WASH Evaluation Solar Powered Water Supply Systems Somalia 2016-003 PDF

CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR UNICEF’s EVALUATION OF
THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR POWERED WATER SYSTEMS

IN SOMALIA
This report is financed by the USAID-OFDA and is presented by EED Advisory Limited for UNICEF and the Commission of the
European Union. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of UNICEF, USAID-OFDA or the EU.
EEDAdvisory
EED AdvisoryLimited
Limited
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SUBMITTEDEvaluation
TO: United Nations
of solar Children’s
powered water Fundin(UNICEF)
supply systems Somalia | August | 2016 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ II
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... II
LIST OF ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................. III
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Overview of SPWSS Program .............................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Objectives of this assignment............................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Somalia’s Water Access Context ........................................................................................................... 6
2. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 10
2.1 Evaluation Design ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Data analysis......................................................................................................................................... 12
3. STUDY FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Demographic Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 14
3.2 Technical Review ................................................................................................................................. 18
3.3 Parameters Review ............................................................................................................................... 23
4. ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Technical Review ................................................................................................................................. 28
4.2 Impact Evaluation ................................................................................................................................ 32
4.3 Sustainability and Management Structures Review ........................................................................ 37
5. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 43
6. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 45
6.1 Technical Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 45
6.2 Programming and Management Recommendations ........................................................................ 47
ANNEX 1: LIST OF KII AND FGD PARTICIPANTS ................................................. 50
ANNEX 2: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS AND BUSINESSES ........................................ 51
ANNEX 3: LIST OF SAMPLED WATERPOINTS ........................................................ 53
ANNEX 4: PUMP SPECIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTORS .................................. 55
Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 i

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Distribution of All Survey Respondents........................................................................................................ 11
Table 2: Summary of School Attendance and Facilities .............................................................................................. 17
Table 3: Summary of Health Facilities ........................................................................................................................ 18
Table 4: Average Water Prices ($/20L) ....................................................................................................................... 24
Table 5: Reliability of Alternatively Powered Water Sources ..................................................................................... 26
Table 6: Analysis of Willingness to Pay ...................................................................................................................... 35
Table 7: Elements Determinig Sustainability ............................................................................................................. 38
Table 8: North West Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 14; # of Households (HH) – 90; # of other tools- 37) ...................... 53
Table 9: North East Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 13; # of Households (HH) – 75; # of other tools - 25) ...................... 53
Table 10: South and Central Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 23; # of Households (HH) – 135; # of other tools - 57) ...... 53
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Climatic Zones in Somalia (Source: SWALIM) ............................................................................................ 7
Figure 2: Somalia Global Horizontal Solar Irradiation .................................................................................................7
Figure 3: Location of Sampled Sites ............................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 4: Gender of HH Respondents ......................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5: Age group of respondents ............................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 6: Marital Status of Respondents ..................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Type of household ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 8: Household Location ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 9: Gender of Business Respondents ................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 10: Water point functionality rate ................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 11: Appropriateness of System Sizing ............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 12: Water point head and flow rate .................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 13: Water Use Rates......................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 14: Means of Water Collection ......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 15: Water Collection Points ............................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 16: Average Cost of Water in Somalia per Source ........................................................................................... 23
Figure 17: Water Collection Times .............................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 18: Reasons for inaccessibility.......................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 19: Water point functionality rate over time ................................................................................................... 29
Figure 20: Oversized WSPSS Sites ............................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 21: Undersized SWPSS Sites ........................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 22: The F-diagram ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 23: Factors influencing choice of water source ................................................................................................. 36
Figure 24: SPWSS Procurement Process .................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 25: Estimated value of support delivered through various agencies (Jan – Sep 2016) – Compiled with data
from OCHA FTS (Sep, 2016) ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 26: SPWSS Pump Selection Tool..................................................................................................................... 48
Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 ii

LIST OF ACRONYMS
AS Al Shabaab
ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands
CHC Centre for Humanitarian Change
EU European Union
FGD Focus Group Discussions
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
HASP Hydrogeological Survey and Assessment of Selected Areas in Somaliland and
Puntland
IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment
JMP Joint Monitoring Programme
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
NEZ North East Zone
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NWZ North West Zone
PC Personal Computer
PSAWEN Puntland State Agency for Water, Energy and Natural Resources
PSH Peak sun-hours
PV Photovoltaic
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RAG Red-Amber-Green
SCZ South Central Zone
SMS Short Message Service
SPWSS Solar Powered Water Supply Systems
SWALIM Somalia Water and Land Information Management
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
TDH Total dynamic head
UN United Nations
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
USAID-OFDA United States Agency for International Development/Office of Foreign Disaster
Assistance
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WASH-MIS Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Management Information System
WSS Water Supply and Sanitation
Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) has been promoting the installation of solar
powered water supply systems (SPWSS) in rural communities in Somalia since 2006. This is
aimed at realizing the Fund’s vision in Somalia of developing and scaling up sustainable
community-managed water supply systems governed by sound frameworks, and managed and
overseen by a capable and dynamic private and public sector. The choice of solar technology is
informed by i) solar pumps are suitable as most parts of Somalia enjoy up to 10-12 hours of
sunlight per day throughout the year, ii) solar pumping has minimal recurrent costs iii) solar-
powered systems have low operating and maintenance costs and iv) solar energy, being
renewable, is environmentally friendly. Working with its partners, UNICEF has installed over
100 SPWSS sites across Somalia in various regions including Bari, Nugaal, Sool, Sanaag, Awdal,
Togdheer, Woqooyi Galbbed, Hiraan, Gedo, Lower Shebelle, Benadir, Galgadud and Mudug.
UNICEF is looking to either reorient or enhance its efforts in water access in Somalia. The overall
objective of this assignment was to assess the progress towards achievement of sustainable
community water supply through solar powered systems and to evaluate the efficiency,
effectiveness and relevance of the technology to the local context with a goal of generating lessons
and recommendations on factors to consider going forward. The evaluation methodology applied
was three-tiered: (i) desk review, (ii) field work and (iii) synthesis. The desk review resulted in a
detailed evaluation plan (inception report), a total of four structured questionnaires, and a set of
focus group discussion and key informant interview questions. Inception stage site visits were
conducted in Somaliland, Puntland and Mogadishu. Questionnaire pre-testing was carried out in
Puntland before all 4 questionnaires were translated to Somali. Field data collection was carried
out over a 6-week period from 13th of June to the 22nd of July 2016 – enumerator training was
conducted sequentially with data collection starting immediately after training, starting in
Puntland, then Somaliland and finally the different regions in South Central Zone. Water points,
households, businesses and institutions were selected through a stratified – random sampling
approach. A total of 424 structured surveys were conducted: 300 households, 46 businesses, 42
institutions and 36 water point operators. A further 10 key informant interviews and 3 focus
group discussions (one per zone) were carried out. The key limitations to the data collection
exercise included i) the extensive coverage of sampled sites (14 sites in Somaliland, 13 sites in
Puntland and 23 sites across 6 regions of South Central Zone); ii) delayed introduction to relevant
officials and reception of key data needs caused a delay in start of data collection.
The evaluation adopts a 3-step approach: i) technical review; ii) impact evaluation and; iii)
sustainability and management structures review. The evaluation is largely qualitative, with
discussion built around data analysis and observations made in the field. A quantitative
evaluation could not be performed due to lack of baseline and needs assessment data and well
defined indicators of success to form a basis for analysis.
Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 1

Technical Review
The technical review looks at the functionality rate of wells and the appropriateness of system
designs. The national functionality rate for SPWSS sites is at 77%, varying from 56% in Puntland,
77% in South Central Zone (SCZ) and 91% in Somaliland. It is, however, suspected that the
functionality rate of wells in South Central regions is lower than indicated by the data, as site
selection in the region was biased by accessibility and deliberate exclusion of non-functional wells
in some regions. Due to AS control over some regions the evaluation team, for example, did not
get access to wells in the Bakool region where five sites had been selected in the random sample.
These were replaced by alternative sites outside or adjacent to these regions. Similar challenges
were experienced in sections of Galgadud and Hiran. Pump breakdown rates and seasonality of
wells and boreholes were seen to affect the short term functionality of wells. At least 10 water
points in Somaliland and SCZ indicated having had downtime due to broken pumps within the
last year, but these were all repaired using funds from charges on water or community
contributions, an indication of community ownership. 21% of respondents indicated that drying
of wells limited their ability to access water from SPWSS sites, with the most affected area being
SCZ at 29%. An analysis of well functionality over time pointed to a ‘well mortality rate’ of two
years. Management and maintenance structures should be put in place to increase the probability
of longer term sustainability of SPWSS systems.
Solar PV for pumping is a proven technology for advancing water access, especially in rural arid
and semi-arid areas. The Grundfos pumps are a trusted brand in the solar PV pumping market
and the SQF 5A-7 pump is an appropriate choice as it functions within the limits of most of the
SPWSS sites. However, with regard to power sizing, a majority of SPWSS sites are oversized (57%
of functional sites) – having more solar panels than is needed. 30% of the sites are undersized.
Sizing calculations indicated that had all the sites been appropriately sized rather than adopting
an almost ‘one-size fits all’ approach, redistributing solar panels would have led to correct sizing
of all sites and therefore a more efficient use of resources. As it is, oversized systems have
underutilized resources and may lead to over-pumping from wells and therefore threatening the
well/borehole health. Undersize systems cannot meet their demand. The Technical Reports
attachment provides well-specific details.
Impact Evaluation
The impact evaluation looked at the effectiveness, relevance and efficiency of SPWSS
interventions. The criterion ‘Effectiveness’ assessed the progress in advancing water access for
target communities. Access was evaluated against the UN right to water and the Somalia WASH
cluster indicators. Somalia has a national water usage average rate of 19 liters per person per day,
against a recommended average of 15 liters per person per day. Further, the average distance
traveled by respondents to a water point is 380m against a recommendation of 500m. A majority
of respondents (88%) wait for less than 10 minutes to collect water from SPWSS sites – the
recommended maximum wait time is 30minutes. Only 11 of the 30 functional SPWSS sites visited

