Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.

Hindu college, Nagercoil 1

CHAPTER V- Micro Wave Devices

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with
 ranging from 1m to 1mm (or)
 between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.
This includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves).
Applications
 Microwaves are extensively used for point-to-point
telecommunications. Microwaves are especially suitable for this use
since they are more easily focused into narrower beams than radio
waves.
 Microwaves are used in long distance communications like TV and
telephone communications.
 They are extensively used in very long distances communications such
as spacecraft communication and between ground stations and
communications satellites.
 Their higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth , high data
transmission rates, and smaller antenna sizes (since antenna size is
inversely proportional to frequency).
 Microwaves are also employed in microwave ovens and in radar
technology.

Solid State Microwave Devices

As the operating frequency increases, the stray reactance, device
capacitance and transit time as well as cable losses are increasing. For
example at microwave frequencies, a thin film resistor looks like a complex
RLC network with distributed LC values and a different R value. Ordinary
electronic components behave differently at microwave frequencies and
hence special devices were developed to use in microwave region.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 2

MW Solid state devices are classified into different categories as

MW Bipolar Transistors - MW Heterojunction Transistor (HBT)
MW FET such as High Mobility Transistors (HEMT)
Microwave Special Diodes
MW Diodes
The MW special diodes are classified into different groups based on
their operating principle
 Quantum Mechanical Tunnel effect - Tunnel Diode
 Transfer Electron Device(TED) – Characterised by bulk effect of
semiconductor -Gunn Diode
 Avalanche and Transit time effects – IMPATT and TRAPAT
 Parametric Excitation effect – Parametric Amplifiers
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 3

Tunnel Diode (Or ESAKI diode)

Invented by Leo Esaki in 1958. A tunnel diode is associated with
quantum mechanical tunnelling phenomena. Quantum tunnelling is the
quantum-mechanical effect of transitioning through a classically-forbidden
energy state. (ie) an electron or charge carrier pass through a potential
barrier without having sufficient energy to do so.

A tunnel diode is a PN junction that exhibits negative resistance

between two values of forward voltage. Both P and N sides are
degenerately doped (very heavily doped) with impurities several 1000
times that of a typical PN junction diode (1019 to 1020 impurity atoms
/cm3). Because of heavy doping the depletion region is very thin and the
tunnel distance ‘d’ is very small (5 to 10 nm). Also the heavy doping causes,
the Fermilevel within the valence band on P side and within the Conduction
band on N side. The amount of degeneracy qVp and qVn is typically 50mev
to 200 mev.
When there is no voltage (V=0) is applied to the tunnel diode, the
diode is in the thermal equilibrium. Under this unbiased condition, the
probability of electrons going from states in the conduction band on N-side
to states in the valance band on the P-side and in opposite directions are
the same. Therefore the net tunneling of the thin barrier is then zero.
When a forward bias is VF applied, the energy levels on N side are
raised relative to those on P-side. Now, there exists a band of occupied
energy states on the N-side (electrons in the conduction band of N-side)
and corresponding unoccupied states on the P-side (empty states in the
valence band of P-side). The electrons can tunnel from the N-side to the P-
side.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 4

FIG: Tunneling at various Biasing levels

TTunneling stops
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 5

This tunneling current will reach a maximum value I P (peak current)

at a forward voltage bias voltage VF = VP (Peak Voltage) which is
approximately equal to (Vp +Vn) / 3).
When the forward bias is further increased (VP < VF < VV valley
voltage), the energy levels on N side are further raised and there are fewer
available unoccupied states on the P-side and tunneling decreased.
Further increase in forward voltage (V = VV) makes the band
uncrossed, and at this point tunneling current no longer flow or the current
is minimal (IV valley current).
With still further increase in forward voltage (V F > VV) the normal
thermal current will flow.
From the operation of tunnel diode, in the forward bias condition the
tunnel current increases from zero to a maximum value I P as the forward
voltage increases. With the further increase in voltage the current
decreases to IV. The decreasing portion after the peak current is negative
differential resistance region.
The tunnel diode at various bias conditions are shown in Figures 1
through 5 to the corresponding points in the characteristic curve.
The values of IP and IV determine the magnitude of the negative
resistance and the ratio IP/IV is known the figure of merit of the tunnel
diode.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 6

