o f a

c e r ta in s e t of e q u a tio n s. Thus a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n m i g h t h a v e many

GBdel n u m b e r s , b u t a g i v e n s e t o f e q u a t i o n s h a s o n l y o n e . Now t h e r e

i s a u n iv e rs a l re c u rsiv e fu n c tio n (u )(v ) (KLEENE, p p . 3 30, 340) w h ic h

w o rk s a s f o l l o w s : i f m i s t h e GBdel num ber o f a s e t o f e q u a t i o n s

w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n f and f i s d e f i n e d f o r a rg u m e n t

n , t h e n ( m ) (n ) = f ( n ) . Thus we c a n r e f o r m u l a t e ( c ) :

F ' ' ( 3 x 5 ® ) * = n t N ^ ( e ) (n ) ^ ow on® c ^-a s s n um bers i s n o t r e p r e s e n t e d

here: t h o s e num bers w h ic h h a v e t h e fo rm 2m o r 3x5® b u t a r e n o t i n 0 .

These a r e w a ste c a s e s : t h e s e num bers a r e n o t g o i n g t o f u n c t i o n a s

in d ic e s f o r th e o r ie s in th e p ro g re s s io n . N e v e rth e le ss, i f F ?! i s

g o i n g t o b e r e c u r s i v e we m u st p r o v i d e some v a l u e f o r t h e s e a r g u m e n t s .

The d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t 0 i s n o t r e c u r s i v e ; we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y s p o t

th e s e w aste c a s e s . The n o n - e f f e c t i v i t y ccmes f rc m t h e num bers o f t h e

fo rm 3x5®: w h e t h e r o r n o t e i s t h e GBdel num ber o f a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n

on N w hose r a n g e i s a n i n c r e a s i n g s e q u e n c e o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i s

n o n -e ffe c tiv e . Of c o u r s e , t h i s n o n - e f f e c t i v i t y i s t h e n i n h e r i t e d by

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-65-

a l l num bers i n w h i c h s u c h a 3x5® o c c u r s a s a n e x p o n e n t . Now t h e d e f i ­

n i t i o n o f F ’ * overcom es t h i s d i f f i c u l t y by a d o p tin g ; a u n i f o r m p o l i c y

f o r a l l num bers o f t h e form 3x5®, w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y a r e i n 0 . In

m o st c a s e s t h i s p o l i c y w i l l b e h a r m l e s s b e c a u s e F '* ( 3 x 5 e ) w i l l n o t b e

t h e GBdel number o f a ny f o r m u l a . B ut s u p p o s e t h a t e i s t h e GBdel

number o f a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n and t h a t ( e ) ( n ) £ 0 f o r a l l n fN , b u t

t h a t t h e s e in d ic e s ( e ) ( n ) w h ich a r e th e range o f t h i s f u n c tio n a re

c o m p l e t e l y u n r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r . Thus t h e t h e o r i e s F ' ' ( ( e ) ( n ) ) *

w i l l a l s o b e c o m p l e t e l y u n r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r . And y e t F ' * w i l l

d i l l i g e n t l y fo rm t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s f o r t h e in d e x 3x5®, i . e .

F ” (3x5® )*:= nUNF f * ( ( e ) ( n ) ) * = nyNA( e ) ( n ) * I n s u c h a o a s e we can

e x p e c t t o g e t p r e t t y w i e r d r e s u l t s , a s we s h a l l s e e .

For t h e s e c u r i t y s e e k e r , t h e above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may s u g g e s t

t h a t a sound p o l i c y w ould b e n o t t o s t a r t u s i n g a t h e o r y F " ( n ) * u n t i l

ntO has b e e n p r o v e d i n some t h e o r y a l r e a d y f o r m e d . F e fe rm a n n o t e s

( 1 9 6 2 , p . 282) t h a t su c h a n " au to n o m o u s" p r o g r e s s i o n w i l l p ro d u c e a

r . e . s e t o f th eo rem s: no c o m p l e t n e s s . H ow ever, t h i s does n o t d e c r e a s e

t h e i n t e r e s t o f s u c h p r o g r e s s i o n s - s e e o u r c o n c l u s i o n b e lo w .

7Je may now o u t l i n e F e f e r m a n * s p r o o f o f c o m p l e t e n e s s f o r p r o ­

g r e s s i o n s b a s e d upon t h e l o c a l e x t e n t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o one o f t h e

c la sse s (4 )-(6 ) of fo rm u la s. F i r s t t h e r e i s th eo rem 4 , 1 . (T h is

th e o re m d e a l s e x p l i c i t l y w i t h c l a s s ( ) , b u t a p p l i e s a f o r t i o r i t o
2

(4 )-(6 ).) 4 . 1 s a y s t h a t t h e r e i s a p . r . f u n c t i o n E such t h a t f o r a ny

mfcO and a n y p . r . f o r m u la Bx, i f (x )B x i s t r u e and is (x )B x , t h e n

E ( m ,n ) £ 0 , m<Q E (m ,n ) and (x)B x i s p r o v a b l e i n and E (m ,n) i s a

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- 66 -

n o t a t i o n f o r t h e o r d i n a l inhw+ l . The r e f e r e n c e t o a g i v e n o r d i n a l

n o t a t i o n m p o i n t s t o t h e way i n w h ic h 4 . 1 w i l l b e u s e d : we w i l l i n

g e n e ra l s t a r t w ith a th eo ry and t h e n w a n t t o f i n d a n e x te n d e d

t h e o r y w h ic h i s r i c h e r b y ( a t l e a s t ) on e ( t r u e ) th e o r e m (x )B x , a n d i s

on t h e same p a t h a s Am< B e i n g on t h e same p a t h g i v e s a c u m u l a t i v e

re su lt - i f m ^ m th e n A ^ C A ^ ,, -
1 so b y r e i t e r a t i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e we

get ever ric h e r th e o rie s . The g e n e r a l i d e a o f t h e p r o o f i s a s f o l l o w s :

le t R b e t h e s e t o f n a t u r a l num bers d e f i n e d b y Bx. S i n c e we know t h a t


fl

(x)B x i s t r u e , R = N. Now c o n s i d e r a s e t o f e q u a t i o n s whose Godel

num ber e p r o v a b l y s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n :

m+Qng i f f o r a l l i j n , ig R

(e) (n) =
3x5e ,
2 i f f o r some i $ n , x f K

(T hat a s o l u t i o n to t h is e q u a tio n e x i s t s i s g u a ra n tee d by th e funda­

m e n t a l th e o r e m o f r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n t h e o r y . (KLEENE, Thm 2 7 , p . 352 and

FEFERMAN, 196 2 , 3 . 8 ) . The p o i n t t o n o t i c e i s t h a t i n t h e s e c o n d c l a u s e e

i s u s e d i n i t s own d e f i n i t i o n . ) Now e v e n th o u g h we know t h a t t h e se co n d

c l a u s e o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s s u p e r f l u o u s , we c a n c a r r y t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g

b i t o f c o u n te r-fa c tu a l reaso n in g : s u p p o s e R £ N and l e t i b e t h e l e a s t


3x5 6
n a t u r a l number n o t i n R. So (e) ( i ) = 2 . Now l e t u s ex a m in e A ^ ^ e .
II
S i n c e e i s t h e G odel num ber o f a s e t o f e q u a t i o n s d e f i n i n g a r e c u r s i v e
g
f u n c t i o n whose r a n g e i s a s e t o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s , 3x5 ought to be

t h e i n d e x o f a t h e o r y w hose s e t o f axiom s i s t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t s

whose i n d i c e s a r e t h e r a n g e o f t h a t f u n c t i o n . B u t on e o f t h e i n d i c e s
3x5 6
in t h i s range i s 2 . Thus A ^ ^ e c o n t a i n s A 3 x ^ e " i-t s own s u c c e s s o r I

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
'67-

S in c e t h e GBdel f o r m u la f o r Agx ge i s p r o v a b l e i n i t s s u c c e s s o r,4^ i t

w i l l be p r o v a b l e i n Agx ge i t s e l f . Now t h i s b i t o f h y p o t h e t i c a l

r e a s o n i n g we j u s t w e n t t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l l y c a n b e f o r m a l i z e d , i . e . t h e

t h e s i s t h a t i f R / N t h e n t h e GBdel f o rm u la o f Agx ge c a n b e p ro v ed i n

A3x5e c a n be f o r m a l i z e d a s ( E x ) - B x D (Ex) P3x5e ^ 5 S x 5 e ) <w h e re 53x5®#


3

i s t h e GBdel f o r m u la o f Agx g e ) , a n d p ro v e d i n A q . N o te t h a t t h e p r o v a ­

b i l i t y o f t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l i s i n no way a f f e c t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t we

know t h e h y p o t h e s i s t o be f a l s e . B ut we c a n a l s o p r o v e i n

A0 : (E x )P g x g e ( x ; g g xg®)o -Ggx ^ (w h e re Ggx5e = £ x ®#* i»®* i s t h ® G&d e l


3 5

f o rm u la i t s e l f ) . 4 4 By t r a n s i t i v i t y we have (E x)-B xO “ G g ^ e , and by

c o n t r a p o s i t i v e Ggx g e D (x)B x p r o v a b l e i n A q . S i n c e Ggx ge i s p r o v a b l e

i n Ag x ge jja a n y c a s e ( i . e . i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e t h e r o r n o t R = N ), we
3

g e t (x)B x p r o v a b l e i n A g x 5 e . ( i t i s a r o u g h l y s i m i l a r a rg u m e n t w h ic h
c*
shows t h a t d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e same s e q u e n c e o f (GBdel

num bers o f ) f o r m u la s l e a d t o f o r m u la s My and Mwx w h ic h g iv e

e x te n sio n a lly d if f e r e n t lim it th e o r ie s .)

Now c o m p l e t e n e s s i s r e a c h e d b y s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f

4 .1 . F i r s t F e fe rm a n p r o v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r o g r e s s i o n s b a s e d upon

( 4 ) - ( 5 ) t h a t i f a l l t h e i n s t a n c e s o f a n y f o r m u l a Bx c a n b e p ro v ed i n

some t h e o r y Am t h e n we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d seme m 'eO s u c h t h a t m<Q m 1

and (x)B x i s p r o v a b l e i n A ^ . Then he shows t h a t t h e r e i s a n e f f e c t i v e

way o f p u t t i n g a n y t h e o r y on one p a t h o n t o a n y o t h e r p a t h - i . e . f o r

a n y m, m t O , we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d a n m , , £_0 s u c h t h a t mr ' and

A ^ C A jjjti. U s in g t h i s a b i l i t y t o c o l l a p s e p a t h s , he t h e n shows t h a t

g i v e n any f o r m u l a Bx and a r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n (whose GBdel num ber i s )

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-68-

e such t h a t f o r a l l n, ( e ) ( n ) £ 0 and Bn i s p r o v a b l e i n A (e ) ( n ) - ev e n

i f t h e r a n g e o f e c o n t a i n s n o t a t i o n s on d i f f e r e n t p a t h s - we c a n

e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d a t h e o r y on a n y p a t h we l i k e i n w h ic h (x)R x i s

p ro v ab le. Now c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e R: f o r e v e r y f o r m u la Bx

such t h a t t h e r e i s a p r i m i t v e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n e such t h a t ( e ) ( n ) is

t h e number o f a p r o o f o f Bn i n A q , p r o v a b l e ( x ) B x . S h o e n fie ld has

shown t h a t i f R i s added t o A q t h e r e s u l t i s c o m p l e t e . I n o t h e r w ords

t h e r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e o m e g a - r u l e t h a t p r o o f s o f t h e i n s t a n c e s o f Bx

m u st b e p r o v i d e d by a p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n d o e s n o t a f f e c t

c o m p le te n e ss . 4 5 What we h a v e s e e n s o f a r i s t h a t a s i n g l e u s e o f R

can b e m i r r o r e d i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n b a s e d upon ( 4 ) - ( 6 ) - i . e . w f f s

p r o v a b l e i n A q p l u s one u s e o f R c a n a l s o b e p r o v e d i n some t h e o r y o f

th e p ro g re s s io n . A l l we n e e d t o s e e now i s t h a t ainy f i n i t e num ber o f

a p p l i c a t i o n s can a l s o b e s o m i r r o r e d , and we w i l l have t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s

of th e p ro g re s s io n . The a rg u m e n t i s stra ig h tfo rw a rd . F o r e x a m p le ,

su p p o s e ( x ) ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( x ; y ; z ; w ) i s t r u e , B ( x ; y ; z ; w ) h a v in g no q u a n t i ­

fie rs. Then f o r e v e r y c h o i c e o f m an d n t h e r e a r e i and j s u c h t h a t

B (m ;r;n j3 ) i s p ro v ab le i n Aq . S o f o r e v e r y m and n t h e r e i s a n i such

t h a t (E w )B (m ;I;n ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n Aq, i . e . e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f

(Ew)B(m‘ i ; z ; w ) ( f o r f i x e d m a nd i ) i s pro v ab le in A q . S i n c e t h e in d e x

o f A q i s 1 , we ha v e t h e r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n e : (e )(n ) = 1 p ro v id in g

t h e i n d e x o f a t h e o r y i n w h ic h (E w )B (m ;x;n;w ) i s p r o v a b l e f o r e a c h n .