provide water at a fee. Water is most expensive in Somaliland at $3.1/m3 followed by Puntland
at $2.5/m3 and cheapest in SCZ at $1.2/m3. SPWSS sites are the cheapest sources of water for
sources that provide water at a fee1. Analysis of willingness to pay showed that a majority of
respondents in Somaliland and Puntland are willing to pay for improved quality of service from
their main water source while a majority of respondents in SCZ are not willing. However, the
average current prices of water are higher than most people are willing to pay. Perceptions of
quality and acceptability were seen to be of little consequence in choice of a water point, probably
due to lack of options.
Relevance evaluated water use behavior in adopting SPWSS sites. 92% of respondents using
SPWSS sites consider them their main water source while 84% solely rely on the sites to meet all
their water needs. At least 35% of those using SPWSS sites as their main water source indicate
that they’ve switched to this source within the last 3 years; at least 30 of these switches were from
unprotected water sources (open wells and rivers/streams). SPWSS sites have contributed to
efficiency in time usage: about 50% of respondents spend more than 10 minutes queuing at hand
pumps contrasted to 12% at SPWSS sites This is time that could be used for other economic
activities or for children in school. The poor power sizing of systems has contributed to low
efficiency of the SPWSS thereby limiting the benefits that could be gained from the interventions.
Sustainability Review
Sustainability can be viewed as the ability of a water point to consistently provide water in
quantities and quality comparable to the levels experienced during project commissioning. This
can be seen as a function of the number of operational years, average supply quantities and
quality, and availability factor (proportionate number of times that the system functions when
needed). Information collected isolate three key elements that determine the sustainability of
SPWSS. These are (i) technical design, (ii) functionality and (iii) degree of local ownership. The
SPWSS development process varies across regions. A key shortcoming of the process is that the
equipment supplier (hardware) and the service provider are often two (or more) different entities
making it difficult to isolate and assign responsibility in cases of malfunctions. Ideally, procuring
an end-to-end contractor who takes responsibility of both the hardware and service should
address this problem (merging step 5,6 and 8). The reality remains that this may not be practical
in some of the AS controlled areas, or other areas in general due to clan dynamics that allow only
certain service providers to operate in specific regions. Providing regular after-installation
support should be a standard component of the process. The subcontractors, in part, should be
accountable to these local leaders and communities during the first six months to a year post-
1Solar-diesel hybrid systems might provide a cheaper rate though the data lacked a representative
sample (n=1)
construction. It is during this initial period that most technical problems can easily be identified
and addressed before irreparable damages are caused.
Recommendations for Scaling-up SPWSS
In conclusion, UNICEF has demonstrated exceptional competence in project delivery and is

considered a sector leader in promoting water access in Somalia. The following are key
recommendations for taking the SPWSS project to scale in Somalia: i) Adopt a template approach
as opposed to a ‘one-size fits all’ approach to designing solar PV systems, that incorporates both
Grundfos and Lorentz pumps (a suggested pump selection decision tool is provided in this
evaluation); ii) Carry out well-specific power sizing calculations for efficient allocation of
resources and to avoid over-pumping of wells/boreholes; iii) Implement a WASH-MIS system –
a data collection and management system that allows targeted and synchronized data collection
across the three regions; iv) Phase II of the project should be time bound with a well-defined
logical framework that outlines the project’s specific objectives, inputs to realize these objectives,
expected outcomes and impacts and indicators of success; v) Carry out targeted baseline and
needs assessment studies that incorporate community engagement prior to implementation of
Phase II activities; vi) UNICEF should use its position as a WASH sector leader to form and run
a WASH-funds coordination body within the Somalia Development and Reconstruction Facility
and at regional levels.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of SPWSS Program
UNICEF’s vision in Somalia is to develop and scale up sustainable community-managed water

supply systems governed by sound frameworks, and managed and overseen by a capable and
dynamic private and public sector. UNICEF envisages that more people in rural, urban and peri-
urban areas of Somalia, in particular those living in vulnerable areas, will have access to improved
water within considerations of the need to improve efficiency and increase revenue. This vision
is in the backdrop of a region that i) is mostly arid and semi-arid and therefore highly water
scarce; ii) has a threatened groundwater resource due to over-exploitation coupled with low
recharge rates; iii) has a poor public water supply system so that most of the population obtains
water from sources that are prone to drying up in the dry seasons and iv) most of these water
sources, such as unprotected shallow wells, springs and surface water are contaminated and
unsafe for human consumption. Further, water access technologies (e.g. hand pumps, diesel
powered pumps and solar powered pumps) affect the sustainability of water points (in particular
boreholes and shallow wells) and the affordability of water by consumers.
To realize its vision in Somalia, UNICEF has been promoting the installation of solar powered
water supply systems (SPWSS) in rural communities in Somalia since 2006. The choice of solar
technology is informed by i) solar pumps are suitable as most parts of Somalia enjoy upto 10-12
hours of sunlight per day throughout the year; ii) solar pumping has zero recurrent costs; iii)
solar-powered systems require low operation and maintenance costs and; iv) solar energy, being
renewable, is environmentally friendly. Working with its partners, UNICEF has installed over
100 SPWSS sites across Somalia in various regions including Bari, Nugaal, Sool, Sanaag, Awdal,
Togdheer, Woqooyi Galbbed, Hiraan, Gedo, Lover Shebelle, Benadir, Galgadud and Mudug.
1.2 Objectives of this assignment
UNICEF is looking to either re-orient or enhance sustainable development of community solar

powered water supply systems in Somalia. The overall objective of this assignment is to assess
progress towards achievement of sustainable community water supply through SPWSS with the
goal of generating lessons and recommendations from efforts implemented so far. The evaluation
assesses varied factors including: the efficiency, effectiveness and relevance of installed
technology to the local context; factors to be considered in scaling up installation of solar powered
supply systems; ability of communities to embrace and use the technology and; impact of
installed infrastructure among others. This evaluation is done through a three-step approach – i)
a technical evaluation looking at the appropriateness of the installed hardware including sizing
and installation; ii) sustainability and management structures evaluation assessing the systems
in place, within and beyond UNICEF, to ensure long term sustainability of installed systems and;
iii) impact evaluation looking at the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency impacts of the SPWSS
project to the local social context. Some of the specific parameters evaluated under this
assignment include i) comparison of price per barrel of water from varied sources; ii) water
collection times at alternatively powered water sources; iii) reliability of SPWSS systems
compared to other systems and; iv) impact of insecurity on SPWSS systems. Additionally, the
assignment seeks to analyze factors within and beyond UNICEF’s control that affect the
performance of SPWSS so as to advise on how to take SPWSS to scale in Somalia while ensuring
complementarities with other actors in the WASH sector.
1.3 Somalia’s Water Access Context
1.3.1 Climate and Solar Radiation
Climate
Somalia is mainly made up of arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) making it a highly water scarce
country. Rainfall is mostly low and of erratic incidence: average total annual rainfall is about
300mm with the highest annual rainfall of about 700-800mm in the middle and lower Juba and
along the coastal areas of Middle Shabelle and the lowest rainfall seen along the northern
coastline at less than 100mm/year2. The country has two main rainy seasons: Gu from April to
June and Deyr from October to November; and two dry seasons: Jilaal from December to March
and Haggai from July to September. However, the rainfall seasons are highly variable and most
of the country remains vulnerable to weather and climatic shocks - Somalia experiences recurring
drought and flooding disasters that have displaced, killed and destroyed the livelihood of
millions of people. Somalia has average daily temperatures ranging between 25°C and 35°C with
temperatures highest in the inland areas – the cooling effect of cold ocean currents cools the
coastal regions. Error! Reference source not found. shows the climatic zones in Somalia.
Solar Radiation
Solar panels need direct sunlight to produce their maximum solar output. However, the amount
of solar radiation from the sun, varies throughout the day depending on the location of the sun
and cloud cover among other atmospheric conditions. Peak sun-hours (PSH) present an accepted
measure of the amount of energy that can be produced by solar panels: PSH is the average time
it takes for solar irradiance to average 1000W per square meter. Somalia’s annual global
horizontal irradiation3 ranges from 4.7-6.8 kWh/m2/day with the northern regions, on average,
receiving more irradiation than the South as shown in 4: the deeper the red coloration, the
higher the irradiation values. The high PSH levels throughout the year make solar power a highly
viable energy source for Somalia.
2 Somalia Water and Land Information Management (SWALIM), 2007, Climate of Somalia, Technical
Report No. W – 01
3 This is the total amount of radiation received per unit area from above by a surface horizontal to the
ground and it includes both direct normal irradiance and diffuse horizontal irradiance.
4 Maps are generated using irradiation averages for the period 1994 - 2010

Figure 1: Climatic Zones in Somalia (Source: SWALIM) Figure 2: Somalia Global Horizontal Solar Irradiation

1.3.2 Hydrogeology
With the exception of the communities living along the Juba and Shabelle Rivers, a majority of
the Somali people rely on ground water for domestic water supply and crop and livestock
farming. The main ground water sources include boreholes, shallow wells and springs, with
SWALIM5 estimating Somalia to have at least 1,695 dugwells, 823 boreholes and 352 springs. This
makes understanding Somalia’s hydrogeology (which deals with the distribution and movement
of groundwater in soil and rocks of the earth’s crust, commonly in aquifers) critical to sustainable
management of the groundwater resource. Unfortunately, the knowledge and availability of
information on quality and quantity of groundwater resources for the region is very limited, and
particularly so in the South and Central regions. Among the more comprehensive studies is the
HASP6: one of its main outputs is the first ever classification of the quality and quantity of local
aquifer systems and groundwater resources for specific areas of interest. The study found the
quality of groundwater in Somaliland and Puntland to be low to moderate with a majority of the
sources exhibiting excessive levels of salinity (only 40-50% being suitable for potable use).
Further, the study estimates the ground water yield at less than 0.5l/s/km2 classifying the region
as extremely poor in groundwater reserves. That said, the study does note that “drilling of
‘humanitarian’ wells should be extended, but only after feasibility assessment and under
professional supervision”. IGRAC7 identifies at least 3 transboundary aquifers in Somalia: i) Merti
Aquifer (whose depth from ground level to the top of the aquifer ranges from 100 to 250m8); ii)
Shabelle Aquifer whose average depth to the water table is 110m and; iii) Jubba aquifer whose
depth to the water table ranges from <5m-15m. Given the limited availability of aquifer
information, there is a need for coordinated efforts between drilling agencies within the country
to advance the understanding of the region’s ground water potential.
In general, boreholes (most of which have a depth ranging from 90m-250m, though some have
gone as deep as 450m in some areas) are seen as a more strategic water source in Somalia as they
have water throughout the year and a yield of 5-20m3/hr. Shallow wells on the other hand tend
to be less than 20m deep with yields varying from 2.5-10m3 /hr and are more prone to seasonality.
With regard to water quality, a majority of sources record conductivity levels higher than
2,000µS/cm, which is higher than the recommended 500 µS/cm for drinking water quality.
5 SWALIM – Somalia Water and Land Information Management; http://www.faoswalim.org/water/water-resources/ground-