Tunnel diode Characteristics

Symbol and Equivalent circuit of Tunnel diode

Ls- Lead inductance (nH) , Rj - Negative Resistance (100 ohm) , Rs –

Bulk Resistance (few ohm) , Cj – Junction capacitance (pf)
The empirical form of Tunnel diode current is given by

The first term of the above equation is the Tunnel current and the
second term is the normal thermal current. The negative differential
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 7

resistance can be obtained from the first term of the equation and is given
by

The values of VP and VV depend upon the diode materials. The

following figure shows typical V-I characteristics of some important
materials at room temperature.

The current ratios of IP/IV are 8:1 for Ge and 12.1 for GaSb and GaAs.
Because of its smaller effective mass (0.042M0), the smaller bandgap
(0.72eV), the GaSb tunnel diode has the largest negative resistance of the
three devices.
Applications
1. The negative resistance gives negative power (= -I2R) and is the
source of power. (ie) instead of absorbing the signal it boost the signal. This
property found applications in Microwave amplifiers and oscillators.
2. Since the tunneling phenomenon is very fast, tunnel diodes are used
in high speed switching circuits (The time of switching of a tunnel diode is
only few nano seconds)
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 8

Advantages
 Insensitive to temperature - hence tunnel diodes are used in place of
normal diodes in military applications .
 Very low junction Capacitance
 Extreme speed in switching and stable characteristics
 Ability to operate under wide variety of critical environments
 Low noise level and small size
Drawback
Tunnel diodes cannot replace rectifier diodes, because tunnel diode
is very leaky in reverse bias.
Tunnel diode based oscillator
Tank circuits oscillate but “die out” due to the internal resistance
(Positive Resistance). If a tunnel diode is properly biased to operate in the
negative resistance region the “negative resistance” provided by the tunnel
diode can overcomes the loses due to the positive resistance and maintains
the oscillations

Tunnel diode oscillator

Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 9

Transferred Electron Devices (TED) - Gunn Diode

Ridely and Watkins (1961) theoretically discussed the possibility of
negative resistance effect in semiconductors. In 1962 Hilsum discussed the
possibility of obtaining a voltage controlled bulk negative conductance in
GaAs called as Transferred Electron Mechanism.
In 1963 Gunn observed micro wave oscillations in GaAs sample.
Gunn Effect
Gunn observed that, above some critical voltage (corresponding to
electric field of 2K-4K V/cm) the current passing through n-type GaAs
material becomes a periodic fluctuating function of time (oscillation) . He
also observed that, the frequency of oscillation is determined mainly by the
material not by the external circuit. The period of oscillation is inversely
proportional to the specimen length and is equal to the transit time of
electrons between the electrodes. The Gunn Effect was successfully
explained by the Two-Valley Model theory.
Figure

Ososcillating current after V>Vth

Vth V
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 10

Gunn Diode
Gunn Diode is also known as Transfer Electron Device. Even though it
is called as a diode it does not contain PN junction. It is a Bulk device, and
because of its two electrodes it is called as a diode. Thus the operation of a
Gunn diode is based upon the bulk properties of the material and not on
the properties of PN junction.

Construction and Working

Symbol and Equivalent Circuit

Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type semiconductor.

The most common materials are Gallium Arsenide, (GaAs) and Indium
Phosphide (InP).
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 11

The device is simply an n-type bar with n+ contacts. It is necessary to

use n-type material because the transferred electron effect is only
applicable to electrons and not to holes.

The most common method of manufacturing a Gunn diode is to grow

and epitaxial layer on a degenerate n+ substrate. The active region is very
thin and its thickness is between a few microns and a few hundred microns.
This active layer has a low doping level between 1014 /cm3 and 1016 /cm3 -
this is considerably less than that used for the top and bottom areas of the
device. The thickness of the active region determines the frequency of
oscillation. The base also acts as a heat sink which is critical for the removal
of heat.