Hence we c a n f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h ( z ) ( E w ) B ( m ; ! ;z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e . Of

c o u r s e , t h e n ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( m ;y ; z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n t h a t t h e o r y . Now we

can r e p e a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e f o r e a c h m. Thus we g e t a c l a s s o f i n d e c e s

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- 69 -

w h i c h we may t a k e a s t h e r a n g e o f a f u n c t i o n f s u c h t h a t f o r e a c h m,

( E y ) ( z ) (Ew)B(m;y; z ;w ) i s p r o v a b l e i n . I f f i s r e c u r s i v e , we c a n

r e - a p p l y F e f e r m a n 's r e s u l t t o f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h

( x ) ( E y ) ( z ) ( E w ) B ( x ; y ; z ;w) i s p r o v a b l e . But s in c e t h e r e i s a r e c u r s iv e

f u n c t i o n i n S h o e n f i e l d 's A + R w h ich p r o v id e s a p ro o f of each i n s t a n c e ,

we may t a k e f a s r e c u r s i v e .

T h a t we c a n r e p r o d u c e t h e e f f e c t o f u s i n g R a n y ( f i n i t e )

num ber o f t i m e s i n a p r o g r e s s i o n b a s e d upon ( 4 ) —( ) g i v e s c o m p l e t e n e s s


6

i n o n l y a v e r y weak s e n s e . A f t e r a l l , th e p r o g re s s io n has th e

s tr u c tu r e o f an i n f i n i t e l y ram ify in g t r e e j t h a t each t r u e w ff i s

p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y on t h i s t r e e i s h a r d l y e x c i t i n g s i n c e we

c a n n o t g a t h e r u p a l l t h e t h e o r i e s on t h e t r e e i n t o a r e a s o n a b l e w h o l e .

I n d e e d , a t t h i s p o i n t W a n g 's h i e r a r c h y S a p p e a r s m a r k e d ly s u p e r i o r t o

F e f e r m a n 's p r o g r e s s i o n : f o r t h e f o r m e r , i f we a r e g i v e n any p a r t i c u l a r

c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l t h e n we can c h a r a c t e r i z e r e c u r s i v e l y t h e w h o le

h iera rc h y to t h a t o r d in a l. H e r e , b y c o n t r a s t , t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s we

n e e d f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s a r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e t r e e and do n o t f u n c t i o n

to g e th e r a t a l l . H ow ever, Feferma.n im p r o v e s h i s r e s u l t i n tw o s i g n i f i ­

c a n t w ays, ( l ) T h e r e i s a bound on how f a r o u t i n t h e t r e e you n e e d

t o go t o f i n d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h a n y g i v e n t r u e w f f i s p r o v a b l e , an d

t h a t bound i s v e r y low a s o r d i n a l s go: ( i f not lo w er). ( ) more


2

i m p o r t a n t , a l l t h e t h e o r i e s c a n b e g a t h e r e d up o n t o a s i n g l e p a t h ,

t h u s g i v i n g t h e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t we n e e d . T h i s m eans t h a t t h e r e i s a

p a th in 0 s u c h t h a t e a c h t r u e w f f i s p r o v a b l e i n some t h e o r y on t h i s

p a t h , a nd t h i s p a t h i s b o u n d e d - i . e . i t d oes n o t go t h e w h o le l e n g t h

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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of th e t r e e . Of c o u r s e , t h i s p a t h i s m a x im a l. T h i s means t h a t you

c a n n o t c o l l e c t a l l t h e t h e o r i e s on t h i s p a t h i n one t h e o r y f a r t h e r o u t

on t h e p a t h s i n c e t h e p a t h d o e s n o t go a n y f a r t h e r o u t . If, per

i m p o s s i b l e , i t d i d , G B d e l's t h e o r e m w o u ld b e v i o l a t e d : ev ery th e o ry

has a r . e . s e t o f th e o re m s . S i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n on a p a r t i c u l a r

p a t h i s c u m u l a t i v e , t o go b e y o n d w ould mean g e t t i n g a s i n c l e c o m p l e te

th eo ry . Hence t h e p a t h m u st b e m a x im a l.

Now i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s i s t h e b e s t we c o u ld a s k f o r , c o n ­

s i d e r i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s o f G B d e l's t h e o r e m . A c o m p l e te r . e .

t h e o r y i s i m p o s s i b l e , and h e r e we seem t o have t h e n e x t b e s t t h i n g : a

re c u rs iv e p ro g re s s io n of th e o r i e s w ith th e g u aran tee t h a t ev ery

n u m b e r-th e o re tic a l q u e stio n i s s e t t l e d somewhere i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n .

We seem t o have s u r p a s s e d W a n g 's S: sin c e th e p ro g re ssio n f u n c tio n

F ' 1 i s r e c u r s i v e , i t seems t h a t we c a n a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t t h e s e q u e n c e

o f t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p le te p a t h , w h e r e a s W ang's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s

was n o t c o n s t r u c t i v e . I n f a c t , we seem e v e n t o h a v e " s u r p a s s e d "

G B d e l's th e o r e m : sin c e F ' ' i s re c u rs iv e i t appears t h a t th e c o ll e c t i o n

o f t h e th e o r e m s o f t h e t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p le te b r a n c h w i l l b e r . e ,

s i n c e t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e o r i e s seems t o be r . e . . an d t h e s e t o f

th e o r e m s o f e a c h t h e o r y i s r . e . ^ 1® S in ce t h i s l a s t i s im p o s s ib le , l e t

u s exam ine t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p r o g r e s s i o n t o s e e w h e re

i t s r e c u r s i v i t y b r e a k s down. C o m p le te n e s s was shown by p r o v i d i n g a

r e c u r s i v e p r o c e d u r e w h e re b y f o r a ny g i v e n t r u e w f f a t h e o r y c o u l d b e

f o u n d i n w h ic h t h a t w f f i s a t h e o r e m , and t h e n p u s h i n g t h a t t h e o r y

o nto a giv en p a th i n 0 . But i n o r d e r t o u t i l i z e t h i s re c u rsiv e

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-71-

p r o c e d u r e t o a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t t h i s t h e o r y , we m u st know t h a t t h e w f f

we s t a r t w i t h i s t r u e . O t h e r w i s e , a l t h o u g h we w i l l g e t a t h e o r y i n

w h ic h t h e w f f we s t a r t w i t h i s p r o v a b l e , we w i l l n o t w an t t o make u s e

of th a t th eo ry . R e c a ll th e sk e tc h o f th e p ro o f o f 4 .1 . S uppose (x)B x

is false . Then t h e r e a s o n i n g t h e r e w i l l no l o n g e r b e c o u n t e r - f a c t u a l :

(x)Bx w i l l b e a t h e o r e m o f A 3x5 2 s in c e th is th eo ry w i l l be incon­

siste n t. I f we n e e d t o know f i r s t t h e t r u t h o f a w f f b e f o r e we a p p l y

th e c o n s tru c tio n to i t , th e n t h i s c o n s tr u c tio n does n o t p ro v id e a v e ry

e f f i c i e n t p r o c e d u r e f o r p r o v i n g new th e o r e m s ! Now, n o t e t h a t i n t h e

a p p lic a tio n o f 4 .1 , i f (x)B x i s f a l s e , t h e n a l t h o u g h e w i l l b e a


0
r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n , 3x5 w i l l n o t b e an o r d in a l n o t a t i o n , s in c e th e

s e q u e n c e o f o r d i n a l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e ( ) , e ( l ) , . . . m u st c o n t a i n t h e
0

0
s u c c e s s o r o f t h e o r d i n a l o f w h ic h 3x5 is a n o ta tio n . So t h e q u e s t i o n

o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e t h e o r y d e t e r m i n e d b y (x)B x v i a 4 . 1 c a n b e s e t t l e d
0
by e s t a b l i s h i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t 3x5 i s an o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n . Thus we

s e e t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n s t r u c t i b i l i t y , F e f e r m a n 's p r o g r e s s i o n o f

t h e o r i e s i s v e r y a n a l o g o u s t o W ang's h i e r a r c h y o f s y s te m s : in b o th

c a s e s , i f we a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a n i n d e x we c a n e f f e c t i v e l y f i n d t h e

th e o ry d e te rm in e d by t h a t in d e x . But s in c e t h e s e t o f i n d ic e s i s n o t

e f f e c t i v e , we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t t h e w h o le s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s .

How a d e q u a t e i s t h e c o m p l e te b r a n c h o f t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o -
II
g r e s s i o n a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n f o r m a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f Godel

in c o m p le te n ess? We know t h a t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e f o r t h e u n i o n o f t h e

t h e o r i e s on t h e c o m p l e t e b r a n c h - c a l l i t "T" - c a n n o t b e r e c u r s i v e ,

s in c e T i s c o m p le te . L e t u s s e e w h e re i t s r e c u r s i v i t y f a i l s . When

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-72-

p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s e q u e n c e o f f o r m u l a s o f T, w h a t p r e v e n t s u s from

d e te rm in in g e f f e c t i v e l y w h e th e r or n o t i t i s a p r o o f o f T? S in ce T 's

s t o c k o f w f f s i s t h e same a s t h a t o f Aq , w ffh o o d i s n o t t h e p r o b le m .

S i n c e t h e i n d i c e s o f t h e s u b t h e o r i e s o f T do n o t a p p e a r a s sym bols o f

T, t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e s t a t u s o f t h e s e t o f o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s i s n o t

d ire c tly at f a u lt. The p ro b le m i s r a t h e r w i t h t h e s e t o f a x io m s . For

W t o b e a n axiom o f T i s f o r W t o b e a n axiom o f some t h e o r y on t h e

c o m p le te b r a n c h , w h ic h i s t o s a y t h a t t h e r e i s some o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n

on t h a t b r a n c h whose v a l u e u n d e r F * ' i s t h e Gftdel num ber o f a f o rm u la

ft^x w h ic h d e f i n e s t h e s e t o f axiom s o f t h e t h e o r y Am, and i f n i s t h e

Gftdel number o f W, | - Mmn . The e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a n o t a t i o n i s

i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e e f f e c t i v e l y due t o t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f

0. S i n c e d e t e r m i n i n g axiom hood i s a n i n d i s p e n s i b l e p a r t o f d e t e r ­

m in i n g p r o o f n e s s , t h e l a t t e r s u f f e r s t h e same n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y a s

th e fo rm er.

Thus t h e r e a p p e a r t o b e tw o ways i n w h ic h t h e p r o g r e s s i o n c a n

b e u s e d t o f i n d new t h e o r e m s . We may p i c k u n s o lv e d p ro b le m s a b o u t

w h ic h we have s t r o n g i n t u i t i o n s and p lu g t h e w f f we f e e l t o b e t r u e

i n t o t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e f o r f i n d i n g t h e o r i e s i n w h ic h t h e w f f

w i l l b e a t h e o r e m , a nd t h e n p r a y we have n o t made a m i s t a k e . O r, we

may make u s e o f t h e f u n c t i o n f g m e n t io n e d above i n c h a p t e r t w o . S ince

f o r some o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s n we w i l l have f o ( n ) = Oj a nd f g i s r e c u r ­

s i v e , we may f o r m a l i z e t h e s e n t e n c e f o ( * 0 = 0 f o r e a c h n , and r e f u s e

t o use th e th e o r y {n) ( th e f o r m a liz a tio n of) fo (n ) * 0 is

p r o v e d i n some t h e o r y a l r e a d y i n u s e . T his l a t t e r p ro ced u re -

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
73-

d e s c r i b e d by F e f e m a n a s a n a u tonom ous p r o g r e s s i o n - p r o v i d e s t h e

s e c u r i t y w h ic h t h e f i r s t l a c k s , a n d i s o b v i o u s l y t h e more o r d e r l y

m e th o d . B u t , a s we n o t e d a b o v e , t h e s e t o f th e o r e m s o f t h e e n t i r e

autonom ous p r o g r e s s i o n s t a r t i n g fro m Aq is r .e . T h is means t h a t i t i s

a g a i n Gftdel i n c o m p l e t e . I f n o t h i n g i s v e n t u r e d , s o m e th in g m u st b e

lo st. J u s t a s w i t h W ang's S , t h e p r i c e o f p r o v i d i n g e v e r y t r u e w f f

w i t h a p r o o f i s t h e e x tr e m e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e c l a s s o f p r o o f s .

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-74-

CONCLUSION

Our c o n c e r n i n t h i s s t u d y was t o e x p l o r e some a s p e c t s o f t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r m a l s y s te m s t o i n f o r m a l d i s c i p l i n e s - l o g i c and

number t h e o r y , i n p a r t i c u l a r . The f o c u s was p r a g m a t i c : g iv en th e

k i n d s o f p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s e x i s t , we exam ined w h a t

f o r m a l i z a t i o n can c o n t r i b u t e t o th em , a n d w h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s

are fo r i t s success. F i r s t o r d e r l o g i c was e x p l a i n e d a s t h e u s e o f

t h e f i r s t o r d e r c a l c u l u s t o map t h e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f s e n t e n c e s o f

E n g lish . I t s s u c c e s s d e p e n d s up o n t h e b r e a d t h o f i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y ,

i t s a c c u ra c y , and th e s e m i - e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e r e l a t i o n o f form al

d e r i v a b i l i t y w h ic h i s t o m i r r o r l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n . F i r s t o rder

num ber t h e o r y was e x p l a i n e d a s t h e u s e o f a f o r m a l t h e o r y t o t e s t t h e

a d e q u a c y o f t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n and t o im p ro v e i t s e f f i c i e n c y

a s a p r o o f r e c o g n i t i o n and d i s c o v e r y p r o c e d u r e . The m a in p ro b le m was

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f G B d e l’ s p r o o f o f f o r m a l

in co m p le te n ess. I n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r we saw t h a t G B d e l’s th e o r e m

p l a c e s c e r t a i n n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e s u c c e s s o f i n f o r m a l

a x i o m a t i z a t i o n o f num ber t h e o r y : th e p ro o f t h e o r y a ff o r d e d by such an

a x io m a tiz a tio n w i l l have t o be s a c r i f i c e d i f c o m p l e t e n e s s , and w i t h i t

a d e q u a t e r e d u c t i o n , a r e t o be a c h i e v e d . Of c o u r s e , i n t h i s form t h e

l i m i t a t i o n w i l l a p p ly t o any k in d o f a x io m a tiz a tio n , in clu d in g th o se

b a s e d upon s e q u e n c e s o f s t r o n g e r and s t r o n g e r t h e o r i e s . Thus o u r co n ­

c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s y s te m s o f w h i c h Wang a n d F e f e m a n p r o v e d c o m p l e te n e s s

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75-

c o u l d n o t have r e c u r s i v e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e s was e n t i r e l y e x p e c t e d . How­

ev er, o ur p u r p o s e i n e x a m in in g t h e s e tw o s t r u c t u r e s was t o e v a l u a t e

them a s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i d e a l - t o s e e how good

second b e s t m ig h t b e . B o th a r e b a s e d u p o n a v e r y n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n t o

in co m p le te n ess: i f we d e s i r e t o r e t a i n p ro o f th e o ry in o rd er t o

i n c r e a s e t h e s t o c k o f known t r u t h s , t h e n we m u s t s a c r i f i c e c o m p l e t e n e s s .