water
6 SWALIM, 2012, Hydrological Survey and Assessment of Selected Areas in Somaliland and Puntland
7 IGRAC – International Groundwater Resources Assessment: https://ggis.un-igrac.org/ggis-viewer/region_information
8 Acacia Water, 2015, Hydrogeological Assessment of the Merti Aquifer, Kenya,
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/default/files/TR1%20ARIGA-
%20Hydrological%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Merti%20Aquifer%20Kenya.pdf
1.3.3 Socio-politics
Somalia’s complex socio-political landscape exacerbates the country’s poor water access
situation. This landscape contributes directly to water access with regard to i) installation,
operation and maintenance and long term sustainability of water infrastructure; ii) operation of
sector governance and regulation structures and; iii) availability of relevant skilled labour for
installation and maintenance of systems. There is therefore a very distinct disparity in water
access between the different regions with better access in the more stable areas (for instance in
Somaliland) as opposed to conflict areas like Lower Juba. Water access is further affected by
Somalis’ lifestyle patterns: the majority of Somalis live in rural areas (63%, JMP 2012) and are
mostly pastoralists or semi-sedentary agro-pastoralists9. As a consequence of its climatic
conditions and complex socio-political landscape, Somalia has a poor, relatively inexistent water
supply and sanitation (WSS) public sector especially outside Somaliland and Puntland regions.
The Ministry of Water in Somaliland, The Puntland State Authority of Water, Energy and Natural
Resources, and the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources – Federal Government of Somalia
are the entities mandated with public water supply. WSS needs, however, have a history of being
met mainly by entrepreneurs in the private sector and relief activities by varied humanitarian
and non-governmental agencies. These interventions have, however, been limited in scope and
population reach and are unsustainable in the long run.
9 Center for Humanitarian Change, 2014, Scoping Study for Improvement of Water and Sanitation in Somalia
2. METHODOLOGY
This chapter details the evaluation design including sampling, fieldwork instruments and the
data collection process. It also outlines the analysis process and assumptions and limitations
to consider in interpreting the data.
2.1 Evaluation Design
2.1.1 Sampling
Location Sampling
Field data collection was implemented

in at least 50% of regions where solar
powered systems were installed.
Project documents shared by UNICEF
divided Somalia into three regions:
North West Zone (NWZ), North East
Zone (NEZ) and South Central Zone
(SCZ). Data provided showed that
systems were installed in at least 6
regions in the NEZ, 8 regions in the
North West Zone (NWZ) and 6 regions
in the South and Central Zone (SCZ). A
total of 50 sites, proportionally
distributed across the three zones were
selected for evaluation: 13 sites in
Puntland, 14 sites in Somaliland and 23
sites in South and Central zone. Site
selection per region was random
though the final samples were
influenced by accessibility and
prevailing security. Of the 50 sites
distributes across the three zones, 40
sites were UNICEF funded while 10 Figure 3: Location of Sampled Sites
sites were non-UNICEF funded; the
non-UNICEF funded sites functioned as a control group for the evaluation along with
providing data for technology comparison purposes. The 10 sites were selected with the input
of UNICEF officers and representatives of line ministries from the respective zones. The Non-
UNICEF funded sites were distributed as follows: 4 in SCZ, 3 in NEZ and 3 in NWZ. Figure 3
shows the distribution of sampled water points in the context of all water points while Tables
5, 6 and 7 in Annex 3 list sampled sites.

Respondent Sampling
Data collection points included households, institutions (schools, health facilities, mosques,
etc.), government (ranging from water ministry to village leadership), water utilities, and
small and large businesses in the sampled project sites. Most respondents were direct
beneficiaries of this program (241 Household respondents from 40 UNICEF-supported water
points) while a sample of non-beneficiaries of the program were selected from the 10 non-
UNICEF funded water points (59 Household respondents). At least one institution, one
business and the water operator were interviewed at each site, where applicable. The
distribution of households sampled was calculated in proportionality to the beneficiaries’
distribution per UNICEF documentation, for a total of 300 Household interviews. The sample
sizes per site are summarized in Tables 5, 6 and 7 in Annex 3. Table 2 summarizes the total
number of respondents.
Table 1: Distribution of All Survey Respondents
RESPONDENT TYPE MINIMUM NUMBER OF INTERVIEWS
Households 300
Institutions 42
Businesses 46
Water point operators 36
TOTAL 424
2.1.2 Data Collection Tools
Survey design and administration

Structured questionnaires were administered for the household, institution, business and
water point operator interviews. The questionnaires were developed based on a broad set of
thematic questions. Themes covered included respondents’ economic and demographic
details, water collection and use behavior, health and water quality aspects and operation and
maintenance of water systems. The questionnaires were developed iteratively, incorporating
comments from UNICEF and observations from the pre-test exercise which was conducted in
Garowe, Puntland. The final versions of all four structured questionnaires were approved by
UNICEF before being translated to Somali and being administered. Administration of
questionnaires was done by enumerators from the local communities who not only have
extensive experience in data collection, but were also familiar with the sampled areas and
were known within their allocated areas. Training of enumerators was conducted in each zone
prior to data collection.
Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group Discussions.

The key informant interviews sought to identify members at the institutional, sectoral and
macro level who are authorities on the specific issues covered in this engagement. The focus
group discussions, on the other hand, brought together community members to discuss the
impacts of water systems in their communities. Three FGDs were held, one in each zone. A
semi-structured questionnaire was designed to guide this process and outlined questions
acted as prompts and discussion facilitators. The interviews and discussions sought insights

on impact, viability, sustainability and security of solar powered water supply systems and
policy recommendations on how to create an enabling environment for upscaling the
adoption of these technologies. A list of persons interviewed and participants in the FGDs is
provided in Annex 1.
Water Quality Testing

UNICEF provided conductivity meters for water quality testing. NEZ and NWZ received
one meter each while 2 meters were used in SCZ. Real time water testing for temperature
and electrical conductivity was conducted in selected sites in each of the regions for a total
of 22 sites: 7 sites in NWZ, 5 sites in NEZ and 10 sites in SCZ.
2.2 Data analysis
Statistical analysis
Data entry, cleaning and analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel. Interpretation of
results presented in this report should be made in consideration of the following
assumptions and biases:
i. Population estimate values used in data analysis were as reported in UNICEF’s

documentation. However, observations made during the site visits point to an
overestimation of population in some villages, which may positively or negatively bias
calculations.
ii. Due to unavailability of well/borehole completion reports, the total depths of wells
provided in UNICEF documentation were used as the water pumping depth when
calculating the Total Dynamic Head (TDH). This assumption ignores the well’s water
column – assumes that due to seasonal fluctuations, the pump is places at the lowest
feasible point.
iii. The list of final sites visited was influenced by accessibility and prevailing security
conditions, and in some instances (especially in SCZ), non-functional wells were
deliberately excluded from the sample list for efficient use of the Consultant’s resources.
As such, data collected might be positively biased.
iv. The water point demand was based on water point operator’s estimations of volume of
water pumped per day. An attempt to triangulate these numbers against the reported
household consumption rates yielded unrealistically high demand levels. This is
partially because extrapolation was based on target populations reported in UNICEF
documents (see assumption (i)).
Limitation
i. Lack of baseline line data and borehole/well completion reports affected the impact and
technical evaluations respectively. SPWSS impact was evaluated based on observations
and respondent’s data but benefits gained on livelihoods over the duration of the project

could not be quantified. The evaluation is therefore largely qualitative. Data provided by
UNICEF was used for the technical evaluations.
ii. Distances and limited transport infrastructure: being a nationwide evaluation, large
distances had to be covered to sampled sites. Getting to the sampled sites was further
complicated by a limited road network. Data collection was, however, done at all 50
sampled sites.
iii. Security concerns: On-going conflicts, particularly in some regions in South Central Zone
limited the ability to sample and visit sites within those regions.
iv. Response rate: Feedback from UNICEF was often delayed, leading to an overall delay in
project completion.

3. STUDY FINDINGS
3.1 Demographic Analysis
3.1.1 Household Demographics
Gender of Household respondents
Majority of the respondents, at 65%, were female. In

Puntland
general most households are headed by male heads
of households. Overall, 18% of respondents were Somalila
nd
female and the head of their households: In
Puntland this was true for 20% of respondents, 6% South
of respondents in South Central Somalia and 36% in Central
Somali
Somaliland.
Male Female
Figure 4: Gender of HH Respondents
Age group of respondents
Majority of the respondents interviewed were above 30

Puntlan
d
years of age and below or equal to 50 years of age. This
Somalila age group represented an average of 51% of all
nd
respondent’s interviewed. Respondent’s that were
South above 18 years of age and below or equal to 30 years of
Central
Somali
age were 27% and those older than 50 years of age were
22% of total respondent’s interviewed. Only one
respondent interviewed, in Puntland, was below 18
> 18 <18, ≥30 <30, ≥50 <50 years old. He was 17 years of age and the head of his
Figure 5: Age group of respondents household.
Marital status of respondent

Over 80% of the respondents were married with
only 4% on average having never been married or
widowed. 5% of the respondents were divorced or Puntland
separated. South Central Somali had no respondent Somalilan

d
that had never married. Somaliland had the highest
Sout
percent of never married and widowed h
respondents with 8% and 7% respectively. Puntland
had the largest proportion of divorced or separated
Never married Married
respondents with 7% of interviewed respondents.
Figure 6: Marital Status of Respondents

Income and Education Levels
Households source of income Respondent's main occupation Formal education of head of
household
100% Other
100% Uni
50% Agriculture
80% Herdsma 80% post sec
40% n/woman
Pastrolism
Complete
30% 60% Retired 60%
sec
Employmen Incomplet
20% t 40% 40% e sec
Housewif
Remittance Complete
10% e
s 20% pri
20%
Business Student Incomplet
0% e pri
0%
Aid 0% None
Unemplo
yed
Other
Farm
worker
The households’ main sources of income were agriculture, pastoralism, employment and business. Most respondents in Puntland
indicated employment as one of their sources of income (45%). Puntland in turn had the highest proportion of respondents that had a
university education and post-secondary education, 4% and 7% respectively, and the largest proportion - of the three zones- of formal
sector and informal sector employees, 7% and 12% respectively. Business was a major source of household income (43%) in Somaliland
with the largest proportion of respondent’s indicating self-employment as their main occupation (56%). In South Central Somali, most
respondents indicated agriculture activities as their main source of income (44%) and farm work as their main occupation (41%). In all
three zones, over 50% of respondents lived in households where the head had no formal education with South Central Somalia having
the largest proportion of this (79%).