Operation
The Gunn diode operation depends upon the very thin active region.
When a voltage is placed across the device, most of the voltage appears
across the inner active region. Since the active region is very thin the
voltage gradient that exists in this region is very high.
After a threshold voltage level, the device exhibits a negative resistance
region on its V/I curve.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 12

This negative resistance region means that the current flow in diode
increases in this region when the voltage falls. This phase reversal enables
the Gunn diode to act as an amplifier and oscillator.

When the voltage across the active region reaches a certain point a
current is initiated and travels across the active region. During the time
when the current pulse is moving across the active region the potential
gradient falls preventing the formation further pulses. Only when the pulse
has reached the far side of the active region will the potential gradient rise,
allowing the next pulse to be created.
It can be seen that the time taken for the current pulse to traverse the
active region largely determines the rate at which current pulses are
generated, and hence it determines the frequency of operation. The pulse
formation can be explained by the Two Valley Model Theory
(Gunn Diode Operation in detail.
Gunn diode operation at microwave frequencies
At microwave frequencies, it is found that the dynamic action of the
diode incorporates elements resulting from the thickness of the active region.
When the voltage across the active region reaches a certain point a current is
initiated and travels across the active region. During the time when the
current pulse is moving across the active region the potential gradient falls
preventing any further pulses from forming. Only when the pulse has
reached the far side of the active region will the potential gradient rise,
allowing the next pulse to be created.

It can be seen that the time taken for the current pulse to traverse the active
region largely determines the rate at which current pulses are generated, and
hence it determines the frequency of operation.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 13

To see how this occurs, it is necessary to look at the electron

concentration across the active region. Under normal conditions the
concentration of free electrons would be the same regardless of the distance
across the active diode region. However a small perturbation may occur
resulting from noise from the current flow, or even external noise - this form
of noise will always be present and acts as the seed for the oscillation. This
grows as it passes across the active region of the Gunn diode.

Gunn diode operation

The increase in free electrons in one area cause the free electrons in
another area to decrease forming a form of wave. It also results in a higher
field for the electrons in this region. This higher field slows down these
electrons relative to the remainder. As a result the region of excess electrons
will grow because the electrons in the trailing path arrive with a higher
velocity. Similarly the area depleted of electrons will also grow because the
electrons slightly ahead of the area with excess electrons can move faster. In
this way, more electrons enter the region of excess making it larger, and
more electrons leave the depleted region because they too can move faster.
In this way the perturbation increases.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 14

Gunn diode operation - electrons in the peak move more slowly

The peak will traverse across the diode under the action of the potential
across the diode, and growing as it traverses the diode as a result of the negative
resistance.
A clue to the reason for this unusual action can be seen if the voltage and
current curves are plotted for a normal diode and a Gunn diode. For a normal
diode the current increases with voltage, although the relationship is not linear.
On the other hand the current for a Gunn diode starts to increase, and once a
certain voltage has been reached, it starts to fall before rising again. The region
where it falls is known as a negative resistance region, and this is the reason
why it oscillates.)
Two Valley Model Theory
According to the energy band theory of n-type GaAs, other than valence
band and conduction band there is a third band called sub-conduction
band. The two levels of conduction band give two valleys called lower
valley (LV) and upper valley (UV). The two valleys are separated by 0.36eV.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 15

The effective mass of electron is given by the expression

M = h2 / (d2E/dK2) ------------- 1
The basic mechanism involved in the operation of n-type GaAs device is
the transfer of electrons from lower valley conduction band to upper valley
conduction band.
Since the lower valley slope is sharper than the upper valley, the electron
has different effective mass, and hence different mobility (µ) in lower and
upper valley.
From 1, it is clear that , ML < MU
µL > µU (Since µ = e/M)
GaAs Valley Effective Mass Mobility
Lower ML = 0.068M0 µL = 8000 cm2/V-sec
Upper MU= 1.2M0 µU= 180 cm2/V-sec
M0 is the rest mass
Electron densities in the lower and upper valleys remain the same under an
equilibrium condition.
 When the applied electric field is lower than the electric field of the
lower valley (E < EL), no electrons will transfer to the upper valley.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 16