So l e t u s g r a d u a l l y s t r e n g t h e n o u r t h e o r i e s so t h a t e v e n t u a l l y e v e r y

t r u t h can b e p r o v e d a t some s t a g e , t h o u g h a t no s t a g e w i l l a l l t r u t h s

be p r o v a b l e . Such a p r o c e d u r e , i t w o u ld seem , n e e d n o t ru n a f o u l o f

G B d e l's r e s u l t , s i n c e a t no p o i n t c o u l d one g a t h e r up a l l o f t h e

p a r t i a l t h e o r i e s i n t o one c o m p le te t h e o r y w i t h a r e c u r s i v e p r o o f

p red ic ate . However, i f t h e mode ’o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e i s

t h o r o u g h l y r e c u r s i v e , i . e . i f t h e r e i s a r e c u r s i v e p r o c e d u r e v i a w h ic h

a n y t h e o r y o f t h e s e q u e n c e c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e f i r s t , t h e n

a g a i n G B d e l's t h e o r e m w i l l a p p l y . F o r, X i s a th eo rem of t h e sequence

o f t h e o r i e s Tj , . . . , T j , ... i f f f o r some a nd some s e q u e n c e S o f w f f s ,

S is a proof of X in T j. But t h e r e l a t i o n "S i s a p r o o f o f X i n T j ”

i s r e c u r s iv e , and th e e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f a r e c u r s iv e

re la tio n is r . e . The c o s t o f endow ing e a c h s y s te m i n t h e s e q u en c e

w i t h a n a d e q u a t e p r o o f t h e o r y i s a new dilemma o f i n f o r m a l i n a d e q u a c y

f o r t h e se q u e n c e a s ji w h o l e ; e i t h e r in c o m p le te n e ss or non-

c o n s t r u c t i v i t y , w h ic h p a r a l l e l s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o r

n o n -re c u rsiv e proof f o r f i r s t o rd er t h e o r i e s .

Of c o u r s e , t h e a rg u m e n t above o n l y shows t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e sequence c a n n o t be r e c u r s i v e . (A p a r a l l e l a rg u m e n t shows t h a t

i t cannot even be r . e . ) I n t h e tw o e x a m p le s we p r e s e n t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n

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76-

was a g r e a t d e a l w o rs e t h a n j u s t n o n - r e c u r s i v e : c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e

s e q u e n c e d e p e n d ed u p o n p r o v i n g a num ber t o b e a n o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n , and

th e c la s s o f o r d in a l n o ta tio n s i s n o t even a r i t h m e ti c . (ROGERS, C o r .

X X (b), p . 397) I s t h i s a n a c c i d e n t a l f e a t u r e o f t h e s e two s y s t e m s , o r

i s i t a n e c e s s a r y l i m i t a t i o n on c o m p l e te s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s i n

g e n e ra l? We c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t t h e l a t t e r m u st b e t h e c a s e . F or,

T a r s k i ' s th e o r e m (MENDELSON, p . 151) shows t h a t a r i t h m e t i c t r u t h i s

not a rith m e tic a lly d e fin a b le : t h e r e i s no w f f Tx s u c h t h a t Tn i s t r u e

i n t h e s t a n d a r d m odel i f f n# i s t r u e i n t h e s t a n d a r d m o d e l . Now

s u p p o s e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c o m p le te s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s was a r i t h ­

m e t i c , i . e . f o r some w f f S x , Sn i s t r u e i n t h e s t a n d a r d m odel i f f n i s

an i n d e x o f a t h e o r y i n t h e s e q u e n c e . S in c e t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e

Pn ( x ; y ) o f e a c h t h e o r y Tn i n t h e s e q u e n c e i s r e c u r s i v e , t h e r e l a t i o n

P ( n ; x ; y ) - x i s a p r o o f o f y i n Tn - i s r e c u r s i v e i n t h e s e t o f

i n d e c e s , and h e n c e a r i t h m e t i c . So we w i l l have a r i t h m e t i c t r u t h

a r i t h m e t i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e b y t h e w f f (E z)(E x )(S z n P (z ;x ;y )). The

f a i l u r e o f th e sequence t o be even a r i t h m e t i c a l l y d e fin a b le i s a

n e c e s s a ry consequence o f i t s c o m p l e t e n e s s an d t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f t h e

p ro o f p re d ic a te s of th e th e o r ie s of th e sequence. How w i l l t h i s

f a i l u r e a f f e c t in fo rm al p ro o f th e o ry ? ( l ) One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f

i n f o r m a l p r o o f t h e o r y was t o s p o t l o g i c a l ga p s i n p r o p o s e d p r o o f s and

t o i d e n t i f y t h e l o g i c a l l y sound o n e s . T h is was t o b e a c c o m p li s h e d by

p r o v i d i n g a n o r m a l fo rm f o r p r o o f s : axiom s drawn from a d e s i g n a t e d

l i s t p lu s l o g ic . F o r m a l i z a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d t h i s e f f o r t by m aking t h e

q u e s t i o n o f r e c o g n i z i n g ax io m s a n d v a l i d l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n s a f o r m a l

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77

one. B u t i n t h e c a s e o f a c o m p l e te s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s , t h e f o r m a l

q u e stio n i s so d i f f i c u l t t o answ er t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , we may be

p r e s e n t e d w i t h p u t a t i v e p r o o f s some o f w h ic h a r e v a l i d and some o f

w hich a r e n o t , and n e v e r b e a b l e t o t e l l w h ic h a r e w h i c h . (2) A p r o o f

d i s c o v e r y p r o c e d u r e may a l s o b e t h e r e s u l t o f a f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n :

i f v a l i d p ro o fs a re r e c o g n iz a b le , th e n i f a p r o o f o f a giv en se n te n c e

e x i s t s we can f i n d i t . B ut i f p r o o f s a r e n o t r e c o g n i z a b l e , t h e n t h i s

r e s u l t i s n o t fo rth co m in g . How t h e n c o u l d W ang's S and F e f e r m a n 's p r o ­

g r e s s i o n s b e u s e d a s t o o l s i n i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y ? ( l ) W ith

r e s p e c t t o p r o o f r e c o g n i t i o n , Wang a nd F e fe rm a n f a c e d i f f e r e n t , b u t

e q u a l, d i f f i c u l t i e s . _If t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f s o f _S c a n b e f o u n d ,

t h e n t h e c h e c k f o r v a l i d i t y i s done i n a s u b s y s t e m o f S, and h ence i s

e ffe c tiv e . B ut f i n d i n g s u c h w f f s i n g e n e r a l i n v o l v e s f i n d i n g i n d e c e s

fo r o rd in a ls. F o r F e f e r m a n t h e s t o c k o f w f f s i s c o n s t a n t , so f i n d i n g

w f f s w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e g i v e n s e n t e n c e s i s no s p e c i a l p ro b le m .

But c h e c k i n g a_ g i v e n w f f W f o r axiom hood means f i n d i n g a n o r d i n a l

n o t a t i o n n su c h t h a t F , , ( n ) ;#:(m) (w here m i s W 's GBdel n u m b e r),

a nd t h i s m ust b e done i n o r d e r t o c h e c k t h e v a l i d i t y o f p ro p o s e d

p ro o fs. N e i t h e r s y s te m can b e u s e d i n g e n e r a l t o c h e c k t h e s o u n d n e ss

of n u m b e r - th e o r e tic a l a rg u m e n ts. ( 2 ) A t h e o r e m i s a w f f f o r w h ic h

t h e r e i s a p r o o f , and e v e r y t r u e w f f i s a t h e o r e m o f b o t h s y s te m s .

B ut ( a ) f o r F e f e r m a n , s i n c e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a f o r m a l l y c o r r e c t

d e r i v a t i o n d e p ends i n g e n e r a l upon i d e n t i f y i n g n a t u r a l num bers a s

o r d i n a l n o t a t i o n s , t o u s e t h e c o m p le te b r a n c h t o f i n d t h e o r e m s , we m u st

r e l y upon o u r r e s o u r c e s f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h e l a t t e r , a nd we have no

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-78-

g e n e r a l m ethod f o r d o i n g t h i s . L i k e w i s e (b) f o r Wang, s i n c e f o r e a c h

Sa , a ^ 2 , t h e r e a r e t r u e w f f s o f Sg n o t p ro v ab le i n Sa , o u r a b i l i t y t o

f i n d p r o o f s f o r t h e t r u e w f f s o f Sg d e p e n d s upon fin d in g o rd in a l

n o ta tio n s. The s i t u a t i o n i s a n a l o g o u s t o H^j t h e u f - r u l e makes e v e r y

t r u e w f f a t h e o r e m , b u t i n o r d e r t o em ploy i t , we n e e d a n a u x i l i a r y

a rg u m e n t t h a t i t s p r e m i s s e s h o l d . The u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e w - r u l e

d e p e n d s up o n our a b i l i t y t o p r o d u c e s u c h a r g u m e n ts ; once we s e e t h a t

t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l m e th o d f o r d o i n g t h i s t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f Hw

becom es u n i n t e r e s t i n g f o r i n f o r m a l p r o o f t h e o r y . L i k e w i s e , when we

s e e t h a t t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l m ethod for e s ta b lis h in g th e o rd in a l

n o ta tio n h o o d o f n a t u r a l num bers, we s e e t h a t th e c o m p le te n e ss of

W ang's a n d F e f e r m a n 's s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s b r i n g s n o b e n e f i t s t o

in fo rm a l p ro o f t h e o r y , ( i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t im p ly t h a t

t h e s e s y s te m s a r e c o m p l e t e l y d e v o id o f i n t e r e s t . The a t t e m p t t o

d i s c o v e r new t h e o r e m s b y c o n s t r u c t i n g e v e r s t r o n g e r s u b s y s te m s o f e a c h

may b e v e r y f r u i t f u l , a nd o t h e r u s e s may a p p e a r ( s e e b e l o w ) . We a r e

only d is c u s s in g th e q u e s ti o n o f t h e i r c o m p le te n e s s.)

T u r n in g t o i n f o r m a l r e d u c t i o n , i t m ig h t b e t h o u g h t t h a t

c o m p le te s e q u e n c e s o f - t h e o r i e s a r e u s e f u l a t l e a s t f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g

th e n o tio n of a rith m e tic t r u t h . We a r g u e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r t h a t

t h e r e i s a n i n f o r m a l l y c o m p le te a x i o m a t i z a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y number

t h e o r y w h ic h i s a d e q u a t e a s a n i n f o r m a l e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t

o f num ber t h e o r y , e v e n t h o u g h i t d o e s n o t s u r p a s s f i r s t o r d e r num ber

t h e o r y in a c t u a l l y p ro v in g th e o re m s . Would an a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n

f o r c o m p le te s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s b e i n o r d e r ? T h e r e a r e two

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-79-

p o ssib ilitie s: (a ) We c o u l d form t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t s o f axiom s o f

t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e c o m p le te s e q u e n c e . T h i s s e t o f a xiom s w i l l b e

i n f o r m a l l y c o m p l e te , a nd h e n c e i t s u s e f o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s

w ould b e . j u s t i f i e d . B ut i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h i s s e t o f axiom s w ould

be u s e f u l f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s s i n c e i t , l ik e th e s e t of tru e w ffs, i s

not a rith m e tic a lly d e fin a b le . I t s h o u l d b e no l e s s d i f f i c u l t t o

a n a ly z e , j u s t i f y , o r reduce t h i s s e t o f ax io m s t h a n t h e w h o le s e t o f

tru e w ffs. (b ) We m i g h t t r y t o t a k e s e r i o u s l y Wang’ s r e m a rk c on­

c e r n i n g t h e i n t u i t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f o u r a x io m s . He w r i t e s :

" ...[it i s ] q u i t e c l e a r t h a t G B d e l's s e c o n d th e o r e m d o e s n o t im p ly

t h a t a c o n s i s t e n c y p r o o f m u s t b e a n a rg u m e n t w h ic h i s i n t u i t i v e l y l e s s

r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e m e th o d s u s e d i n t h e s y s te m t h u s p r o v e d c o n s i s t e n t .