Average number of people, children and animals in the household
Average No. of people Average No. of school Average No. of animals

per HH going age children per HH per HH
10
10 16
8 8 14
6 6 12
4 4 10
8
2 2
6
0 0
Puntland Somaliland South Puntland Somaliland South 4
Central Central
Somali Somali 2
Male adults in HH Total male children
Females adults in HH Male children in school 0
Male children in HH Total female children
Female children in school Camels Cows Sheep
Female children in HH
Total pple in HH Total children Goats Donkeys
The households interviewed had an average house hold size of 8 people and 3 children of school
going age. Sheep and goats were the main animals owned by these households. Puntland
interviewees had the most animals with an average 22 goats and 17 sheep per household
compared to Somaliland at 10 and 8 and SCZ at 12 and 6 goats and sheep respectively. South
Central Somalia and Somaliland had on average one cow per household and very few households
reported owning cows and camels in Puntland. The average number of camels and donkeys in
all three zones is below 1.
Household type and location
Most respondents indicated that their

Traditional - households had a permanent structure
19%
Temporary- and were located in urban areas. The
2% interpretation of rural vs urban was
Permanent, seen to be fluid with respondent’s
Semi
63%
permanent, living in small consolidated villages
17%
Figure 7: Type of household Camp, Rural,

1% 10%
considering themselves as urban dwellers. The
proportion of respondents from Puntland and South
Central Somalia who indicated their households were Urban,
located in rural areas were similar with 13% and 11% 89%
respectively. However, it is the Consultant’s view that all

Figure 8: Household Location

sites visited in Somaliland and Puntland are rural. In South Central Zone, seven sites can be
considered urban: Hawa Tako, 21st October, Beletweyn Hospital, Hobyo, Sigalow, Luq MCH
and Luq Gedaweyn. Likewise, for traditional house structures in Puntland and South Central
Somali, their proportion was 8% and 9% respectively. Somaliland had the largest proportion of
traditional houses at 39% of the interviewed respondents. South Central Somali was the only zone
with households interviewed that were in camps and temporary structures (in Gosha iyo Gendiga
site) constituting approximately 5% of interviewed respondents in the area.
3.1.2 Business and Institution demographics
Businesses
The businesses interviewed were mainly micro-traders (1-2 employees) with permanent
premises. On average, all businesses had at least one full time employee with the largest number
of full time employees being 2 in Falaydh yale in Puntland and Fadhi Xun in Somaliland. Majority
of businesses also had between 1 to 2 part- time employees. All businesses operated at least six
days a week with most operating the maximum of seven
days. Only one business in Raqayle in South Central
Somali indicated to be operating only 5 days a week.
Puntland
Unlike the household interviews, a larger proportion of

Somalila
respondents were male compared to female
respondents in household interviews. In total, 27 South
respondents interviewed were male compared to the 19 Centr
female. The largest number of male respondents were Male Female

from South Central Somali – 15 out of the 22
respondents interviewed in the area. Figure 9: Gender of Business Respondents
Institutions
Institutions interviewed were schools, health facilities and mosques. Mosques in South Central
Zone had the highest membership at an average of 80 members compared to 23 and 61 in
Somaliland and Puntland respectively. There were 5 main types of schools interviewed; primary,
secondary, primary and secondary, intermediate and qur’anic schools. Majority of schools
interviewed were primary schools: representing 31 % of all institutions interviewed and 57% of
all schools interviewed. All the schools were Day schools: there were no boarding schools
interviewed in the three zones.
Table 2: Summary of School Attendance and Facilities
Area Average No.
of of of male of female of of non-teaching
Classrooms offices students students teachers staff
South Central Somali 5 0 139 86 6 2
Somaliland 5 1 118 99 6 3
Puntland 10 1 63 33 5 4

Table 3 below summarized attributes of health facilities visited in the three regions. Baladweyn
district hospital was the only health institution interviewed in South Central Somalia. It had
additional facilities compared to other health centers such as 6 theater rooms and 2 laboratories.
Table 3: Summary of Health Facilities
Area Average No.
of beds of doctors of nurses of patients/week of clinical maternity
officers
South Central Somali 61 2 16 97 2 2
Somaliland 5 1 6 48 0 2
Puntland 21 0 2 65 2 1
3.2 Technical Review
3.2.1 Technical reports
Water point Functionality Rate
Functionality was defined as

Functionality Rate
whether water was available at the
100%
water collection point at the time of
80%
the field visits. The national
60%
functionality rate for SPWSS
40%
systems is at 77% with the highest
20%
functionality rates seen in
0%
Puntland Somaliland South Central National Somaliland at 91% and the lowest in
Zone Average Puntland at 56%.
Figure 10: Water point functionality rate
Appropriateness of System Sizing
Appropriateness of system sizing was performed for

functional SPWSS water points only. The desired flow
System Sizing
rate was calculated based on average water volumes
pumped per day as reported by water point operators, 13% Correct sizing
divided by the region’s average peak sunlight hours of 6
Undersized
hours. The total dynamic head is calculated as a factor of 30%
57%
well depth and storage tank elevation. Figure 12 below Oversized
shows the head and desired flow rate for all functional
SPWSS sited visited. The sizing appropriateness was
performed by matching well characteristics to the
Figure 11: Appropriateness of System Sizing
manufactures pump curve to determine the required

amount of power. As seen in Figure 11 57% of the sites (N=30) are oversized while 30% are
undersized.
70
Flow Rate (m3/hr)

60 8
50
Head (m)
6
40
30 4
20
2
10
0 0
Rabable
Camaara
Gargaara
Gosha
Hobyo
Fadhi Xun
Jawiil
Garacad
Luuq MCH
Qaw
Raqayle
Xumbaweyne
AwOsman
Cadadley
Siigalaw
Wargeeseed
Gidhays
Hudisa
Lafaruug
Sheed Dheer
21-Oct
Doonlaawe
Dubur
Lasadawaco
Balatweyne Hosp
Carabaydhey
Laalays
Luuq Gudey
Xiindawaco
Xerta Tukaraq
Head (m) Desired Flow Rate (m3)
Figure 12: Water point head and flow rate
Water Demand
The average water use in Puntland South Central Zone

Somalia is 19.05L/person-
day: Puntland has the 27% 25%
highest rate at 48%
<15 litres <15 litres
49%
20.11L/person-day, followed 15-20 litres 15-20 litres
by SCZ at 19.7L/person-day >20 litres 26% >20 litres
25%
and Somaliland at
17.35L/person-day. The
charts in Figure 13 show the
Somaliland National Distribution
use rates in the different
zones. A base of 15L/person-
day is used as the minimum 25% 26%
44% <15 litres <15 litres
47%
scale, as this is the
15-20 litres 15-20 litres
recommended volume by
31% >20 litres 27% >20 litres
the Somali WASH Cluster
indicators for rural and
urban water schemes.
Figure 13: Water Use Rates

Water Distribution and Collection
85% of respondents who rely on SPWSS sites as their main water source collect water from
public water collection points (water kiosks or standpipes) while the remaining have either
indoor or yard household connections. Water collection point responses are in agreement with
the 12% of respondents who indicate that they have piping to their households in response to
their means of water collection. A majority of the population carry water from the collection
point to their households on their heads or back as reflected in Figure 14.
3%
12%
12% 3%
Self (Back/head)
16%
Donkey
HH Indoor Connection
58% Animal Cart
HH Yard Connection 4%
5% Vehicle
82% Water Kiosk 5% Man-drawn cart
Standpipe Piping to household
Figure 15: Water Collection Points Figure 14: Means of Water Collection
SPWSS sites are within close proximity of users with the average distance from households
being 0.38km with a range of 3m and 6km.
3.2.2 Water quality
Data collection on water quality aspects focused on indicators of acceptability (smell, taste and
color), biological quality (indicated by incidence of diarrhea and cholera) and chemical quality
(evaluated through electrical conductivity tests and reported cases of teeth discoloration as an
indicator of fluoride concentration). The tables below summarize the responses that indicated
an unpalatable characteristic and/or reported cases of diarrhea and teeth discoloration.
Puntland
MAIN Cases of Diarrhea Cases of discoloration
SOURCE: In the last In the last 6 # (6-10 years # (>10 years How long have you
SPWSS SITE month months old) old) lived in village
Yalho - - 1 1 30
Xerta Tkaraq - - 1 - 18
Garacad - - 1 2 10
None of the respondents indicated that water from the functioning SPWSS sites in Puntland had
a noticeably unusual, smell or taste. The respondents using water from these sites also did not
experience any cases of diarrhea and reports on teeth discoloration are not significant enough to
raise concerns over high fluoride waters.

MAIN SOURCE: Taste Cases of Diarrhea Cases of discoloration
NON - UNICEF In the last In the last # (6-10 # (>10 How long have
SITE month 6 months years old) years old) you lived in village
Laaso Dawaco Tasteless 1 1 1 7
22 and Unpleasant - - - - -
taste
Falaydh yale Metallic taste & 2 2 - 1 10

Unpleasant
taste
Fardacune Tasteless - - - 1 5
Dhinooda Tasteless - - - 1 22
Dhigdhigley
Dheganlle Metallic taste 2 3 - - -
These villages relied on non-SPWSS water sources as their main source, either because the SPWSS
source was no longer functional, too far or it was part of the non-SPWSS sites sample. Falaydh
yale and Dheganlle sites stand out because respondents using water from these sites experienced
on average 2 episodes of diarrhea in their households within the last month and 2 within the last
six months. None of the respondents’ households using both UNICEF and non- UNICEF sites
suffered from cholera in the last year.
South Central Somali

Cases of Diarrhea Cases of discoloration
MAIN
How long
SOURCE: In the In the # (6-10 # (>10
Appearance Smell Taste have you
UNICEF last last 6 years years
lived in
SITE month months old) old)
village
Gosha and Smelly Metallic
Milky/cloudy 1 1 - - -
Gandi (rotten eggs) taste
Metallic
Raqayle Milky/cloudy Odourless - - - - -
taste
Metallic
Wargeesed Milky/cloudy Odourless - - - - -
taste
Chlorine
Smelly
Doolawe Clear Metallic - - - - -
(rotten eggs)
taste
21 Oct Clear Chlorine Chlorine 1 - - - -
Luuq Godey Clear Odourless Tasteless 1 1 - - -
Hobyo Clear Odourless Tasteless - - - 2 20
Cammaro Clear Odourless Tasteless - - 1 1 15
Gosha and Gandi site stands out because water from this site was unacceptable with regard to
appearance, smell and taste and occurrence of diarrhea within the last month and 6 months was
reported.