 When the applied field is higher than that of the lower valley and
lower than that of the upper valley (EL < E < EU), electrons will begin
to transfer to the upper valley.
 When the applied field is higher than that of upper valley (E > EU), all
electrons will transfer to the upper valley.

If electron densities in the lower and upper valleys are n L and nU, the
conductivity of the n-type GaAs is
σ = e (µLnL + µUnU) ------ 2
Where e – the electron charge
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 17

n = nL + nU is the electron density and is proportional to EP (where p

is a constant)
According to ohms law J = σE ------- 3
dJ/dE = σ + (dσ/dE) E
= σ ( 1+ E/σ (dσ/dE) )
(1/σ) dJ/dE = 1 + [ (dσ/dE) / (σ/E ) ]

The condition for negative resistance is dJ/dE < 0

(i.e) 1 + [ (dσ/dE) / (σ/E ) ] < 0
Or (dσ/dE) / (σ/E ) < -1
Or -(dσ/dE) / (σ/E ) > 1
This condition can be achieved in semiconductors which have the following
properties.
1. The presence of a sub-band in the conduction band.
2. The energy difference between two valleys must be several times
larger than the thermal energy (KT~0.0259eV)
3. The energy difference between the valleys must be smaller than the
bandgap energy (Eg)
4. Electron in lower valley must have a higher mobility and smaller
effective mass than that of in upper valley
Applications
Gunn diodes are mainly used in the generation of Microwave
frequencies between 1 GHz and 100 GHz. As a discrete component, a
Gunn diode can be used as an oscillator or amplifier in applications that
require low-power radio frequency (RF) signals, such as proximity
sensors and wireless local area networks (LAN).
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 18

Gunn diodes that are made from gallium arsenide can operate at
frequencies up to 200 GHz. A Gunn diode made from gallium nitride can
reach 3 THz.

Avalanche Transit Time Devices (ATTD)

ATTD is proposed by Read in 1958. In an ATTD negative resistance is
achieved by creating a delay (180o phase shift) between the voltage and
current. The delay is achieved by,
1. Avalanche delay caused by the finite build up time of avalanche
current - (produce 90o phase shift between V & I)
2. Transit time delay – the finite time taken by the carriers to reach the
respective electrode (produce another 90o phase shift between V & I)
When these two delays add up to 180o, the diode electronic
resistance is negative.

Two modes of ATTD

1. IMPATT Diode – Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time Diode
Also called as Read Diode ( 5 -10% efficiency)
2. TRAPATT Diode – Trapped Plasma Avalanche Transit Time Diode
(20-60% efficiency)

IMPATT Diode
Impact Avalanche current
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 19

The avalanche is generated by carrier impact ionization. If a free

electron with sufficient energy strikes an atom in the semiconductor like Si,
it can break the covalent bond and liberate an electron from the covalent
bond. The liberated electron gains energy by being in an electric field and
liberates other electrons from other covalent bonds. This process can
cascade very quickly into a chain reaction producing a large number of
electrons and a large current flow. This phenomenon is called impact
avalanche.

Structure
The IMPATT-Diode is a two terminal semiconductor device which
operates by a combination of avalanche multiplication and transit time
effects. Generally, it has a PN structure which is reverse biased to operate
in the avalanche breakdown region.
Two important regions of IMPATT diode are

1) Thin p region (High field/Avalanche region) – avalanche

multiplication occurs

2) Intrinsic n region (Drift region) – generated electrons must drift

towards the n+ contact.