For each a , S a + 2 i s i n t u i t i v e l y q u i t e a s r e l i a b l e a s Sa ." (WANG,

p . 607) FEFEEMAN ( 1 9 6 flL) t o o r e m a rk s t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f l o c a l

e x t e n t i o n u s e d i n fo rm in g h i s p r o g r e s s i o n s " . . . p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e

a xiom s o f Ajj+i s h a l l e x p r e s s a c e r t a i n t r u s t i n t h e s y s te m o f axiom s

Ajj." ( p . 261) F o r b o t h s y s te m s t h e a rg u m e n t c a n b e made t h a t i f we

a r e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t and t r u s t t h e a xiom s o f t h e l o w e s t t h e o r i e s ,

(S 2 f o r Wang. Aq f o r F e f e r m a n ) , t h e n we s h o u l d b e e q u a l l y p r e p a r e d t o

do s o f o r t h o s e o f h i g h e r l e v e l t h e o r i e s . Of c o u r s e , t h e s e t h e o r i e s

o f h ig h e r le v e ls a re s t r i c t l y s tr o n g e r th a n th o s e o f lo w er l e v e l s -

t h e r e a re w ffs of th e l a t t e r w hich a re o n ly p ro v a b le i n th e fo rm e r.

T h u s , s i n c e t h e axiom s o f t h e h i g h e r l e v e l t h e o r i e s do n o t f o l l o w

l o g i c a l l y from t h o s e o f t h e l o w e r l e v e l s , t h e e x a c t s e n s e i n w h i c h no

new r i s k i s i n c u r r e d by a c c e p t i n g t h e new a x io m s i s n o t c l e a r . As a n

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
-8 0 -

a n a l o g y , c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g a rg u m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n ­

j u n c t i o n R o f t h e axicsns o f R o b in s o n ’ s a r i t h m e t i c : by T a r s k i 's

e q u i v a l e n c e , i f R, t h e n "R" i s t r u e , a n d , o f c o u r s e , i f ” RH i s t r u e ,

t h e n "R” i s c o n s i s t e n t . Hence t h e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d c o n c l u s i o n

draw n fro m G B d e l's s e c o n d th e o r e m i s f a l s e : one n e e d n o t u s e m eth o d s

s t r o n g e r t h a n t h o s e f o r m a l i z e d i n a t h e o r y t o show t h a t t h e o r y c o n ­

siste n t. Our r e a c t i o n t o t h i s a rg u m e n t s h o u l d b e t h a t t h e r e i s more

i n t h e T a r s k i e q u i v a l e n c e t h a n m e e t s t h e e y e , and t h e same f e e l i n g

e x t e n d s t o t h e m eth o d s o f e x t e n t i o n a d o p t e d b y Wang a n d F e f e r m a n . And

e v e n i f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s w e re a b s e n t , t h e i n f o r m a l a x i o m a t i z a t i o n

u s i n g t h e axiom A d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r m akes a n im m en se ly

s u p e r i o r r e d u c t i o n o f num ber t h e o r y t h a n e i t h e r s e q u e n c e o f t h e o r i e s

c o u ld . I t h a s o n l y s e v e n a x io m s , a l l o f w h i c h a r e c l e a r and co m p e l­

l i n g , w h ic h i s a s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e com plex t r a n s f i n i t e s e q u e n c e s

of th e o rie s .

I t m ust b e m e n t io n e d t h a t v a r i o u s s u b s y s t e m s o f t h e s e q u e n c e s

o f Wang and F e fe rm a n may have g r e a t i n t e r e s t a nd i m p o r t a n c e . is

w e ll s u ite d f o r fo rm a liz in g a la rg e p a rt o f a n a l y s i s . (S e e FRAENKEL-

BAR-HILLEL, p p . 1 5 3 -8 ) FEFERMAN (1 9 6 4 ) h a s u s e d auto n o m o u s p r o ­

g r e s s i o n s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e f o r m a l l y a r e a l m o f num ber t h e o r y w h i c h c a n

be c a lle d p r e d ic a tiv e . Our f o c u s h a s o n l y b e e n on t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f

t h e f u l l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r i e s an d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s in fo rm al

sig n ific a n c e .

F i n a l l y , we have s e e n a l o n g t h e way how c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o

t h e way i n w h ic h f o r m a l s y s te m s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e i n f o r m a l dom ains i n

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-8 1 -

w h i c h t h e y a r e u s e d i s n e c e s s a r y t o a v o i d s p u r i o u s p a r a d o x e s and

su b tle a m b ig u itie s. The s t a n d a r d p o s i t i o n o f r e l a t i v e e n u m e r a b i l i t y

i n r e s p o n s e t o S k o l e m 's " p a r a d o x " i s a n exam ple o f t h e f o r m e r , a nd o u r

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p ro b le m o f d e f i n i n g a r e l a t i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n b e tw e e n

open w f f s a nd s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s beyond t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n o f

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( s e e a p p e n d ix ) i s a n exam ple o f t h e l a t t e r .

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX

I n c h a p t e r 3 we m e n t io n e d t h e problem o f c l a r i f y i n g t h e n o t i o n

o f e x p r e s s io n , as u sed e . g . i n sa y in g t h a t a w ff P (x ;y ) " e x p r e s s e s ”

t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f a f i r s t o r d e r number t h e o r y H. We t a k e t h i s t o

b e a n o r d i n a r y p r o b le m o f e x p l i c a t i o n : i n a r a t h e r lim it e d range

t h e r e i s an i n t u i t i v e u se of t h i s n o tio n ab o u t w h ich t h e r e i s a g re e ­

m e n t , b u t no c l e a r c r i t e r i o n . E v e ry o n e a g r e e s t h a t G B d e l's P ( x ; y ) f o r

H e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H. F u rth e rm o re , everyone a g re e s

t h a t from G B d e l's s e c o n d th e o r e m i t f o l l o w s t h a t " t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f H

c a n n o t b e p r o v e d i n H ." The a rg u m e n t i s t h i s : t h e G odel w f f i s I :

( x ) - P ( x ; s ( p , p ) ) , w h e re p i s t h e GBdel number o f t h e w f f ( x ) - P ( x ; s ( y , y ) ) .

The w f f " e x p r e s s i n g " t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f H i s I I : (x )(-(E y )P (y ;x ) v

-(E y )P (y jB (x )) ) . I n H we c a n p ro v e 1 1 3 I , s o i f we c o u l d p ro v e I I i n

H, we c o u ld p r o v e I i n H, w h i c h G B d e l's f i r s t t h e o r e m t e l l s us we

cannot do. So we c a n n o t p r o v e I I i n H. T h e re fo re , th e co n sisten c y of

H c a n n o t b e p r o v e d i n H. O b v i o u s l y , t h e l a s t " t h e r e f o r e " d e p e n d s upon

e x a c t l y w h a t t h e r e l a t i o n o f " e x p r e s s i o n " h o l d i n g b e tw e e n I I and t h e

s e n t e n c e "H i s c o n s i s t e n t " i s . A t a n y r a t e , we ha v e u n c o v e r e d a n o t h e r

fe a tu re of th e i n t u i t i v e use of "ex p re sse s"? i f P (x ;y ) e x p re sse s th e

p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n I I e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n t e n c e "H i s c o n s i s t e n t . "

I f we g e n e r a l i z e t h i s a l i t t l e , we h a v e : i f P (x ;y ) e x p re s s e s th e

p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n w f f s i n w h ic h i t i s com bined w i t h q u a n t i ­

f i e r s a n d t r u t h f u n c t i o n s e x p r e s s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e s composed

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 3 -

o f t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H a n d t h e v a r i o u s E n g l i s h id io m s o f q u a n t i ­

f i c a t i o n and t r u t h f u n c t i o n a l s e n te n t io n a l c o n n e c tio n . E sin g t h i s

l a s t o b s e r v a t i o n we n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 3 t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t a

s u f f i c i e n t c o n d itio n f o r e x p re ssio n .

I t i s u s u a l i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o c ir c u m v e n t t h i s p ro b le m by-

s p e c if y in g t h a t th e w ff P (x ;y ) t o be used to e x p re s s th e p ro o f p r e d i ­

c a t e o f H s h o u l d s a t i s f y G B d e l's s e c o n d t h e o r e m . That i s , if 113 I

composed o u t o f a g i v e n P ( x ; y ) i s p r o v a b l e i n H, a nd P ( x ; y ) d o e s

r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o o f p r e d i c a t e o f H, t h e n P ( x ; y ) e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o o f

p r e d i c a t e o f H. The r e a s o n s t h a t t h i s i s r e a s o n a b l e a r e tw o ; (l) fo r

t h e p r o o f o f G B d e l's f i r s t t h e o r e m t h a t I i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n H o n l y

t h e f a c t t h a t P ( x ; y ) r e p r e s e n t s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e i s u s e d . (So t h e

p r o o f w i l l go t h r o u g h a s w e l l f o r M o s t o w s k i 's p r e d i c a t e . ) I 's

u n p r o v a b i l i t y i n H d o e s n o t d e p e n d upon t h e f i n e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f

e x p re ssio n . Thus i f we r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o a P ( x ; y ) w h ic h r e p r e ­

s e n t s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e , we c a n n o t make I i n t o a t a u t o l o g y - o r a n y ­

t h i n g e l s e a s dam aging - no m a t t e r how q u e e r P ( x ; y ) i s i n o t h e r w a y s .

(2 ) The a s s u m p t i o n o f c o n s i s t e n c y i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f i r s t t h e o r e m .

I f I I d i d n o t " e x p r e s s ” ( s o m e th i n g a t l e a s t a s s t r o n g a s ) c o n s i s t e n c y ,

we w ould n o t b e a b l e t o p ro v e 1 1 3 I i n H. Hence i f we can p r o v e i t i n

H, we know t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o P ( x ; y ) r e p r e s e n t i n g H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e ,

I I " e x p r e s s e s ” "H i s c o n s i s t e n t . " I f t h i s compound o f P ( x ; y )

" e x p r e s s e s " t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t o t h e r s do

l i k e w i s e - i . e . i t i s l i k e l y t h a t J?(x;y) e x p r e s s e s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e .

T a k in g t h i s s t r a t a g e m s e r i o u s l y f o r t h e moment, i t i s e a s y t o

s t i p u l a t e form al c o n d itio n s such t h a t , i f P ( x ; y ) s a t i s f i e s them t h e n

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
\

-8 4 -

I I D I i s p r o v a b l e i n H, an d c o n s e q u e n t l y P ( x ; y ) e x p r e s s e s H ' s p r o o f

p red ic ate . One su c h s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s ( t a k e n fro m WANG, p . 339) i s

th e fo llo w in g :

(A) I f n # i s t h e w f f W and m# t h e w f f V, a nd WDV, t h e n

1^- ( E x ) P ( x ; n ) D ( E x ) P ( x ; m ) .
II
(B) I f Gz i s a p r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i v e p r e d i c a t e a nd i t s G odel

number i s n , t h e n f—■ Gz D ( E x ) P ( x ; s ( n , z ) ) .

(C) (E x )P (x ;n (y )) D ( E x ) P ( x ;n ( s ( y ,z ) ) ) .

(D) Pxy i s r e c u r s i v e .

One m i g h t t r y t o g e n e r a l i z e a s f o l l o w s : (A )-(C ) " e x p r e s s " t r u t h s a b o u t

t h e sy n ta x o f H i f P (x ;y ) does i n f a c t e x p re s s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e .

The same i s t r u e o f I I D I , Thus f o r P ( x ; y ) t o e x p r e s s H ' s p r o o f

p r e d i c a t e i s f o r a l l w f f s o f H w h ic h s h o u l d e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f t h e

s y n t a x o f H t o be p r o v a b l e i n H when P ( x ; y ) i s u s e d i n f o r m in g t h o s e

w ffs. B ut t h i s w i l l n o t d o , s i n c e I I i t s e l f i s one s u c h w f f - H i s

c o n s i s t e n t - and i t i s n o t p r o v a b l e i n H. As i t s t a n d s , (A )-(D ) a r e

s u f f i c i e n t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y p e r m i t t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f I I D I i n H. We

h a v e no c l e a r i n f o r m a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f " e x p r e s s i o n , " an d (h e n c e ) no

c r i t e r i o n - form al o r in fo r m a l - o f " e x p r e s s i o n ."

The moment h a s p a s s e d , a nd we c a n t a k e t h i s s u g g e s t i o n s e r i ­

o u s l y no l o n g e r . F o r , o d d l y e n o u g h , I I D I _i£ p r o v a b l e f o r M o s t o w s k i 's
- ff
p r e d i c a t e R ( x ;y ) = d f P ( x ; y ) n - P ( x ; k ) w h e re k i s t h e G odel num ber o f

0 £ 0. Of c o u r s e , i f we s u b s t i t u t e f o r I I a w f f w h ic h s h o u l d e q u a l l y

w e l l e x p r e s s c o n s i s t e n c y , n a m e ly

( I l') ( x ) - P ( x ;k )

t h e n I I ' D I w i l l n o t b e p r o v a b l e when b u i l t o u t o f R ( x ; y ) . But i t i s

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
85'

n o t o b v io u s how t o g e n e r a l i z e t h i s c r i t e r i o n . Something: l i k e d e r i v a -

b i l i t y o f a l l fo rm s o f G 'i d e l 's s e c o n d t h e o r e m m ig h t d o , w h e re e a c h

form was d e t e r m i n e d b y a d i f f e r e n t w f f e x p r e s s i n g c o n s i s t e n c y t a k i n g

th e p lace o f I I . But t h e n we a g a i n m u s t f a c e t h e c h a r g e o f a r b i t r a r i n e s s :

i f we r e q u i r e p r o v a b i l i t y o f t h e s e w f f s b e c a u s e t h e y e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f

H’ s s y n t a x , w h a t a b o u t a l l t h e w f f s w h ic h l i k e w i s e e x p r e s s t r u t h s o f H 's

s y n t a x w h ic h we know we c a n n o t p r o v e ? ( T h i s r e m a rk a l s o f o r e s t a l l s t h e

answ er t h a t R (x ;y ) f a i l s (A) a b o v e , and h e n c e we s h o u l d u s e (A )-(D )

above a s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n . W h ile none o f t h e q u e e r p r e d i ­

c a t e s w h ic h we ha v e come a c r o s s s a t i s f i e s ( A ) - ( D ) , t h i s may b e a c c i ­

d e n t a l , a n d c e r t a i n l y h a s no e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r .)