MAIN
# (6- # How long
SOURCE: In the In the
Appearance Smell taste 10 (>10 have you
NON-UNICEF last last 6
years years lived in
SITE month months
old) old) village

Baladweyne Milky/Cloudy Odourless Tasteless - - - - -
Unpleasant
Xawo tako Milky/Cloudy Tasteless - - - - -
smell
Luuq MCH Milky/Cloudy Odourless Tasteless 1 1 - - -
Timire Clear Odourless Tasteless 4 3 1 - 38
Sabuun Clear Odourless Tasteless 2 - - - -
Timire stands out with 4 respondents reporting diarrhea episodes in their households within
the last month. It is among the non-UNICEF sites sampled and is supported by the International
Organization for Migration. The reports on teeth discoloration are not significant enough to
raise concern over high fluoride waters.
Somaliland
MAIN # How long
In the In the # (6-10
SOURCE: Appearance Smell Taste (>10 have you
last last 6 years
UNICEF SITE years lived in
month months old)
old) village
Metallic
Lafaruug Clear Odourless - - 2 2 25
taste
Metallic
Laaleys Clear Odourless - - - 1 6
taste
Fadhi Xun
Clear Odourless Tasteless 1 1 4 18
Cadaadley Clear Odourless Tasteless 1 1 - - -

Xumbaweyne Clear Odourless Tasteless - - 1 2 18
Lasodawaco Clear Odourless Tasteless - - - 1 10
Dubur Clear Odourless Tasteless - - - 1 15
Water from Lafaruung and Laaleys sites was identified by respondents as having a metallic taste.
Somaliland has the highest number of reported cases of teeth discoloration raising concern over
potential risk of high fluoride concentration in ground water in the region.
Cases of
Cases of discoloration
MAIN Diarrhea
SOURCE: In the In the # (6-10 # (>10 How long
Appearance Smell Taste
NON - last last 6 years years have you
UNICEF SITE month months old) old) lived in
village
Metallic
Sheed dheer Tasteless Odourless - - - - -
taste
Smelly
Unpleasant
Gargaar Milky/Cloudy (rotten - - - - -
taste
egg)
Metallic
Magalo Cad Tasteless Odourless - 1 - - -
taste
Metallic
Lafaruug Tasteless Odourless - - - - -
taste

Four non- UNICEF sites in Somaliland were identified as having water with an unusual taste,
unpleasant or metallic. Gargaar stands out as water from this site was described by respondents
as being milky/cloudy, smelling like rotten eggs and having an unpleasant taste.
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is an indicator of the total inorganic mineral content of drinking water.
The lowest conductivity levels were recorded for sites in Puntland while some sites in SCZ and
Somaliland were as high as over 3000 µS/cm.
Puntland South Central Zone Somaliland

Village/site Electric Village/site Electric Village/site Electric
Conductivity Conductivity Conductivity
(µS/cm) (µS/cm) (µS/cm)
22aad 139.8 Hospitalka 301 Carabaydhey 360
Rabbaale 139.8 Jawiil 1156 Gargaara 520
Jiingadda 301.9 21-Oct 1399 Daraygodle 640
Qaw 309.2 Siigaalaw 2089 Hudisa 1440
Wargeesed 2900 Lafaruug 1510
Dowlawe 2900 Buulo Makiino 1560
Gosha/Gandi 3000 Laalay 2020
Aw Cisman 3990 Kalundi 2580
Xerta Tukaraq 3002
Magaalo Cad 5410
3.3 Parameters Review
3.3.1 Water prices
Water is provided for free at moat

SPWSS sites: only 11 of the 30 Water vendors
functioning sites provide water at a fee. Open well
Error! Reference source not found. Solar+Diesel
summarizes the average cost of water
Diesel powered borehole
per 20L for different sources in the
Hand Pump
three zones while Figure 16 gives
national averages as reported by Solar powered (Govt/NGO)
household respondents. Responses UNICEF
from the institution and business
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
interviews align with the household Price in US$ per 20L water can
interview responses with a small
margin of error. UNICEF SPWSS is the Figure 16: Average Cost of Water in Somalia per Source
second cheapest source of water after

hybrid (solar + diesel powered) pumps in Somalia, although N=1 for hybrid systems. A 20L jerry
can of water retails at, on average, US$ 0.045 at UNICEF supported sites compared to US$ 0.033
at hybrid powered water points. The most expensive water is sourced from hand pumps with
water retailing at US$ 0.141/20L. UNICEF SPWSS water points in Somaliland have the highest
priced water across the region at US$ 0.062/20L: SPWSS water points retail water at an average
of US$ 0.024/20L in South-Central Somalia and US$0.05/20L in Puntland.
Table 4: Average Water Prices ($/20L)
Main source of water Puntland price in US$ Somaliland price in US$ SCZ price in US$
UNICEF SPWSS 0.05 0.062 0.024
Solar powered (Govt/NGO) 0 0.071 0
Hand Pump 0 0.071 0.21
Diesel powered borehole 0.05 0.063 0.02
Solar+Diesel 0 0.033 0
Open well 0.02 0.07 0
Water vendors 0.2 0.073 0.01
3.3.2 Water collection times
The graphs shown in Figure 17 summarize waiting times for water collection, at alternatively
powered water sources, for household respondents. On average, a majority of respondents (88%)
spend less than 10 minutes waiting to collect water at UNICEF SPWSS sites: 44%, 42% and 35%
in SCZ, Somaliland and Puntland respectively reported to having no wait time at the SPWSS sites.
Significant similarities are observed in comparing wait times for mechanized water points as a
majority of respondents indicated wait times of less than 10 minutes: 88% at solar powered sites
run by either the government or other NGOs; 87% at diesel powered sites and; 100% at hybrid
(diesel + solar) sites. Manually operated water points (hand pumps and open wells) recorded
much higher wait times. 31% of respondents using hand pumps wait for between 10 and 30
minutes while 15% wait for more than 30 minutes. At least 11% of respondents using open wells
wait for 10-30 minutes while 6% wait for over 30 minutes.
Institutions and businesses reported a similar trend in waiting times for mechanized and manual
systems. 70% of institutions using SPWSS sites indicated that they do not wait in line to access
water whereas the remaining 30% wait in line for no more than 10 minutes. Equally, all users of
government or other NGO supported solar powered boreholes wait in line for no more than 10
minutes and users of diesel powered boreholes have no wait time at all. Hand operated pumps
had the highest average wait time, with 33% of the users having to wait for 30 minutes to 1 hour.
Similarly, 67% of businesses have no wait time at SPWSS sites while 23% have a wait time of less
than 10 minutes. The remaining 10% have to wait for 10 to 30 minutes. The longest times are
experienced at open wells with 14% of users having to wait between 10 and 30 minutes and 8%
having to wait for more than an hour to access water.

Figure 17: Water Collection Times
South Cental Zone Wait-time Averages Puntland Wait-time Averages

Public water supply
Public water supply
Water vendors
Water vendors
Open well
Open well Solar+Diesel
Solar+Diesel Diesel powered…
Diesel powered borehole Hand Pump
Hand Pump Solar powered…
Solar powered (Govt/NGO) UNICEF
UNICEF 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

% of users per waiting time
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
% of users per waiting time
Somaliland Wait-time Averages National Wait-time Averages
Public water supply Public water supply

Water vendors Water vendors
Open well Open well
Solar+Diesel Solar+Diesel
Hand Pump
Hand Pump
Solar powered (Govt/NGO)
Solar powered (Govt/NGO)
UNICEF
UNICEF
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
% of users per water source
No wait time Less than 10 minutes
Between 10-30 minutes Between 30 minutes-1hour
More than 1 hr No Response

3.3.1 Security
Vandalism or theft of SPWSS systems is very isolated with only 4 sites (Hudisa, Lafarug and
Carabaydhey in Somaliland and Jawiil in SCZ) indicating insecurity events in the last year. The
component most prone to vandalism is solar panels. A majority of the functional SPWSS water
points indicated having a guard in place to ensure security of systems.
3.3.2 System reliability
Water source reliability was evaluated by asking respondents if there were times when they could
not access water from the various water points and enquiring on the reasons why water was
inaccessible. Accessibility was interpreted as the ability to collect water from the water point. The
table below summarizes the responses.
Table 5: Reliability of Alternatively Powered Water Sources
Source Puntland Somaliland South-Central Somalia Whole of Somalia
Accessible Inaccessible Accessible Inaccessible Accessible Inaccessible Accessible Inaccessible
UNICEF 85% 15% 83% 17% 66% 34% 77% 23%
Solar 89% 11% 100% 0% 60% 40% 84% 16%
powered
(Govt/NGO)
Hand Pump - - 89% 11% 33% 67% 81% 19%
Diesel 70% 30% 15% 85% 20% 80% 33% 67%
powered
borehole
Solar+Diesel 100% 0% - - 80% 20% 83% 17%
Open well 60% 40% 95% 5% 70% 30% 74% 26%
Water 60% 40% - - 100% 0% 67% 33%
vendors
For currently functional SPWSS sites, the national average reliability rate is at 77%: the least
reliable region is South-Central Somalia at 66% and the most reliable region is Puntland at 85%,
followed by Somaliland at 83%. The most reliable water source is the solar powered water pumps
run by the government or other NGOs while the least reliable water source is the diesel powered
borehole. As shown in Figure 18 below, the main reason for inaccessibility was cited as broken
pumps at 20%. The second reason was dry wells at 18%, followed by high prices at 16%. The
reasons cited the least for inaccessibility was vandalism or theft at 3% and lack of maintenance at
4%. The region that is most affected by dry wells is South-Central Somalia – this as cited by 29%
of the users there compared to only 5% in Puntland. Nationally, 21% of respondents indicated
being affected by dry wells. Of these, 88% cited that the wells dry yearly, 6% biannually, 3%
quarterly and another 3% at least once every month.
73% of the respondents indicated that water was inaccessible from the UNICEF sites for less than
7 days a month; 15% indicated that water was inaccessible between 7 -14 days, 6% between 14 –
21 days and 5% had no access to water from the UNICEF sites for more than 21 days.