A reverse biased IMPATT diode with various regions is shown in

figure
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 20

Operation
The doping profile and the corresponding electric fields in a reverse biased
IMPATT diode is shown in the following figure.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 21

 When the diode is operated in reverse bias near breakdown both

the N and N- (intrinsic) regions are completely depleted

 When the reverse bias voltage is above the breakdown voltage, the
space charge region always extends from ‘p+ n’ junction to the ‘i n+’
junction through the n and the i regions.
 Because of the difference in doping between the "drift region" and
"avalanche region", the electric field is highly peaked in the
avalanche region and nearly flat in drift region.
 Carriers (electrons) in the high field region near the p+ -n junction
acquire energy to knock down the valence electrons in the covalent
bond and hence electron hole pairs are generated. This is avalanche
multiplication
 In operation, avalanche breakdown occurs at the point of highest
electric field, and this generates a large number of hole-electron
pairs by impact ionization.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 22

 The holes are swept into the cathode (- terminal), but the electrons
travel across the drift region toward anode (+ terminal).
The transit time of an electron across the drift intrinsic region L is
given by
 = L / Vd
And the avalanche multiplication factor is given by
M = 1 / ( 1- V/Vb)n
V – Applied reverse voltage,
Vb – Avalanche Breakdown voltage,
n – numerical factor depending on the doping
concentration.
For silicon normally 3 to 6.

Carrier Current and External Current

 An ac voltage is maintained at a given frequency between the diode
terminal in such a way that the total field across the diode is the sum
of ac and dc fields. The sum of both fields causes avalanche
breakdown at the P+ -n junction during the positive half cycle of the
ac voltage cycle if the field is above the breakdown voltage.

 The carrier current Io(t) generated at the p+ -n junction by the

avalanche multiplication grows exponentially with time while the
field is above critical voltage.
 During the negative half cycle, when the field is below breakdown
voltage, the carrier current decays exponentially.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 23

 I0(t) is in the form a pulse of very short duration and it reaches its
maximum in the middle of the ac voltage cycle or one quarter of the
cycle later than the voltage.
 Under the influence of electric field the generated electrons are
injected into the space region towards the negative terminal.

As the injected electron traverse the drift space,

1) They induce a current Ie(t) in the external circuit.
2) Cause a reduction of the field
Since the velocity of the electron in the space charge is constant
Ie (t) = Q/ = VdQ/L
Q – total charge of the moving electrons

The external current Ie(t) because of the moving electrons is delayed by

90o relative to the pulsed I0(t). Since the carrier current I0(t) is delayed by
one quarter cycle or 90o relative to the ac voltage, Ie(t) is then delayed by
180 relative to the voltage. Hence negative conductance occurs and the
diode can be used for microwave oscillation and amplification.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 24

The following figure shows a close-up of the current and voltage

waveforms after oscillations have stabilized. It is clear from the figure
that the current is 180° out of phase with the voltage.

The following figure shows the buildup of microwave oscillations in

the diode current and voltage when the diode is embedded in a
resonant cavity and biased at breakdown

Fig 4. Buildup of microwave osc

Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 25

Advantages and drawbacks

 A main advantage is their high power capability. These diodes are

used in a variety of applications from low power radar systems to
alarms.
 The diodes make excellent microwave generators for many
applications. The output is reliable and relatively high when
compared to other forms of diode
The main drawback of using an IMPATT-diode is the high level of
phase noise that the device generates. In view of its high levels of phase
noise it is used in transmitters more frequently than as a local
oscillator in receivers (since in receivers the phase noise
performance is generally more important).

Applications
IMPATT diodes are semiconductor devices that generate relatively
high-power microwave signals at frequencies between about 3 GHz and
100 GHz or more.
IMPATT diodes are used in low-power radar systems and alarms. The
main drawback of using an IMPATT diode is the high level of phase
noise that the device generates.

PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS
The parametric amplifier is named for the time-varying parameter, or
value of capacitance, associated with the operation. Since the underlying
principle of operation is based on reactance, the parametric amplifier is
sometimes called a REACTANCE AMPLIFIER.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 26

The conventional amplifier is essentially a variable resistance that

uses energy from a dc source to increase ac energy. The parametric
amplifier uses a nonlinear variable reactance to supply energy from an
ac source to a load. Since reactance does not add thermal noise to a
circuit, parametric amplifiers produce much less noise than most
conventional amplifiers.
The most important feature of the parametric amplifier is the low-
noise characteristics. Electronic noise is the primary limitation on
receiver sensitivity and is the name given to very small randomly
fluctuating voltages that are always present in electronic circuits. The
sensitivity limit of the receiver is reached when the incoming signal falls
below the level of the noise generated by the receiver circuits. At this
point the incoming signal is hidden by the noise, and further
amplification has no effect because the noise is amplified at the same
rate as the signal. The effects of noise can be reduced by careful circuit
design and control of operating conditions, but it cannot be entirely
eliminated. Therefore, circuits such as the parametric amplifier are
important developments in the fields of communication and radar.
The basic theory of parametric amplification centers around a
capacitance that varies with time. Consider the simple series circuit
shown in figure. When the switch is closed the capacitor charges to
value Q. If the switch is opened, the isolated capacitor has a voltage
across the plates determined by the charge Q divided by the capacitance
C.
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 27

Voltage amplification from a varying capacitor.

An increase in the charge Q or a decrease in the capacitance C
causes an increase in the voltage across the plates. Thus, a voltage
increase, or amplification, can be obtained by mechanically or
electronically varying the amount of capacitance in the circuit. In
practice a voltage-variable capacitance, such as a varactor, is used. The
energy required to vary the capacitance is obtained from an electrical
source called a PUMP.

Varactor diode, more commonly referred to as a varicap, is an electronic

semiconductor device very closely related to a standard diode but with
certain capabilities similar to a capacitor. The difference between a
varactor and a standard diode is that a standard diode is designed to
minimize the device’s capacitance while a varactor diode is designed to
use and exploit capacitance. Varactor diodes find common use in
parametric electronics, such as parametric amplifiers and other tuning
circuits that can be varied by a change in voltage.
Although ordinary PN junction diodes exhibit the variable
capacitance effect, varactor diodes are optimised to give the required
changes in capacitance.

Varactor diode basics

Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 28

The varactor diode or varicap diode consists of a standard PN

junction, and it is optimized to function as a variable capacitor. The
diode is operated under reverse bias conditions and this gives rise to
three regions. At either end of the diode are the P and N regions where
current can be conducted. However around the junction is the depletion
region where no current carriers are available. As a result, current can
be carried in the P and N regions, but the depletion region is an
insulator. This is exactly the same construction as a capacitor. It has
conductive plates separated by an insulating dielectric.
The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of
factors including the plate area, the dielectric constant of the insulator
between the plates and the distance between the two plates. In the case
of the varactor diode, it is possible to increase and decrease the width of
the depletion region by changing the level of the reverse bias. This has
the effect of changing the distance between the plates of the capacitor.
Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias
conditions, and in this way there is no conduction. They are effectively
voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are sometimes called
varicap diodes, although the term varactor is more widely used these
days.
Varactor diode applications
Varactor diodes are widely used within the RF design arena. They
provide a method of varying the capacitance within a circuit by the
application of a control voltage. Although varactor diodes can be used
within many types of circuit, they find applications within two main
areas:
Voltage controlled oscillators, VCOs: Voltage controlled oscillators are
used for a variety of applications. One major area is for the oscillator
Class Notes by. K.Elampari, Associate Professor of Physics, S.T.Hindu college, Nagercoil 29

within a phase locked loop - this are used in almost all radio, cellular and
wireless receivers. A varactor diode is a key component within a VCO.
RF filters: Using varactor diodes it is possible to tune filters. Tracking
filters may be needed in receiver front end circuits where they enable
the filters to track the incoming received signal frequency. Again this can
be controlled using a control voltage. Typically this might be provided
under microprocessor control via a digital to analogue converter.