We b e l i e v e t h a t e x p r e s s i o n i s a c a s e o f l o g i c a l m a p p in g .

I n f o r m a l l y , we p r o p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u i v a l e n c e : th e w f f P (x ;y )

e x p r e s s e s H 's p r o o f p r e d i c a t e i f f w f f s compounded o f Pif-xjy) and

q u a n t i f i e r s and t r u t h f u n c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e a n a d e q u a t e l o g i c a l map

( v i a t h e l o g i c a l b a s e o f H) o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e s o f H 's

sy n ta x . T h i s w o u ld e x p l a i n why ( A ) - ( C ) , a n d | g I I D I , a r e n e c e s s a r y ,

b u tjg I I is n o t: t h e l a t t e r i s n o t r e q u i r e d f o r I I t o c o r r e c t l y map

t h e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f ”H i s c o n s i s t e n t ” w i t h o t h e r s e n t e n c e s o f H’ s

sy n ta x . I t a l s o e x p l a i n s w h a t i s w ro n g w i t h M o s t o w s k i 's R ( x ; y ) : if

I I b a s e d upon R ( x ; y ) i s a t h e o r e m o f l o g i c , t h e n i t d o e s n o t c o r r e c t l y

map t h e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f "H i s c o n s i s t e n t . " F in a lly , i t p reserves

th e o rig in a l in s ig h t: t h e f u n d a m e n ta l s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n f o r m a l

t h e o r i e s and t h e t h e o r i e s t h e y f o r m a l i z e i s t h a t o f l o g i c a l m a p p in g .

E x p r e s s i o n f o r c l o s e d w f f s i s c o r r e c t l o g i c a l m ap p in g o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 6 -

s e n t e n c e s ; e x p r e s s i o n f o r open w f f s i s p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n f o r

c l o s e d w f f s b u i l t o u t o f th e m .

We c a n o n l y s k e t c h a n o u t l i n e o f how t h i s t h e s i s w o u ld be

d e v e lo p e d . The e q u i v a l e n c e w i l l ha v e t o b e b r o a d e n e d t o i n c l u d e ( l )

th e e x p r e s s io n o f any r e l a t i o n of any w f f f o r w h ich r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s

a l r e a d y g i v e n , a n d ( 2 ) s i m u l t a n e o u s e x p r e s s i o n o f many r e l a t i o n s by

many w f f s . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Gfidel nu m b erin g w i l l h a v e t o b e

m o d ifie d i n o rd e r t o e li m i n a te th e fo llo w in g ty p e o f c o u n te r-e x a m p le .

Suppose we a r e o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t 0 a n d t h e

f u n c t i o n symbol ’ o f H. Our GBdel n u m b e rin g w i l l b e : 5+ 8k i s a s s i g n e d

to 0 f o l l o w e d b y k p r im e s ( k ^ O ) . We c a l l 0 f o l l o w e d b y a n y number of

p r im e s ( i n c l u d i n g 0 ) a t e r m a n d l e t X b e a s y n t a c t i c v a r i a b l e ran g in g

o v er t h e s e t of t e r m s . L e t g(X) b e t h e G'idel num ber o f X. Now t h e

m apping o f t h e s y n t a x o f H b y (a s u b s e t o f t h e ) w f f s o f H w i l l i n

g e n e r a l b e done v i a num ber t h e o r y : a w f f W w i l l d i r e c t l y map a

s e n t e n c e N o f num ber t h e o r y , w h i c h l a t t e r w i l l b e e q u i v a l e n t v i a t h e

Gttdel n u m b e rin g t o some s e n t e n c e S o f H’ s s y n t a x . Our p r o p o s a l t h e n

i s t h a t W m u st a l s o map S , Now c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f e r e n c e i n t h e

s y n t a x o f H:

(5 1 ) 0 is a term .

(5 2 ) I f X i s a t e r m , t h e n X* i s a term .

.•.(S 3 ) O’ i s a t e r m .

V ia t h e Gttdel n u m b e r in g , we s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f e r e n c e

i n num ber t h e o r y t o b e :

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 7 -

(N l) For some m, 5 = 5+8m.

(N2) For e v e r y n , i f t h e r e i s a n m su c h t h a t n = 5+8m, t h e n

t h e r e i s a n m s u c h t h a t n+8 = 5+8m.

. * .(N 3 ) F o r some m, 13 = 5+8m.

N ow w h i l e t h e f o n n e r i n f e r e n c e i s l o g i c a l l y v a l i d , t h e l a t t e r i s n o t r

i t d e p e n d s upon t h e p r e m i s e 13 = 5+8, w h ic h i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g from

f i r s t o rder lo g ic . Hence i f t h e same w f f i s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o S i a n d

H i , i = 1 , 2 , 3 , t h e n H c a n n o t c o r r e c t l y map b o t h number t h e o r y and i t s

own s y n t a x . Of c o u r s e , i f we u s e d

(N 31) F o r s a n e m, 5+8 = 5+8m.

i n s t e a d o f (N 3 ), t h e n t h e l a t t e r i n f e r e n c e would b e l o g i c a l l y v a l i d

to o . I n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e o f ( N 3 ') i n s t e a d o f (N 3 ), we h a v e t o

r e a d t h e Gttdel n u m b e rin g n o t a s an a s s i g n m e n t o f num bers t o e x p r e s s i o n s ,

b u t a s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n s e n t e n c e s o f H 's

s y n t a x a n d s e n t e n c e s o f number t h e o r y . In such a c o rre sp o n d en c e , th e

n u m e r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n 5+8k m u st b e u s e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o 0 f o l l o w e d by

k p rim e s. F i n a l l y , t h e p ro b le m o f f i n d i n g f o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h a r e

n e c e s s a r y a n d / o r s u f f i c i e n t f o r e x p r e s s i o n i n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s y s te m s

need»? t o b e e x p l o r e d .

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
FOOTNOTES

% e c h o o se t o t r e a t i n f o r m a l l o g i c a s a t h e o r y o f v a l i d a r g u ­

m en t r a t h e r t h a n a s a t h e o r y o f l o g i c a l t r u t h f o r tw o r e a s o n s . F irst,

a g e n e ra l p rag m a tic b a s i s : t h e n e e d f o r a t h e o r y and i t s c rite rio n of

s u c c e s s a r e du e t o i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , and t h e p o r t i o n

o f l o g i c a l v a r i e t i e s i s f a r o u tw e ig h e d b y t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n

c o r r e c t and f a l l a c i o u s a rg u m e n ts. Second, th e i n t u i t i o n o f a fo rm a lly

v a l i d a rg u m e n t a s a g a i n s t a n enthymeme i s much m ore n a t u r a l a nd i n t u i ­

tiv e (o r: much e a s i e r t o i n s t i l l ) th an th a t of lo g ic a l t r u t h . Of

c o u r s e , " v a l i d " f o r a rg u m e n ts can b e d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f l o g i c a l

tru th : t h e a rg u m e n t from P j , . . . , P n t o C i s v a l i d i f f t h e s e n t e n c e "If

P i a n d . . . a n d Pn , t h e n C" i s l o g i c a l l y t r u e . B ut s i n c e we c a n a l s o ru n

a d e f i n i t i o n i n th e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n - a se n te n c e i s l o g i c a l l y t r u e

i f f e v e r y a rg u m e n t h a v in g i t a s c o n c l u s i o n i s v a l i d - l o g i c a l t r u t h i s

no more g e n e r a l a n o t i o n t h a n t h a t o f v a l i d a r g u m e n t .

*%e s h a l l s p e a k o f s e n t e n c e s a s t r u e an d f a l s e , a s f u n c t i o n i n g

a s p r e m i s s e s and c o n c l u s i o n i n a rg u m e n ts a nd a s t h e e l e m e n t s o f

in feren ces. T h is c h o ic e i s a r b i t r a r y i n th e p r e s e n t c o n te x t: we w i s h

t o s k i r t t h e p ro b le m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h p r o p o s i t i o n s , s t a t e m e n t s , e t e r n a l

s e n t e n c e s , e t c . , and h ope t h a t n one o f t h e i s s u e s we d i s c u s s h e r e w i l l

b e g any o f t h o s e q u e s t i o n s .

^ T h e re a r e tw o ways o f f o r m u l a t i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g r o l e t h a t A*

p lay s i n a p p ly in g l o g i c t o A. We may s a y t h a t A* i s a n a n a l y s i s o f A,

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-8 9 -

t h a t i t r e v e a l s t h e r e a l c o n t e n t o f A, a n d h e n c e w h a t e v e r c o n c l u s i o n s

we r e a c h a b o u t t h e l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f A ’ a p p l y a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o A .

Or we may s a y t h a t s i n c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s a t h and A r f u n c t i o n s a s w e l l

a s A and i n a d d i t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s

w i t h o t h e r s e n t e n c e s , we c h o o s e t o u s e A* i n s t e a d o f A, e v e n t h o u g h i n

c e r t a i n o t h e r ways t h e y a r e m a r k e d ly d i f f e r e n t . P ro v id e d t h a t th e

ra n g e o f c o n t e x t s a n d p u r p o s e s i n w h i c h A a nd A ' a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e

i s w id e e n o u g h , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e two f o r m u l a t i o n s i s i n s i g ­

n ific a n t. E i t h e r w ay, t h e t h e o r y a nd t e c h n i q u e o f l o g i c d e v e lo p e d f o r

A 1 w i l l b e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h o s e c o n t e x t s and p u r p o s e s . The p r o v i n c e o f

lo g ic i s a p a r t i c u l a r use o f se n te n c e s - a rg u in g , or in fe r rin g - in

t h e p u r s u i t o f c e r t a i n e nds - e . g . c o m m u n ic a tio n o f i n f o r m a t i o n o f

c e r t a i n k in d s, t e s t i n g h y p o th eses, r a t i o n a l p e rs u a s io n . W hether we

co n ceiv e of our s y s te m a tic tre a tm e n t o f lo g ic as r e q u i r i n g th e a n a ly s is

o f t h e s e n t e n c e s we a c t u a l l y u s e , o r a v o l u n t a r y r e n u n c i a t i o n o f a l l

s e n t e n c e s w h ic h a r e n o t o f a c e r t a i n f o rm , i s i r r e l e v a n t .

^We s h a l l assum e t h a t e v e r y p r e d i c a t e i s a s s i g n e d a u n i q u e

p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r a nd e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l

c o n sta n t. T hus, s e n t e n c e s o f t h e same ” l o g i c a l fo rm ” - t h e same t y p e s

o f d e s i g n a t o r s s u b j e c t t o t h e same t r u t h - f u n c t i o n a l and q u a n t i f i -

c a tio n a l o p e ra tio n s - w i l l in g e n e ra l be a s sig n e d d i f f e r e n t w f f s .

A l t h o u g h a s e n t e n c e may c o r r e s p o n d t o m ore t h a n one w f f ( s e e b e l o w ) ,

e a c h s u c h w f f m u st b e a d e e p a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e n t e n c e : i t m u st b e

s u f f i c i e n t to account f o r a l l th e l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h a t se n te n c e

w ith o th e rs . The maxim i n QUINE ( p . 160) t o t h e c o n t r a r y r e p r e s e n t s

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
90'

i n t e l l i g e n t s tr a te g y in th e a p p lic a tio n of te c h n iq u e , b u t is

m is le a d in g i n an ac co u n t o f t h e o r e t i c a l ad eq u acy .

C
S ince o n ly c lo s e d w ffs w i l l be u sed t o c o rre s p o n d t o

s e n t e n c e s , D(W^,Wg) c a n be t a k e n a s f— o r W^t-Wg.

I t sh o u ld be c l e a r t h a t our n o t io n o f E n g lis h s e n te n c e i s an

id e a liz a tio n ; len g th , co m p le x ity , t e c h n i c a l i t y o f v o c a b u la ry , e t c . a re

t a k e n t o b e i r r e l e v a n t t o s e n t e n c e h o o d , e v e n t h o u g h s u c h f a c t o r s m ig h t

make c e r t a i n s e n t e n c e s p r a c t i c a l l y u n u s a b l e f o r m o s t hum ans. Thus

w f f s o f a r b i t r a r y l e n g t h may s t i l l c o r r e s p o n d t o E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s .

^The p r o o f o f ( 3 ) from (2) i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d : s u p p o s e (3 ) i s

fa lse . Then t h e r e i s a s e n t e n c e C s u c h t h a t ( s a y ) l ( A ,C ) b u t n o t

l(B ,C ). b u t t h e n b y ( 2 ) we m u st ha v e D(W_^,Wq ) an d n o t D(Wjj ,Wq) , w h ic h

c o n t r a d i c t s D*0% ,W b ) .

®The a p p r o a c h o f HINTIKKA. i n t h i s m a t t e r i s a m i s t a k e . Faced

w i t h t h e p ro b le m o f t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f t h e u s u a l s e t - t h e o r e t i c

s e m a n t i c s , he s u g g e s t s t h a t we r e p l a c e t h i s t y p e o f s e m a n t i c s w i t h

H e rb ra n d -ty p e p ro o f p ro c e d u re . H e rb ra n d showed t h a t t h e r e i s a

s y s t e m a t i c way o f t r y i n g t o f i n d a m odel f o r a w f f s u c h t h a t t h e w f f

h as no m odel i f f t h e a t t e m p t t o f i n d a m odel e n d s u p i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . .

The m odel c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s c o n s t r u c t i v e , and H i n t i k k a s u g g e s t s

t h a t we i n t e r p r e t t h e v a l i d i t y o f a w f f W a s t h e b r e a k i n g down o f t h i s

p r o c e d u r e when a p p l i e d t o -W. Of c o u r s e , t h e p r o c e d u r e i t s e l f i s

p u r e l y f o r m a l , s o i t a l o n e c a n n o t be t h e b a s i s o f t h e new s e m a n t i c s .

"The c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r -W i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y " m i g h t b e a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a

f o r m a l p r o o f o f W, b u t n o t f o r v a l i d i t y . How ever, from t h e d e f i n i t i o n

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-9 1

o f s e t - t h e o r e t i c m odel an d t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e f o r m a l c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r e can b e n o m o d e l . Now, a l t h o u g h t h e " T h e r e c a n

b e n o . . . " o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e makes r e f e r e n c e t o a u n i v e r s e o f

a l l p o s s i b l e " o d e l s , n o t h i n g n e e d be known a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h i s

u n i v e r s e beyond t h e i r b e i n g p o s s i b l e m o d e ls - i . e . bey o n d t h e i r b e i n g

o r d e r e d n - t u p l e s , t h e f i r s t member o f w h i c h i s a s e t , and t h e r e s t o f

t h e members o f w h ic h a r e s u b s e t s o f C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s o f t h e f i r s t

member w i t h i t s e l f . I n p a r t i c u l a r , we n e e d n o t assum e t h a t t h i s u n i ­

v e r s e i s t h e w i l d l y n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v e one w h i c h t h e o r d i n a r y s e t -

t h e o r e t i c a l sem an tics n a iv e l y ta k e s as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e .

Nor i s t h i s a l l . We may e v e n e l i m i n a t e r e f e r e n c e t o s e t -

t h e o r e t i c m o d e ls a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

s e m a n t i c a l l y a s a n a rg u m e n t t h a t t h e ( s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e )

w f f c a n n o t be t r u e . F o r, th e s te p s o f th e c o n s tr u c ti o n can be read as

v a l i d i n f e r e n c e s from t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t ( t h e s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

t o ) t h e w f f i s t r u e , an d t h e b rea k d o w n c a n b e r e a d a s t h e r e s u l t t h a t

t h a t assu m p tio n l o g i c a l l y im p lie s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . As t h e i n f e r e n c e s

e m bodied i n t h e s t e p s a r e v e r y e l e m e n t a r y , and t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n

r e a c h e d a lw a y s e l e m e n t a r y ( i . e . e x p l i c i t l y o f t h e fo rm "A and n o t A " ) ,

t h e r e i s no d o u b t i n g t h e s o u n d n e s s o f t h e a r g u m e n t . In e f f e c t ,

H in tik k a i s p roposing t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f th e a n c ie n t n o tio n of

l o g i c a l t r u t h - t h a t w h ic h i t i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o deny - i n p l a c e o f

t h e m odern n o t i o n o f t r u t h i n a l l p o s s i b l e m o d e l s , a n d p l e a d s t h e

c o n stru c tiv e s u p e rio rity of th e l a t t e r .

T h a t i t i s s u p e r io r :_ n o n e c a n d e n y . S i n c e t h e m eth o d o f c o n ­

s tr u c tio n is re c u rs iv e , th e s y n ta c tic p ro p e rty " th e c o n s tru c tio n fo r

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
92

t h e w f f . . . b r e a k s down" - w h i c h , when i n t e r p r e t e d s e m a n t i c a l l y , i s t o

be t h e n o t i o n o f v a l i d i t y - i s r . e . , j u s t a s p r o v a b i l i t y i n th e form al

c a lc u lu s i s . I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e f u l l power s e t o f t h e s e t o f n a t u r a l

num bers t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y a n im p ro v e m e n t. I n a s e n s e , we do have " . . .

a c o n s t r u c t i v i s t i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a l l th e r e s u l t s o f o rd in a ry

q u a n tific a tio n th eo ry . ” ( p . 48, h i s i t a l i c s ) That i s , in th e sense

t h a t w h a t i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e p r o o f o f a th e o r e m i n q u a n t i f i c a t i o n

t h e o r y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d s e m a n t i c a l l y by r e f e r e n c e t o v a l i d i t y ,

H in tik k a s t y l e : t h e soundness o f q u a n t i f i c a t i o n t h e o r y r e l a t i v e t o

H in tik k a v a l i d i t y presu p p o ses no b l a t a n t l y n o n - c o n s tru c tiv e n o t io n s .

B u t t h e same c a n n o t be s a i d f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s . F o r, i n te r p r e ti n g th e

brea k d o w n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a b o v e , w h a t i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

t h e a b s e n c e o f a breakdow n? The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e (sen ten ce c o r­

r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e ) w f f i s t r u e d o e s n o t l e a d v i a t h e s im p l e l o g i c a l

t r a n s i t i o n s o f th e s te p s of th e c o n s tr u c tio n t o a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . So

w h a t? Maybe o t h e r l o g i c a l l y v a l i d t r a n s i t i o n s would p r o d u c e a

c o n tra d ic tio n . Here we m u st r e t u r n t o t h e n o t i o n o f a s e t - t h e o r e t i c

m o d e l: t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r a w f f f a i l s t o b r e a k down i f f t h e r e i s a

sa tisfy in g in te rp re ta tio n fo r th a t w ff. Now, a l t h o u g h t o s e e t h a t a

w f f whose c o n s t r u c t i o n b r e a k s down c a n h a v e n o m odel r e q u i r e s no

p a r t i c u l a r comm itm ents c o n c e r n i n g t h e u n i v e r s e o f p o s s i b l e m o d e ls , t o

s e e t h e c o n v e r s e does r e q u i r e s u c h c o m m itm en ts. F o r e x a m p le , su p p o se

t h a t a l l m o d els a r e f i n i t e - o r e v e n r e c u r s i v e l y e n u m e r a b le - and we

have a w f f W whose c o n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t b r e a k down. May we c o n c lu d e

t h a t W hps a m o d el? Not a t a l l : t h e r e a r e w f f s whose o n l y m o d els a r e

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 3 -

n o t ev e n r . e . l N eg a tio n s o f su c h w ffs w i l l be v a l i d i n su ch a u n iv e r s e

o f p o s s i b l e m o d e l s , t h o u g h t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n s do n o t b r e a k down. Thus

t h e m ethod o f m odel c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e d e s i r e d s e m a n t i c e f f e c t i f f

i t s breakdow n i s e q u i v a l e n t t o n o t h a v i n g a m o d e l, a n d t h i s l a s t can

o n l y be a r g u e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e o f

p o s s i b l e m o d els w h ic h d e s t r o y i t s supposed c o n s t r u c t i v i t y .

T h e re a r e c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n a l

a c c o u n t o f l o g i c a l t r u t h when t h e l a n g u a g e f o r w h ic h l o g i c a l t r u t h i s

t o be d e fin e d i s p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e s i g n a t o r s . See,

f o r exam ple HINMAN, KIM and STICH. H ow ever, a s t h e y t h e m s e l v e s n o t e ,

" . . . i f t h e la n g u a g e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g - i n p a r t i c u l a r , s t r o n g

enough t o d e v e l o p f i r s t o r d e r a r i t h m e t i c - t h e n o u r r e v i s e d d e f i n i t i o n

does p i c k o u t e x a c t l y t h e v a l i d s e n t e n c e s . " ( p . 499) Thus o u r p r o b ­

lem o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g v a l i d a rg u m e n t i n E n g l i s h i s n o t d i r e c t l y

a f f e c t e d by t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n show ing t h a t t h e tw o

d e f i n i t i o n s o f l o g i c a l t r u t h - one b a s e d upon s u b s t i t u t i o n and t h e

o t h e r b a s e d upon s e t - t h e o r e t i c a l v a l i d i t y - d i f f e r when a p p l i e d t o

im p o v e r is h e d l a n g u a g e s , i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e y ha v e shown t h e

fo r m e r t o b e a t f a u l t . We r e p e a t ; i f no s e n t e n c e o f t h i s form i s

f a l s e , w h a t i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by a d o p t i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f l o g i c a l t r u t h

w hich d i s q u a l i f i e s i t ? (What c o u n t s a s i l l b e h a v i o u r i s a w e i r d

language?)

^ I n d e e d , t h e l a t t e r i n f e r e n c e p r e s e n t s a s u b t l e p ro b le m : th e

E n g l i s h i n f e r e n c e seems t o b e v a l i d , b u t i f we w r i t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 4 -

th u s: ( E x ) ( J o h n h i t x i n t e n t i o n a l l y ) , t h e n we a r e a l s o c o m m itte d t o

s u b s t i t u t i v i t y by th e s ta n d a rd i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l

q u a n tifie r. (Compare QUINE's a rg u m e n t i n 1 9 6 3 , c h a p . 8 c o n c e r n i n g

q u a n t i f i c a t i o n i n t o m odal c o n t e x t s . ) The e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i f i e r d o e s

n o t e x p r e s s o u t i n t e n t i o n s i n u s i n g t h e w ord " s o m e t h i n g " i n t h e c o n ­

c l u s i o n - n o r does any o t h e r c o n s tr u c ti o n o f f i r s t o rd e r l o g i c . The

ex a m p le o f i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d u e t o P r o f e s s o r Dan B e n n e t t .

P r o p o s i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s a r e a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f e x a m p le . I t is

u s u a l l y a m a t t e r o f c o n t e x t w h e t h e r t o t r e a t them e x t e n s i o n a l l y o r

n o t. H ow ever, o n c e we s e e fro m t h e c o n t e x t how t h e s e n t e n c e i s i n t e n d e d

t o b e t a k e n - t r a n s p a r e n t o r o p a q u e - we c a n u s e f i r s t o r d e r l o g i c t o

c o rre c tly record i t s lo g ic a l re la tio n s . See t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n QUINE

(1964), chap. 4 .

And i t i s u s e f u l . F o r, i n o r d e r f o r our l o g ic to a p p ly to

a n y p a r t i c u l a r s e n t e n t i a l c o n n e c t i v e ( i . e . E n g l i s h p h r a s e m ak in g com­

pound s e n t e n c e s o u t o f g i v e n s e n t e n c e s ) , i t m u st b e t r e a t e d a s a t r u t h

fu n ctio n . Now t h e t r u t h t a b l e f o r " I f . . . t h e n . . lo o k s l i k e t h i s :

A B I f A, t h e n B
t t t
t f f
f t
f f

T h e r e a r e f o u r ways o f f i l l i n g i n t h e d a s h e s . The c o n s t r a i n t s on a

s o l u t i o n a r e j u s t t h a t no l o g i c a l m i s t a k e b e made - i . e . no i n v a l i d

a rg u m e n t j u d g e d v a l i d , an d v i c e v e r s a - a n d t h a t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f

o ur l o g ic n o t be im p a ire d . B ut t h i s d e t e r m i n e s a u n i q u e s o l u t i o n .

B o th t , f and f , f mean t h a t c o n t r a p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n ts w i l l b e i n v a l i d ,

and f , t i s n e e d e d f o r t h e t r u t h f u n c t i o n o f " . . . i f an d o n l y i f . . . . "

Thus o n l y t , t is a v a ila b le . The f a c t t h a t t h i s com m its u s t o

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-9 5 -

a n m a lo u s in feren ces is i r r e le v a n t. I t i s enough f o r l o g i c i f t h e

v a l i d i t y o f t h e a rg u m e n t a s s u r e s u s t h a t we c a n n o t h a v e t r u e p r e m i s s e s

a nd a f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n . I f s u c h a s s u r a n c e d oes n o t a lw a y s a c c o r d w i t h

o u r o r d i n a r y u s a g e o f t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d p h r a s e s , s o w h a t?

12The q u e s t i o n m ig h t b e r a i s e d t h a t s i n c e t h e " i f . . . , th en 1

c o n s t r u c t i o n i n m a t h e m a t ic s i s r a r e l y - i f e v e r - a n i n d i c a t i v e

c o n d i t i o n a l , how a r e we t o f i n d w f f s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o s u c h s e n t e n c e s

w i t h o n l y t h e h o r s h o e w h ic h maps o n l y i n d i c a t i v e s ? The a n s w e r i s t h a t

c o n d i t i o n a l s i n m a t h e m a t i c s ha v e h i d d e n u n i v e r s a l q u a n t i f i e r s - e . g .

" I f a f u n c t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s on a c l o s e d i n t e r v a l , t h e n i t i s u n i ­

f o r m l y c o n t i n u o u s on t h a t i n t e r v a l " - an d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f i s o f

t h e form ( x ) ( F x D G x ) .

^ T h i s i s o n ly an e x te n t io n o f te rm in o lo g y . In p a r t i c u l a r ,

s i n c e we m u st r e q u i r e t h a t t h e " c o d i n g " f u n c t i o n f b e d e c i d a b l e

( c o m p u t a b l e ) (ROGERS, p p . 2 7 - 9 ) , we do n o t have a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f

d e c i d a b i l i t y on a n y dom ain f o u n d e d on t h e t h e o r y o f r e c u r s i v e

fu n c tio n s a lo n e . F or, sin c e f is n o t a n u m b e r-th e o re tic fu n c tio n ( i t s

d o m ain i s A ) , i t s d e c i d a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f

re c u rs iv ity .