Figure 18: Reasons for inaccessibility

4. ASSESSMENT
This discussion assumes a three-step approach: a technical review, impact evaluation and
sustainability and management systems review. The evaluation is largely qualitative with the
discussion built around the data analysis and observations in the field. Due to lack of baseline
data from which to measure change, a quantitative evaluation of the SPWSS project could not be
performed using the RAG (Red-Amber-Green) Rating method as proposed by the Consultant.
4.1 Technical Review
4.1.1 Analysis of Water Point Functionality Rate
The national functionality rate for SPWSS systems is at 77%;56% in Puntland, 77% in South
Central Zone and 91% in Somaliland. The functionality rate in South Central Zone is positively
biased due to site selection, influenced by accessibility and prevailing security conditions. For
instance, most of the sites in Middle Shabelle identified in the preliminary randomized sample
list were not functional and the Consultant deemed it uneconomical to invest resources and
time to visit non-functional wells. The alternative was a list of wells in Lower Shabelle, most of
which were functional. It is the consultant’s view that the functionality rates in South Central
Zone are lower than is presented in this data.
In addition to long term failure of systems, short term breakdown events affect the reliability of
SPWSS sites. Other factors affecting functionality include:
1. Pump Breakdown
At least 10 water points in Somaliland and SCZ indicated having had downtime due to broken
pumps. These sites were, however, all repaired using funds from charges on water or community
contributions, an indication of community ownership. The highest amount spent on repairs and
service of the systems at any of the SPWSS sites was USD$ 200 while the lowest was USD$10. In
contrast, it is observed that none of the wells in Puntland reported spending money on repairs
and maintenance. Conversations with different players revealed a heavy reliance on PSAWEN
for water point maintenance and repairs. This has led to little ownership of systems by the
communities so that in case of breakdown, they are quick to call the State Agency rather than find
a solution, leading to the long term failure of systems. Community engagement is thus needed in
Puntland to sensitize communities on their role in water point management to ensure long term
sustainability.
2. Dry Wells
A number of wells were said to dry at some point in the year. These included: Cadaadley,
Carobaydhay and Fadhi Xun in Somaliland and 21 October, Xindawaco, Wargaseed, Siigaalaw
and Jawiil in SCZ. Respondents in Dhiganle, Puntland indicated that the water point dries often
as it is too shallow: it needs deepening if the community is to benefit – although the solar system

is in place, the towns water collection points are not connected to the water tank in fear of
damaging the pump. Instead, the town gets its water from water tankers that bring water to the
central water tank that in turn supply the public water points, schools and health centers. It is
therefore critical to engage community members during the needs assessment process, especially
when fitting already existing water points with solar power, as community members are the most
knowledgeable on well/borehole quality and seasonal fluctuations in groundwater level.
System Age
Analysis of functionality rate over time reveals a ‘water point mortality rate’ of at least 2 years.
There is a 40% failure rate after the first year, after which the functionality rate increases. It is
therefore recommended that maintenance and management systems are put in place to monitor
the water points for the initial two years to increase the probability of long term sustainability.
100%
90%
80%
Functionality Rate
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Figure 19: Water point functionality rate over time
4.1.2 Appropriateness of system design
Based on data provided by UNICEF, all but one of the 40 SPWSS sites visited are installed with
the Grundfos SQFlex 5A – 7 pump with a total wattage of between 960W – 1400W each. These
systems were all installed in or after the year 2010. Lamawaab in Middle Shabelle was installed
with a Grundfos SQFlex 2.5 – 2 pump with a total wattage of 700W in 2008. The choice of the solar
technology and pump brand is seen to be appropriate: conversations with sector stakeholders
with experience in solar water pumping point to solar PV technology being a tested and proven
technology, especially as a water access solution in arid and semi-arid regions. Lorentz and
Grundfos were the most quoted brands in terms of reliable quality. In scaling up the SPWSS
project, however, UNICEF should consider using both solar PV pump brands (Grundfos and
Lorentz) as each has its merits and demerits, with varied appropriateness for varied settings.
Recommendations on when to use different pumps are provided in Section 6.1.
The appropriateness each SPWSS system was determined by calculating the water point’s total
dynamic head (TDH) and desired flow rate (Q) and carrying out a systems parameter match
against the manufacturer’s pump performance curve. This was performed for functioning wells
only. Well specific calculations and comments on size appropriateness are provided in the
Technical Reports Attachment.
Total Dynamic Head
Based on the Terms of Reference recommended formula, the following slightly modified formula
was used to calculate the TDH:
𝑇𝐷𝐻 = (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 + 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘) ∗ 1.1
Following lack of well/borehole completion reports from UNICEF, a few assumptions had to be
made in applying this formula:
- Water pumping level was taken to be the well depth. This assumption ignores the length
of the water column and is made in consideration of seasonality of wells, assuming that
the pump is placed at the lowest possible point;
- The elevation assumes no gradient between the top of the well and the bottom of the
storage tank.
The average head was determined to be 23m with a range of 6.82m and 57.2m.
Flow Rate
The desired flow rate was determined as a function of the well/borehole demand and the average
peak sunlight hours for Somalia. The demand volumes were based on water point reports of
average water volumes pumped per day. Interpretation of the appropriateness analysis should
be made noting that these demand volumes may be an over or under estimation of the actual
demand. An attempt at triangulating the water operator estimations with self-reported
household water consumption rates was done: household data yielded much higher desired flow
rate values at an average of 2.24m3/hr higher than water point operator values (excluding 6 sites
that were outliers with desired flow rates above 13m3/hr). The lesson that can be drawn is in
scaling up the SPWSS project, UNICEF needs to carry out a thorough baseline and needs
assessment study in order to fully understand the water needs in target villages so as to
appropriately size systems.
An average of 6 peak sunlight hours was used: an analysis of the country’s irradiation data
showed a range of 4.7 – 6.9 PSH/day. The average desired flow rate was found to be 2.31m3/hr,
with a range of 0.3 m3/hr and 8 m3/hr.

Systems Parameter Match
The Grundfos SQF 5A-7 – 95027342 pump performance curve is available online10 and was used
to determine the appropriateness of the installed systems against their calculated parameters. The
performance curves are specified for the flow rate range of 0 – 9m3/hr and a head of 10 – 50 meters.
The curves also provide the pump and motor efficiency (eta%) at specified flow and head. Based
on Grundfos’ range of solar pumping systems11, the SQF 5A-7 is the most appropriate pump for
a majority of the SPWSS sites: the pump is recommended for a head of 10-50m and a flow rate of
less than 8m3/hr. Of the 40 SPWSS sites visited, 30 were functional, out of which 27 were within
these curve limits: two sites had a head of less than 10m, and the lower limit curve was used while
one site had a head of over 50 meters and the upper limit curve was used.
System appropriateness was further evaluated against power sizing. As a consequence of

adopting a ‘one-size fits all’ approach in the installing of SPWSS sites, 17 of the 30 sites are
oversized while 9 are undersized as shown in the graphs below (well specific calculations are
shown in the Technical Reports Attachment). The range of oversizing is between 310W and 810W
while the range of under-sizing is at 230W – 3120W. This has obvious financial and efficiency
implications. Undersized systems function at a lower flow rate than the desired rates, leading to
longer wait times at the water points or lack of adequate water to meet demand. From a financial
perspective, correctly sizing the systems would allow for more efficient use of resources.
1600
1400
1200
Wattage (W)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Installed Wattage Required Wattage
Figure 20: Oversized WSPSS Sites
10 Performance curve available at http://product-selection.grundfos.com/product-detail.product-

detail.html?freq=50&lang=ENU&productnumber=95027342&qcid=138566327
11 SQFlex Solar Performance Curves: http://net.grundfos.com/doc/webnet/renewables/solar.html

Assuming solar panels with a watt peak of 120W were installed at all water points12, oversized
systems result in an additional 75 panels (after truncating the number of additional panels per
site) while undersized systems lack 75 panels (after rounding up the required additional panels
per site). Had systems been appropriately sized, rather than having an almost uniform power
size, all systems would be appropriately sized. Further, all the oversized systems are a threat to
the well/borehole health: they present a risk of over-pumping the well/borehole.
5000
4500
4000
Wattage (W)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Installed Wattage Required Wattage
Figure 21: Undersized SWPSS Sites
4.2 Impact Evaluation
The impact review assesses the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of SPWSS project
interventions.
4.2.1 Effectiveness
The evaluation criterion ‘effectiveness’ assesses the appropriateness and degree to which the
interventions meet the defined project objective of sustainable community water supply through
solar powered systems. This answers the question, “to what extent do the project interventions
adequately address the identified problem of water access.” To do this, the discussion is built
around the United Nation’s interpretation of the human right to water along with the Somalia
WASH Indicators for water access as specified in Somalia’s WASH Cluster Strategy and
Standards13. The human right to water is met when water is sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically
accessible and affordable. The Somalia WASH Cluster standards for water are i) access and water
12 Records show that this is the size used for Somaliland SPWSS sites
13 WASH Cluster Somalia, 2012, Strategic Operational Framework,
https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/Somalia/120807%20Guide%20to%20WASH%20Cluster%20Strategy%20and%20Standards.p
df

quantity, ii) water quality and iii) water facilities (adequate to collect, store and use sufficient
amounts of water).
Quantity and Accessibility
The WASH cluster indicators recommend a maximum distance of 500m from the water point to
the household, a maximum queuing time of 30 minutes and a minimum volume of 15 liters per
person per day in non-emergency settings. With 88% of respondents who use SPWSS sites
indicating a wait time of less than 10 minutes and 75% indicating that the site is within 500 meters
from their household, it can be argued that SPWSS are more often than not, within stipulated
indicators of water access. Further, based on self-reported water consumption rates, the average
water use from SPWSS sites is 19 liters per person per day with an evenly distributed
consumption curve: 58 respondents consume less than 15 liters/person-day; 53 respondents
consume between 15-20 liters/person-day and; 61 respondents consume over 20 liters/person-
day. The lowest consumption rate is at about 3.5 liters/person-day.
A few lessons on the siting of water points to ensure accessibility and adequate quantities can,
however, be draw. The first is ensuring considerations of the target village with respect to the
well and the storage tank for adequate flow of water by gravity. In Qaaw (NEZ) for instance, the
solar system and storage berkard are quite far from the village and the solar installation does not
provide enough power to pump water to the village. Consequently, the well’s water is mostly
used for irrigation and villagers resort to purchasing water from a diesel-powered well closer-by.
A similar limitation was observed in Garacad (NEZ) where 2 of 5 installed water collection points
are located at higher elevations than the SPWSS site and therefore do not receive water. The
second is putting measures to ensure that communities around SPWSS points installed within
institutions benefit from the systems. Communities around the health facilities visited, in Beled
Weyne and Luuq MCH, reported relying on river/stream water as their main water source, with
a few relying on a diesel operated water point. None of the respondents accessed water from the
health facilities. A third is that SPWSS project should include hygiene training to promote
increased water usage at the household level,
especially among households with very low
water use rates. The F-diagram, shown in
Figure 22, shows the different avenues of
fighting water borne (pathogen is ingested in
drinking water) and water washed (favored
by inadequate hygiene conditions and
practices and susceptible to control by
improvements in hygiene) diseases through
promotion of adequate water use. Hygiene
training will help realize the project’s health
Figure 22: The F-diagram
benefits.