* % o t e t h a t t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n o f s e l f - r e f e r e n c e h e r e . In

p a r t i c u l a r , we have t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o k e e p d i s t i n c t : (a) th e

w f f - (E y ) Q y k , (b ) t h e s e n t e n c e o f number t h e o r y t o w h i c h ( a ) c o r ­

resp o n d s - i . e . th e " s ta n d a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " o f ( a ) , and (c) th e

s e n t e n c e "R o t -(E y)Q yE " o f t h e s y n t a x o f H. Now ( a ) i s a s e q u e n c e

o f sym bols i n a f o r m a l s y s te m : i t says n o th in g , r e f e r s t o n o th in g ,

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h a s no c o n t e n t a t a l l . ( b ) i s a b o n a f i d e s e n t e n c e o f number t h e o r y ;

i t s v o c a b u l a r y i s made up w h o l l y o f a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , t r u t h

f u n c t i o n s , and q u a n t i f i e r s . If it r e f e r s t o a n y th in g a t a l l , th en i t

r e f e r s t o n u m b e rs , s e t s o f num bers an d t h e l i k e . S i n c e _i_t i s a

s e n te n c e , i t c e r t a i n l y does n o t r e f e r t o i t s e l f , (c ) i s a se n te n c e o f

s y n t a x w h ic h a s s e r t s t h e f o rm a l u n d e r i v a b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r w f f .

S i n c e _it_ i s n o t a w f f , i t t o o d oes n o t r e f e r t o i t s e l f . The arg u m e n t

d e p e n d s upon (b ) an d ( c ) b e i n g m a t e r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t , and upon t h e

f a c t t h a t i n t h e l o g i c a l map, ( a ) a n d (b ) c o r r e s p o n d . T h i s means t h a t

t h e r e i s no i n t e r e s t i n g a n a l o g y b e tw e e n t h e w f f ( a ) a nd t h e v a r i o u s

s o - c a l l e d se m a n tic p a ra d o x e s: no r e m a rk s a b o u t t h e c i r c u l a r i t y ,

in co n siste n c y , e tc . of s e lf - r e f e r e n c e a re re le v a n t h e re . For a c le a r

d i s c u s s i o n , s e e LACEY a nd JOSEPH.

^■®A w f f w i t h o u t v a r i a b l e s c o n t a i n s o n l y n u m e r a l s , t h e f u n c t i o n

le tte rs c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s u c c e s s o r , a d d i t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and t h e

p r e d i c a t e l e t t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e q u a l i t y , a nd t r u t h f u n c t i o n s . Thus

i t c o r r e s p o n d s t o w h a t we ha v e c a l l e d a n e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n . Sin ce

t h e r e c u r s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r a d d i t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and t h e axiom s

f o r s u c c e s s o r nave t h e i r f o r m a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , f o r e v e r y c a l c u l a t i o n

w h ic h v e r i f i e s a t r u e e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n t h e r e i s a f o r m a l d e r i ­

v a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w f f i n H. S i n c e f o r e v e r y s u c h w f f W,

e ith e r i t or i t s n e g a tio n c o rre sp o n d s t o a t r u e e le m e n ta ry propo­

s i t i o n , e i t h e r i t o r i t s n e g a t i o n i s p r o v a b l e - H i s c o m p le te w i t h

re s p e c t t o such w f f s .

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I
- Note t h a t t h i s shows t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f w i - c o n s i s t e n c y i s

n o t s t r i c t l y n e c e s s a ry f o r th e c o n c lu s io n of th e in fo rm a l inadequacy

of th e a x io m a tiz a tio n . F o r , o n l y s im p l e c o n s i s t e n c y i s n e e d ed t o show

t h a t n o t (- (y )-Q y E , and fro m t h e f a c t t h a t f o r e v e r y n , (-• Qnlc, we know

th a t i t is (y)-Q yE and n o t i t s n e g a t i o n w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h

o f i n f o r m a l number t h e o r y . Thus w i t h o u t show ing t h e u n d e r i v a b i l i t y o f

i t s n e g a t i o n we may a l r e a d y draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a t r u t h

o f number t h e o r y w h ic h d o e s n o t f o l l o w from t h e a x io m s .

1 "^Sketch o f a p r o o f : o f e v e r y p a i r o f w f f s W, -V/, one c o r ­

r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f i n f o r m a l num ber t h e o r y . So i f e v e r y w f f c o r ­

r e s p o n d i n g t o a t r u t h o f i n f o r m a l number t h e o r y i s f o r m a l l y d e r i v a b l e

i n Hw» t h e n Hl0 i s f o r m a l l y c o m p l e t e . Now s u p p o s e (x ) (Ey)Fxy c o r ­

r e s p o n d s t o a t r u t h o f n u m b e r 't h e o r y , a nd t h a t Fxy c o n t a i n s no v a r i ­

a b l e s o t h e r t h a n x and y . So Fxy r e p r e s e n t s a r e c u r s i v e r e l a t i o n R,

and we have J- Finn i f f Rnn. Now, f o r e v e r y m t h e r e i s a n n s u c h t h a t

Rmn, so f o r e v e r y m t h e r e i s a n n s u c h t h a t Finn, i . e . t h e r e a r e

ng, n j , . . . n ^ , . . . such t h a t , f o r e v e ry i , ) - F i n ^ . By e x i s t e n t i a l

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , f o r e v e r y i , \ - (E y)F T y, i . e . e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f (Ey)Fxy

is d e riv a b le . By t h e w - r u l e , |— ( x ) ( E y ) F x y . A l l o t h e r c o m b i n a ti o n s o f

q u a n t i f i e r s can be h a n d le d in s i m i l a r f a s h i o n .

“ o f c o u r s e , “ f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y " m u st b e u n d e r s t o o d s e m a n t i c a l l y

h ere: e x te n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f w f f and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o i n c l u d e

in fin ite w ffs. What we a s s e r t t h e n i s t h a t f o r a n y number t h e o r e t i c

s t a t e m e n t S, Wg i s p r o v a b l e i n Hy, i f f t h e r e i s no model o f ( t h e w f f s

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ) t h e a xiom s w i t h A and ( t h e w f f c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ) t h e

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
98-

c o n tra d ic to ry of S. N ote t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t th e u i-ru le fo rm a lly

m i r r o r s t h e i n f o r m a l l o g i c a l pow er o f A d o e s n o t im p ly t h a t i t

" c a p t u r e s t h e c o n t e n t " o f A: alth o u g h i s c o m p le te , i t has non­

s ta n d a rd m o d els, b u t A e li m i n a te s th e n o n - s ta n d a rd m o d els.

1Q
Note t h a t i f we a d d A, we may e l i m i n a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l

in d u c tio n a l t o g e t h e r , s in c e i t can b e p r o v e d a s a d e r i v e d r u l e . Any

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m aking t h e w f f s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o " 0 i s F" and " I f n is

F , t h e n n+1 i s F" t r u e , and f o r w h ic h t h e u / - r u l e h o l d s , m u st a l s o make

t h e w f f c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o " A l l num bers a r e F" t r u e . Thus " A l l num bers

a r e F" f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y from A, " 0 i s F" an d " I f n i s F, t h e n n+1 i s

F ." Thus t h e i n f o r m a l l y c o m p l e te a x i o m a t i z a t i o n i s f i n i t e . Its

axiom s a r e : ( l ) 0 is?.\not t h e s u c c e s s o r o f a n y num ber, (2) E v e ry num ber

b u t z e ro has a un iq u e p r e d e c e s s o r , ( 3 ) A, a n d t h e r e c u r s i o n e q u a t i o n s

f o r a d d i t i o n a nd m u l t i p l i c a t i o n .

^C om pare, e . g . B ernays: " . . . o n e cannot s u c c e s s fu lly

i n c o r p o r a t e t h e w h o le o f a r i t h m e t i c i n t o t h e s y s te m o f l o g i c . F or,

s i n c e t h i s s y s te m i s d e v e lo p e d a c c o r d i n g t o f i x e d r u l e s , one w ould

have t o b e a b l e t o o b t a i n by m eans o f a f i x e d s e r i e s o f j*ules a l l t h e

th e o r e m s o f a r i t h m e t i c . But t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e ; a s GSdel h a s shown,

a r i t h m e t i c g oes beyond e a c h g i v e n f o r m a l i s m . " (BENACERRAF and PUTNAM,

p . 283)

^ S o f a r , we have o n l y s p o k e n o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n w f f s

a nd s e n t e n c e s o f t h e i n f o r m a l t h e o r y . U s u a l l y , t h e way i n w h ic h t h i s

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s a c h i e v e d - i . e . d e s c r i b e d and l e a r n e d - i s by s p e c i ­

f y i n g a u n i v e r s e f o r t h e q u a n t i f i e r s t o r a n g e o v e r , and r e l a t i o n s

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-99

among members o f t h e u n i v e r s e a s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e p r e d i c a t e

le tte rs . (The n o r m a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t i v e s i s

a s s u m e d .) From s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a n a t u r a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n

i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i n f o r .al t h e o r y and te r m s o f t h e f o r m a l

s y s te m w i l l a l s o be a c h i e v e d . I t seems t h a t a n y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h ic h

p r e s e r v e d t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e l o g i c a l map s h o u l d a l s o i n d u c e s u c h a

t e r m - d e s c r i p t i o n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , b u t no c o m p l e te a rg u m e n t h a s b e e n

fo u n d y e t .

^ S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , we n e e d one more c o n d i t i o n t o g e n e r a t e

e v e n t h e s e m b la n c e o f a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . F o r , t h e L-S t h e o r e m p r o v i d e s

o n ly t h a t t h e u n iv e r s e o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n be c o u n ta b le ; t h i s i s n ot

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h one o f t h e members o f t h a t u n i v e r s e b e i n g a n u n c o u n t ­

a b l e s e t - w h i c h i s a l l t h a t C a n t o r ’ s t h e o r e m w o u ld r e q u i r e - u n l e s s

we s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e b e c l o s e d u n d e r sum s e t s :

(x ) ( y ) ( x t-y n y t U D x eU ). T h is does h o ld f o r a l l i n t e r e s t i n g

in te rp re ta tio n s.

2^ I t s h o u ld b e c l e a r fro m o u r d i s c u s s i o n how t o a n s w e r a

c r i t i q u e s u c h a s t h a t o f RESNICK. The p r o b le m i s : how i s i t p o s s i b l e

f o r a s e t t h e o r y i n w h i c h u n c o u n t a b l e s e t s c a n b e p ro v e d t o e x i s t t o

ha v e a c o u n t a b l e m o d e l? A nsw er: th e w f f w hich i s ta k e n t o a s s e r t t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f a n u n c o u n t a b l e s e t - o u r T(N)W - w i l l b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n

t h a t m odel a s a s s e r t i n g u n c o u n t a b i l i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e u n i v e r s e o f

s e t s o f t h a t m odel ( w h ic h i s o b v i o u s , s i n c e t h e q u a n t i f i e r ( E f ) r a n g e s

over th e u n iv e rs e o f th e m o d el). I f th e n o tio n o f a b s o lu te u n co u n t­

a b i l i t y is a n te c e d e n tly i n t e l l i g i b l e - a s R e s n i c k assu m e s ( p . 433) -

Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 0

th e n o f c o u rse t h e r e a r e a b s o l u t e l y u n c o u n ta b le s e t s . I f n o t, th en of

co u rse i t i s p r o b l e m a t i c , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g T(N)W i n

a c o u n t a b l e m o d el becom es s i g n i f i c a n t . Compare t h e p o s i t i o n s o f G8del

and Putnam, c i t e d i n t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h .

e x a c tly . T h e re may b e w f f s o f a g i v e n o r d e r i n v o l v i n g

on ly a b s t r a c t i o n o p e r a t o r s o f t h a t ( o r lo w er) o r d e r . T hese w f f s w i l l

c o r r e s p o n d t o s e n t e n c e s a b o u t s e t s o f t h a t same o r d e r . But s i n c e a l l

of th e i n t e r e s t i n g th e o r y o f th e s e t s o f a g iv en o r d e r in v o lv e s q u a n ti­

f i e r s r a n g i n g o v e r t h e s e t s o f t h a t o r d e r , we w i l l s t i l l have t o p a s s

to th e next h ig h e st o rd e r.

25The n a t u r a l nu m b ers h e r e a r e t h e f i n i t e o r d i n a l s o f von

Neumann: s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e em pty s e t and p r o c e e d i n g by a d d i n g t h e s e t

you have t o i t s otto c o n te n ts :

2®As Wang n o t e s , t h i s r a i s e s a q u e s t i o n a s t o t h e " c o s t " o f

g e t t i n g t h e G&del w f f s a s t h e o r e m s . Of c o u r s e , i f t h e r e a r e w f f s o f

Sa w h i c h a r e n o t p r o v a b l e i n Sa b u t a r e p r o v a b l e i n Sa + g , t h e h i g h e r

s y s te m f o r m a l i z e s a s t r o n g e r t h e o r y o f e v e n t h e s e t s o f o r d e r a - 1 t h a n

Sa - d o e s . But t h e a x io m s o f Sa + g d i f f e r fro m t h o s e o f Sa o n l y i n t h e i r

s u b s c r i p t s ; w h a te v e r c o u n ts a s i n t u i t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e cor­

r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a l s e n t e n c e s i n t h e one c a s e s h o u l d c o u n t e q u a l l y

w e ll in th e o th e r . T h u s , a l t h o u g h e m p lo y in g more p o w e r f u l m e a n s , we

seem t o a v o i d s a c r i f i c i n g an y r e l i a b i l i t y . T h is i s d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r

in th e c o n c lu sio n .