Quality and Acceptability
The WASH Cluster standard on water quality is “water is palatable and of sufficient quality to be
drunk and used for cooking and personal domestic hygiene without causing risk to health”.
Appearance, smell and taste of water were used as indicators of palatability. In general,
respondent’s perception of the palatability of water is seen to influence their use of the said water,
though this is limited by the availability of alternatives. For instance, the water in Gosha and
Gandi (SCZ) is described as being milky in appearance, has the smell of rotten eggs and a metallic
taste; four of the 6 respondents interviewed indicated that though they consider the SPWSS site
their main water source, they also buy water that is clear, odorless and tasteless from water
vendors and the purchased water is only used for drinking and cooking. This may be contrasted
to Raqayle (SCZ) where water has similar characteristics (milky and with metallic taste) yet all
respondents wholly rely on the SPWSS site with no other sources of water in the village.
With regard to biological and chemical quality, the incidence of diarrhea and cholera were used
as biological quality indicators while queries on teeth discoloration and electrical conductivity
test results helped infer chemical quality. No cases of cholera were reported in all sampled sites.
25 of the 300 respondents interviewed indicated occurrence of diarrhea disease in their
households within the last year: 12 in Puntland; 10 in SCZ and; 3 in Somaliland. With the
exception of the 3 Somaliland households and 1 household in Garacad (Puntland), the diarrhea
occurrence correlated to two factors: 1) the respondents were from villages whose SPWSS systems
were no longer functional and they relied on other water sources and; 2) the SPWSS well was at
risk of contamination due to a cracked or partial concrete slab covering (e.g. Luuq Godey and
Gosha and Gandi). While the reported occurrence of diarrhea among respondents at functional
SPWSS sites may be low, communities remain at risk of disease. Most respondents indicated
using multiple sources of water including unprotected water sources such as rivers/streams, open
wells and water vendors. Sanitation and hygiene training should therefore be a critical
component of SPWSS interventions to ensure health benefits.
Somaliland had the highest reports of teeth discoloration and it waters recorded some of the
highest electrical conductivity rates: 12 of the 14 sites had rates higher than the recommended
500(µS/cm). Regions in SCZ also recorded high electrical conductivity rates while site in Puntland
were all within limit. Further tests are needed to understand the water’s chemical composition
and ensure that it is within health guidelines, and especially with regard to fluoride and arsenic.
Affordability
Water is mostly provided free of charge at the SPWSS sites: only 11 of the 30 functional SPWSS
sites that were sampled provide water at a fee, of which 8 sites are in Somaliland. The two sites
charging for water in SCZ are Hobyo in Mudug region and Jawiil in Hiraan Region; Only Garacad
charges for water in Puntland. Water is most expensive in Somaliland at $3.1/m3 followed by
Puntland at $2.5/m3 and cheapest in SCZ at $1.2/m3. Due to lack of monetary quantification of
household incomes for use in estimating the proportion of income used for water access,
affordability of water is inferred from willingness to pay. A majority of respondents in
Somaliland and Puntland are willing to pay for improved quality of service from their main water
source while a majority of respondents in SCZ are not willing to start paying or pay more for
improved service as summarized in Table 6 below.
Table 6: Analysis of Willingness to Pay
N = Respondents Currently Paying Puntland Somaliland South-Central Whole of Somalia
(N = 19) (N=71) Somalia (N=22) (N=112)
% Willing to pay more 57.9% 59% 41% 55%
Average WTP in US$ per month 10 7.7 2.41 6.7
Highest WTP in US$ per month 20 15 15 16.7
Lowest WTP in US$ per month 5 1 1 2.3
% Not willing to pay more 42.1% 41% 59% 45%
N = Respondents not Paying Puntland Somaliland South-Central Whole of Somalia

(N = 56) (N=19) Somalia (N=113) (N=188)
% Willing to pay more 41% 42% 18% 27%
Average WTP in US$ per month 5.17 10 6.6 7.3
Highest WTP in US$ per month 30 10 12 17.3
Lowest WTP in US$ per month 2 10 2 4.7
% Not willing to pay more 59% 58% 82% 73%
The average willingness to pay values in Puntland and Somaliland are lower than the current
costs of water (summarized in table below) suggesting that the cost of water is currently
unaffordable to most consumers. The current cost of water per month is estimated using
19l/person/household and an average of 8 people per household.
Region Current Cost of Water ($/month) Willingness to Pay ($/month)

Puntland 9.00 7.60
Somaliland 11.16 8.85
South Central Zone 4.32 4.51
4.2.2 Relevance
The ‘relevance’ criterion evaluates the extent to which the project’s results satisfied the target
beneficiary needs for water access. Due to a lack of baseline data and documented needs
assessments14 to use as a basis for evaluation, this discussion looks at respondent’s water use
behavior. It is recommended that in scaling up the SPWSS project, UNICEF should develop a
well-defined data collection and management framework: targeted baseline data should be
collected before rolling out the project and indicators of success (for water access and other related
14 If these documents exist, they were not shared with the Consultant, even after multiple requests.

benefits like health and education) should be clearly defined. These may be housed in a “Project
Logical Framework” that outlines the reasoning behind the interventions.
Figure 23 below represents respondents’ views on factors that affect their choice of a water source.
It should be noted that the percentages on the pie chart are values showing the proportion of
respondents (N=300) who identified a specific factor, and not percent distribution within the chart
(hence they don’t add up to 100%). Distance and quality are seen to be the main factors
influencing choice of a water source. As discussed in the above section, a majority of SPWSS sites
are within close proximity of users, making them
a preferred water source by target users.
23% 29%
Cost Perceptions of water quality are seen to be of little
Distance consequence in choice, probably due to lack of
39% alternatives.
Quality
51%
Reliability
155 respondents in villages with functional
Security
SPWSS sites indicated relying on the sites as a
50%
water source, 143 of whom use the site as their
main water source. At least 35% of those using
Figure 23: Factors influencing choice of water source SPWSS sites as their main water source indicate
that they’ve switched to this source within the last

3 years; at least 30 of these switches were from unprotected water sources (open wells and
rivers/streams). SPWSS sites are used to meet all domestic water needs: drinking and cooking,
household cleaning, feeding livestock and to a limited extent, crop farming. 84% of the 155
depend solely on the SPWSS sites to meet all their water needs. The remaining 25 are seen to use
a combination of water sources in addition to the SPWSS sites: water vendors, open wells, berkads
and rivers and streams. With the exception of water vendors whose water is used for drinking
and cooking, there is no obvious pattern in water use behavior as these other sources are used for
consumption, cleaning and livestock purposes. It is worth noting that all respondents who rely
on multiple water sources do not pay for water at the SPWSS sites (i.e. all respondents who pay
for water at SPWSS sites rely solely on the sites for their water needs). The high adoption rate of
the SPWSS sites indicates a high relevance of the systems among target beneficiaries.
4.2.3 Efficiency
The ‘efficiency’ criterion evaluates how well various activities transformed the available
resources into the intended results. Due to a lack of project records, it is unclear what specific
project activities have been carried out in the lifetime of the project. The Consultant recognizes
that this project has been running since 2006 and changes in management and institutional
structures may have led to unclear data flow channels. In implementing SPWSS phase II, it is
recommended that the project is time bound with specific objectives and inputs to feed into these
objectives along with expected outcomes and impacts.

This discussion looks at efficiency from two perspectives: time efficiency, and the efficiency of
UNICEF investments.
Time Efficiency
As presented in Section 0 on Water Collection Times, the choice of solar technology for water
points has delivered time savings for communities. At least 88% of respondents spend less than
10 minutes waiting to collect water from these sites, compared to 50% at hand pumps and 44% at
open wells who spend more than 10 minutes: 19% wait for more than 30 minutes waiting at hand
pumps. The saved time may be used for other activities including economic activities or children
being in school.
Efficiency of UNICEF investments
As presented in Section 4.1.2, 57% of SPWSS systems are oversized while 30% are undersized, yet
with a redistribution of solar panels, all systems can be correctly sized. This is an inefficient use
of resources as some systems lay under-utilized while others cannot meet their full demand. In
implementing phase II of the SPWSS project, UNICEF needs to be very deliberate in the sizing of
its systems, and especially in determining the amount of power required per site.
Recommendations are provided in Section 6.1 on a template approach to sizing systems.
In addition to system sizing, there are systems that do not realize their intended benefit of
advancing water access: For instance, in Qaw, the system is too far from the target village and its
water is mostly used for irrigation rather than water consumption; In Dhignale, while all the
system components are intact, the system is not used as the well is perceived to be too shallow
and might therefore damage the pump. With this regard, intensive community engagement is
required at the needs and assessment stage so as to establish the right wells and specifications to
fit with solar systems to ensure that targeted communities benefit.
4.3 Sustainability and Management Structures Review
4.3.1 Social-economic appropriateness of the SPWSS
The concept of “sustainability” was popularized by the UN World Commission on Environment

and Development Bruntland Report of 1987. In the context of WASH, and specifically for the
UNICEF supported SPWSS in Somalia, sustainability can be viewed as the ability of a water point
to consistently provide water in quantities and quality comparable to the levels experienced
during project commissioning. Sustainability can be measured as a function of number of
operational years, average supply quantities and quality, and availability factor (proportionate
number of times that the system functions when needed). This evaluation has largely been
implemented without proper baseline information that would provide metrics to measure
progress or transformation. Information collected isolate three key elements that determine the
sustainability of SPWSS. These are (i) technical design, (ii) functionality and (iii) degree of local
ownership. These three elements contribute to the most common causes of failure which include

under-sizing of the pumping system, drying up of the wells, vandalism/theft of the system,
control box malfunctioning and pump breakdown.
Table 7: Elements Determining Sustainability

Element Definition Common Oversights
1 Technical design Selection of the  Oversizing pumps and undersizing power generation systems
type, size, model of  Over-engineering design creating highly sophisticated systems
water pumping that are difficult to maintain
equipment and  Design flaws (e.g. ground mounting of water storage
location vulnerable to contamination)
considerations  Use of inappropriate material (e.g. metallic piping in coastal
areas with saline water)
2 Functionality Ability to  Seasonality of wells (drying up during droughts)
consistently  Little to no after sales/installation support
discharge water in  Lack of access to spare parts
sufficient quantities  Lack of local technical expertise to perform regular
and quality maintenance or basic repairs
3 Local Ownership Perception towards,  Lack of interest or misaligned priorities
and involvement of,  Inappropriate designs or location making the systems difficult
the user to use
communities in  Conflicting interests e.g. local leader with a diesel water
managing the pumping system
systems  Threats from militia groups
 Lack of training on the system
 Minimal incentives to manage or use the system
Appropriateness of all future UNICEF intervention plans should be reviewed based on such
parameters. Under the current implementation framework, it is unclear what the key
characteristics a “successful SPWSS” are which complicates any type of evaluation.
Additionally, we propose four basic measures of success with quantitative parameters as
follows: (i) expected operational years – X years, (ii) expected average supply – X m3 per month,
(iii) expected availability factor – X% minimum uptime and (iv) number of people/households
utilizing the site – X people/households as regular users. Such parameters provide an objective
measure of SPWSS across and within regions.
SPWSS are appropriate in most of the Somalia due to the relatively high horizontal irradiation
ranging between 4.7 – 6.8 kWh/m2/day as discussed above. This is supported by a general
consensus at the community level as evidenced by information collected through focus group
discussions. From these discussion it is clear that SPWSS are widely preferred to diesel based
system or manual systems. A recurrent theme informing this preference is the ease of operation,
as these systems have minimum operational requirements, and cost competitiveness of water
generated using solar technology. Cultivating community ownership should start at the pre-
implementation stages. The needs assessment and the baseline surveys should consistently
ensure that local leadership and social management structures are identified and engaged
meaningfully. Strong community ownership also reduces incidences of vandalism and theft.