* ^ I n m ore d e t a i l : t h e s e t o f s u b s c r i p t s u s e d i n w f f s o f g Sn

is re c u rsiv e - i . e . th e f i n i t e c o n s tru c tiv e o rd in a ls are rec u rsiv e -

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 1 -

and s o b y t h e s u b s c r i p t s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s u s e d i n t h e w f f we c a n t e l l

w h a t i s t h e l o w e s t s y s te m o f w h ic h i t i s a w f f . H a v in g done t h i s f o r

a l l t h e w f f s i n t h e s e q u e n c e , we t a k e t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m . I f th e

s e q u e n c e i s a p r o o f i n g Sn , t h e n i t i s a l s o a p r o o f i n t h a t s u b s y s t e m .

pQ
L e t Ra b e t h e t e r m c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e t o f r e a l num bers

of order a . The t e r m 1 ^ , an d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s e t o f r e a l num bers o f

order a, a re of o rd er a+1. Now t h e l e a s t u p p e r bound t h e o r e m f o r t h e

r e a l num bers o f o r d e r a l o o k s l i k e t h i s :

(x a + 1 ) ( ( x a + 1 C Ra n (Eya ) ( z a ) ( z a e xa+ 1 3 za £ y a )) ;>

( Ey a+ l ) ( za ) ( z a £ Xa + P za ^ y a + l *n * ZA xa + l ^ za ) )

T h is i s , o f c o u r s e , a w f f o f Sa + . 2

29Thus a l l t h e s u b s c r i p t s u s e d i n t h e l e a s t u p p e r bound th e o r e m

f o r a l l t h e r e a l n um bers o f a l l f i n i t e o r d e r s w i l l be w , a n d t h e w f f

w i l l b e o f o r d e r u i+ l, a s w i l l t h e r e s t o f t h e t h e o r y o f t h e s e r e a l

num bers.

S^We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t S i s n o t known t o b e i n c o m p l e t e , j u s t

f r e e from G 8 d e l - t y p e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s . B ut o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i g ­

n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o v a b i l i t y o f t h e Glidel f o r m u l a s o f S i n S a p p l i e s

e q u a lly w e ll i f S i s i n f a c t c o m p le te .

• ^ S i n c e t h i s i s Wang’ s a t t i t u d e , i t i s odd t o n o t e t h a t he

f e e l s c o m p e lle d t o a n s w e r t h e c h a r g e t h a t t h e r e i s no way i n S ” . . . ( t o )

speak o f a l l s e t s , o r a l l r e a l num bers a t t h e same t i m e . . . " (WANG,

p . 583). I t i s e v e n o d d e r t h a t he s h o u ld p r o p o s e a n u n i n d e x e d v a r i ­

a b l e n o t a t i o n t o overcom e t h i s " d i f f i c u l t y . ” And e v e n i f t h e i n f o r m a l

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-1 0 2 -

n o t i o n s w h ic h s u c h a n o t a t i o n w ould e x p r e s s w e r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , w h a t

w o u ld b e t h e u s e o f a w f f ( x ) F x ( f o r e x a m p le) w h ic h c o u l d be

'’a s s e r t e d " i f f f o r e v e r y a ( x a )F xa c a n be " a s s e r t e d " i n t h e l i g h t o f

t h e n o n - c o n s t r u c t i v i t y o f S?

^ S e e th e d e f in itio n of 0 in c h a p te r 3. We c a n e f f e c t i v e l y

r e c o g n i z e same n a t u r a l num bers a s GBdel num bers o f s e t s o f e q u a t i o n s

d efin in g ( to t a l) r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s , and same n a t u r a l num bers a s n o t

such. We j u s t c a n n o t do i t f o r a l l .

a se t i s r . e . , th en th e re i s a n e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e w hich

i d e n t i f i e s a l l members o f t h a t s e t , a n d i f i t i s t h e complement o f a n

r . e . s e t , t h e n t h e r e i s s u c h a p r o c e d u r e w h ic h i d e n t i f i e s a l l n o n ­

m em bers. But i n t h e c a s e o f 0 t h e r e a r e num bers b o t h i n a nd o u t o f 0

a b o u t w h ic h we w i l l f i n d o u t n o t h i n g , s in c e t h e i r v a lu e u n d er fg i s 1.

®^In g e n e r a l , we s h a l l s a y t h a t t h e f o r m u la Fx d e f i n e s o r

r e p r e s e n t s t h e s e t S o f n a t u r a l num bers i f f f o r e v e r y n , n t S i f f \-F n .

T h i s w i l l o n ly b e a p p l i e d t o r e c u r s i v e f o r m u l a s , h e n c e we w i l l a l s o

have n ^ S i f f -F n .

we saw i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n r e s t s upon a

s u p p re sse d p re m iss , b u t i n t h e s ta n d a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h i s p rem iss i s

t r u e , and h e n c e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o u n d .

3®We c a n u s e Pq i n Mjx b e c a u s e t h e f o r m u l a s M^x w i l l b e r e c u r ­

s iv e (see f o o t n o t e s 34 and 3 9 ) . T h u s , i f t h e r e i s a p r o o f o f K^n i n any

th e o ry , th en th e r e is a p ro o f of i t in Aq , and h e n c e t h e r e i s a n r

such t h a t P g ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) , w h e re m i s t h e G&del num ber o f M^x.

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-103-

®^Here we m u s t assum e w - c o n s i s t e n c y . Then we know t h a t

-(Mm n P o ( r ; s ( m , n ) ) i s n o t p r o v a b l e f o r e v e r y m an d r , and s i n c e t h e

fo rm u la i s r e c u r s i v e , f o r a n y c h o i c e o f m an d r f o r w h ic h i t i s

i m p r o v a b l e , i t s n e g a t i o n m u st b e p r o v a b l e .

®®Remember t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e t r a n s f i n i t e p r o g r e s s i o n o f

t h e o r i e s i s t o a c t u a l l y f i n d s t r o n g e r an d s t r o n g e r t h e o r i e s so a s t o

be a b l e t o pro v e new t h e o r e m s . Thus t h e p r o g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n m ust be

c o n stru c tiv e .

^ C o n c e r n i n g t h e r e c u r s i v i t y o f Mwx : y *= jf(w) i s a r e c u r s i v e

re la tio n . So My * (E w )(y Mj ( w ) ) a p p e a r s t o b e o n l y r . e . , b u t s i n c e J

i s a u n i f o r m l y i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n , we c a n p u t a bound on w - e . g . .

w<y. A g a i n , M^x i s t h e e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f a r e c u r s i v e

r e l a t i o n and h e n c e a p p e a r s t o b e o n l y r . e . How ever, v i a CRAIG's

th e o r e m t h a t t h e d e d u c t i v e o u t p u t o f a r . e . s e t o f axiom s can be

d u p l i c a t e d b y a r e c u r s i v e s e t o f a x io m s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r u s i n g h i s

e f f e c t i v e m ethod o f d e f i n i n g t h e r e l a t e d r e c u r s i v e s e t , we c o u ld

a lw a y s m o d ify M^x i n s u c h a way a s t o g i v e a r e c u r s i v e s e t o f axioms

w h ic h g i v e s t h e same s e t o f t h e o r e m s a s d o e s M^x i t s e l f .

The i m p o r ta n c e o f h a v in g Mwx r e c u r s i v e i s t h a t we w i l l have

e ith e r M^n o r (- -M^n f o r e a c h n . Thus t h e f o r m u la M^x c a n a c t u a l l y

b e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e l i m i t t h e o r y Aw .

on ly p ro v id e s n o t a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d i n a l s .

But s i n c e 0 i s m a x im a l, i t p r o v i d e s a n o t a t i o n f o r a n y o r d i n a l f o r

w h ic h t h e r e e x i s t s a n y s y s te m o f n o t a t i o n s . H e n c e , i n o r d e r t o make

t h e p r o g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n c a l c u l a b l e , we w i l l h a v e t o r e s t r i c t t h e

p r o g r e s s i o n t o t h e s e o r d i n a l s anyway*

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-1 0 4 -

^ H isto ric a lly , ^ 0 , <'' 0 // was c r e a t e d a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e

i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v in g a m axim al r e c u r s i v e u n i v a l e n t s y s te m o f

o rd in a l n o ta tio n s . (ROGEES, p p . 2 0 6 - 7 ) The m u l t i p l i c i t y o f n o t a t i o n s

f o r l i m i t o r d i n a l s (and t h e l o s s o f r e c u r s i v i t y ) was t h e p r i c e p a i d

f o r a m axim al s y s te m o f n o t a t i o n s . B ut i n o u r c a s e , t h e demand f o r

th e r e c o g n i ti o n of th e n o n -u n iq u e n e ss of t h e fo rm u la d e f i n i n g th e

l i m i t t h e o r y i s more f u n d a m e n t a l : e v e n i f we o n l y w a n t e d t o d e s c r i b e

t h e p r o g r e s s i o n a s f a r a s Aoi+1 we s h o u l d have t o u s e t h e w h o le o f 0 up

t o w+l - t h e u s e o f a s i n g l e b r a n c h ( w h ic h i s e a s y t o g e t ) w o u ld be

in a d e q u a te .

42(4) F " is a v e r i f ia b le p ro g re ssio n i f (th e fo rm a liz a tio n s

of) ( l ) —( 3 ) can be proved in Aq . A c tu a lly , Feferm an on ly c o n s id e rs

v e r if ia b le p ro g re ssio n s. The r e a s o n i s t h a t s i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n i s

i n t e n s i o n a l - i . e . a p ro c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e fo rm u la s w h ich d e fin e

t h e axiom s o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n - e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a ­

l e n c e o f two s t a r t i n g f o r m u la s d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e e x t e n s i o n a l e q u i v a ­

le n c e even o f t h e i r l o c a l e x t e n t i o n s . F o r e x a m p le , l e t t h e l o c a l

e x t e n s i o n b e F x —^ F x v - ( E y ) P g ( y * x ) a n d s t a r t w i t h ( E y ) P g ( y ; x ) a s M^x:

t h e n Ag a l r e a d y h a s t h e w h o le s e t o f w f f s a s i t s s e t o f a x io m s . But

i f you s t a r t w ith (E y )P g (y ;x ) n - ( x / ' 0 = l ' ) - w h ich i s e x t e n s i o n a l l y

e q u i v a l e n t t o ( E y ) P o ( y ; x ) - yo\i t h e n g e t f o r l ^ x t h e f o r m u la

(E y )P 0 ( y ; x ) n x / *0=1' . v - ( E y ) P 0 ( y ; x ) , w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o

- ( x / , 0 = l , )v- - ( E y ) P o ( y j x ) w h i c h i s n o t p r o v a b l e o f e v e r y n . In p a r tic u ­

l a r , i t i s n o t p r o v a b l e o f t h e G&del num ber o f t h e f o r m u l a 0 = 1 .

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-105w

^ T h e lo c a l e x te n tio n is s tr o n g e r th a n th e a d d itio n of th e

f o r m u la e x p r e s s i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e t h e o r y t o b e e x t e n d e d , and

t h e G&del f o rm u la f o r t h a t t h e o r y i s p r o v a b l y e q u i v a l e n t t o i t s

c o n s is te n c y fo rm u la ,

4 % o r e e x a c t l y , s u p p o s e t h e G&del num ber o f ( x ) - P g x g e ( x ; s ( y , y ) )

is p. Then G3x5e = ( x ) - P 3x5e ( x ; s ( p , p ) ) , a n d g3x e = S ( p , p ) , w here S i s


5

t h e in fo rm a l f u n c t i o n t o w hich s c o r r e s p o n d s . So we w i l l be a b l e t o

p r o v e g3 x © = s ( p , p ) .
5 So we w i l l h a v e :

1— (Ex ) P 3x5e ( x ; g 3x5e ) D (E x)P 3 x 5 e ( x ; s ( p , p ) )

D - ( x ) - P 3x5e ( x j s ( p , p ) ) ,

w h ic h l a s t i s ” ^ 3x ©» 5

^®This makes t h e w - r u l e a s n e a r l y e f f e c t i v e a s p o s s i b l e . How­

e v e r , s i n c e A0+R i s c o m p le te e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e t o f t r u e w f f s i s n o t

a r i t h m e t i c ( s e e C o n c l u s i o n ) , we s e e t h a t R i s s t i l l v e r y n o n - e f f e c t i v e .

I t may b e w o n d e re d : sin c e th e s e t o f p r im itiv e r e c u r s iv e fu n c tio n s i s

r e c u r s i v e , how can t h e s e t o f t h e o r e m s o f Aq+R f a i l t o be r . e . ? The

a n s w e r i s t h a t t h o u g h we c a n r e c o g n i z e ( d e f i n i t i o n s o f ) p r i m i t i v e

r e c u r s i v e f u n c t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y , we c a n n o t e f f e c t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e

( d e f i n i t i o n s of) p r im it iv e r e c u r s iv e f u n c t i o n s m e e tin g th e c o n d itio n

th a t f(n ) is ( t h e num ber o f ) a p r o o f o f Bn f o r e a c h n . Compare t h e

s it u a ti o n w ith 0: th e s e t of p a r t i a l re c u rs iv e fu n c tio n s i s p a r t i a l

r e c u r s iv e , b u t th e s e t o f t o t a l re c u rs iv e fu n c tio n s d e fin in g

in c r e a s i n g sequences o f o r d in a l n o t a t io n s i s n o t .

^®Let Tnyx b e t h e r e l a t i o n " y i s a p r o o f o f x i n t h e t h e o r y

whose i n d e x i s n " . G iv e n a n i n d e x n , Tnyx i s r e c u r s i v e f o r a n y y^and

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-1 0 6 -

x. So th e o re m h o o d i n t h e t h e o r y whose i n d e x i s n i s e x p r e s s e d by

(E y)T nyx, and t h i s i s r . e . Now, u s u a l l y t h e e x i s t e n t i a l g e n e r a l i ­

z a t i o n o f a n r . e . r e l a t i o n i s s t i l l r . e . - (E n )(E y )T n y x s h o u ld s t i l l

be r . e .

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-1 0 9 -

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