This was a concern noted on some sites. For example, Lama Waab originally supported by
UNICEF was not functional because the solar panels and wiring had been stolen. A non-
UNICEF supported site in Timire which is adjacent to this site was also not functioning.
Generally, the team was constrained in trying to understand the details that led to complete
failure of systems because no water operator was present at the non-functioning sites, leaving
the team to interview the adjacent communities. Strong community ownership contributes to
longevity of the system. For example, one focus group in Puntland mentioned that spare parts
were readily accessible in Garowe. With local contributions, they have been able to find and
replace basic parts of the system. This is perceived to be a common benefit in sites that are close
to large towns like Mogadishu, Hargeisa, Berbera, Garowe and Galkayo.The functionality rate
of SPWSS in NEZ (56%) was significantly less compared to the NWZ (91%) and SCZ (77%).
Based on discussion with communities through focus group there appears to a high
dependency on the government agency (PWASEN) for after-installation support and consistent
charging of water services appears to be limited with only 25% of the functioning systems
charging for water.
4.3.2 Management Structures and Procurement Process
Identification, procurement and design of SPWSS under UNICEF has been on-going for over 10
years. The general mode of procurement has varied over this period and also differs across the
three regions. Through interviews with the WASH team, procurement team and the field based
staff, the process typically starts with a needs assessment commissioned by UNICEF and/or a
UNICEF partner as illustrated in Error! Reference source not found. below. The first and most
important shortcoming of the SPWSS site development process is that the equipment supplier
(hardware) and the service provider are often two (or more) different entities making it difficult
to isolate and assignment responsibility in cases of malfunctions. Ideally, procuring an end-to-
end contractor who takes responsibility of both the hardware and service should address this
problem (merging step 5,6 and 8). The reality remains that this may not be practical in some of
the AS controlled areas, or other areas in general due to clan dynamics that allow only certain
service providers to operate in specific regions. To that extent, most regions cannot be
considered free markets which inevitably passes on certain inefficiencies in the delivery process.
This includes weaknesses in enforcing warranties because while the community interacts with
the local contractor and may know how to contact them, they have no direct contact with the
equipment supplier, and even if they do, it will still be difficult for the supplier to access their
areas. Warranties commonly apply only in geographic areas covered by the manufacturers’
retailers or distributors which excludes most of the sites in Somalia. The subcontractors, in
part, should be accountable to these local leaders and communities during the first six months
to a year post-construction. It is during this initial period that most technical problems can be
easily identified and addressed before irreparable damages are caused. This accountability can
be structured based on a maintenance contract or requiring a warranty period in the service

delivery agreement. Subcontractors should schedule regular visits during this period even if no
problems or challenges are raised by the users.
Figure 24: SPWSS Procurement Process
The second shortcoming with this process is that procurement of all pumping equipment is
from one manufacturer – Grundfos, which limits the flexibility of using specialized options
from other manufacturers. Factors to consider when selecting a water pumping system are
discussed further in the recommendations section.
Third, and based on feedback received during focus group discussion, there is widespread need
for continuous training on simple repairs and maintenance procedures. The water operators
and communities need to be informed on who to call when in need. There seems to be a lack of
clarity on who to call from the list of implementing partners who include the local NGO,
Government agency, subcontractor and UNICEF. This important detail should be readily
available at the site or even on sticker that will be easily visible to anyone who accesses the site.
4.3.3 Related interventions
Water, sanitation (WASH) and related services is a main focus of development assistance in
Somali. According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

Financial Tracking Service (FTS) latest statistics15, about one dollar in every ten delivered
through development assistance was allocated to WASH. Development agencies had
committed and contributed US$ 406 million by September 2016 in support of interventions
across sectors including water and sanitation, health, economic recovery, agriculture, food and
human rights among others in Somalia. A significant portion of this support had not been
allocated to specific sectors. Out of this total support, about 9% was allocated to water and
sanitation interventions (equivalent to US$ 36.5 million). UNICEF is the leading implementing
agency by size of support accounting for 34% of total allocations to WASH - equivalent to US$
12.4 million. Other leading agencies supporting WASH and water access interventions include
the International Organization for Migration (IOM), UN Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO), ACTED delivering support equivalent to US$ 3.5 million, US$ 3.0 million and US$ 2.1
million respectively. The level of coordination within the WASH sector in Somalia varies across
the three regions. In NWZ, for example, the Ministry of Planning and National Development
(MoPND) is in-charge of overall donor coordination with high level regional coordination
meeting held semi-annually and sector coordination meetings held monthly. UNICEF is the
lead agency in the water sector together with the European Commission, CARE Somalia, UN-
Habitat. The coordination structure is less clear in the SCZ which is further fragmented into
sub-regions. An obvious barrier to successful and widespread implementation of water projects
is political instability, especially in the SCZ. Considerable number of sites in SCZ were not
accessibly due to security reasons. Territories under the control of AS and other non-
government aligned continues to be a main challenge in providing support and monitoring. The
evaluation team did not get access to wells in the Bakol region where five sites had been
selected in the random sample. Similar challenges were experienced in sections of Galgadud
and Hiran.
15 OCHA FTS (2016) Sources of humanitarian funding for Somalia up to September 2016

World Vision- $0.8m ACTED - $2.1m
ACF - France -
$1.7m
UNICEF -
$12.4m
Others - $8.6m
Rescue
International -
$0.7m
PAH - $1.1m CARE Somalia -
NRC - $0.9 $1.6m
IOM - $3.5 FAO - $3.0m
Figure 25: Estimated value of support delivered through various agencies (Jan – Sep 2016) – Compiled with data
from OCHA FTS (Sep, 2016)
An obvious barrier to successful and widespread implementation of water projects is political

instability, especially in the SCZ. Considerable number of sites in SCZ were not accessibly due
to security reasons. Territories under the control of AS and other non-government aligned
continues to be a main challenge in providing support and monitoring. The evaluation team did
not get access to wells in the Bakol region where five sites had been selected in the random
sample. Similar challenges were experienced in sections of Galgadud and Hiran.

5. CONCLUSIONS
As a general conclusion, UNICEF has made significant progress towards its goal of achieving
sustainable community water access through solar powered water supply systems. SPWSS sites
have a functionality rate of 77%, with the highest functionality rate in Somaliland at 91% and
lowest in Puntland at 56%. A large majority of those who use SPWSS sites (84%) depend solely
on the sites for all their water needs.
This section summarizes the specific parameter and activity outcomes requested in the Terms of
Reference.
Parameters
Price per barrel16 of water: Water is provided at a fee at 11 SPWSS sites. The national average cost
of water at these sites is US$ 0.36/barrel. SPWSS sites are the second cheapest source of water after
hybrid (solar + diesel powered) pumps in Somalia (selling at US$0.26/barrel), for all sources that
provide water at a fee.
Waiting time: 88% of respondents that use SPWSS sites wait for less than 10 minutes at the water
collection point; 42% have no wait time. SPWSS sites compare to other mechanized water points:
88% at solar powered sites run by either the government or other NGOs, 87% at diesel powered
sites and 100% at hybrid (diesel + solar) sites wait for less than 10 minutes. Manually operated
water points (hand pumps and open wells) record much higher wait times: 31% of respondents
using hand pumps wait for between 10 and 30 minutes while 15% wait for more than 30 minutes.
At least 11% of respondents using open wells wait for 10-30 minutes while 6% wait for over 30
minutes.
Reliability: the reliability of SPWSS sites is mostly a function of pump breakdown rates and
seasonality of wells. The overall functionality of wells is 77% with the lowest functionality seen
in Puntland at 56%. Nationally, 21% of respondents indicated being affected by dry wells with
the region that is most affected being South-Central Somalia. In instances of non-functionality,
most respondents are seen to turn handpumps, open wells and/or streams and rivers.
Downtime and maintenance costs: At functional SPWSS sites, 73% of the respondents indicated
that water was inaccessible from the sites for less than 7 days a month; only 5% had no access to
water from the SPWSS sites for more than 21 days in a month. A range of US$ 10 – 200 was
recorded as the maintenance costs borne by sites.
16 1 barrel = 159 liters

Security: Vandalism and theft events are isolated with only 4 incidents reported for the last year.
Solar panels are most prone to insecurity concerns. A majority of the functional water points
mentioned having a guard (most were night guards).
Activities
Acceptability and Socio-Economic Factors to Consider in Scaling up: No socio-economic factors that
threaten the viability and sustainability of solar powered systems were picked up during the
site visits. In contrast, a general acceptability of SPWSS systems was observed, with all FGDs
revealing a willingness to embrace the technology and use it. Socio-economic factors to consider
in scaling up include:
i. Conduct wide consultations with community members and the local government during
the needs assessment, prior to identification of sites to fit with solar powered systems.
Community members showed a desire to be involved in project implementation. They
have knowledge on wells’ water quality and seasonality and are best placed to advise on
appropriate sites that can provide reliable water. For instance, the Focus group
discussions in Dhiganle indicated that the well was non-functional as it was too shallow
hence prone to drying up: the wells is 4 meters and should have been sunk to at least 8m.
ii. A significant proportion of the community is willing to pay for water, though the current
cost at sites that charge is higher than what most people are willing to pay. A majority of
SPWSS site users (82%) believe that charges paid for water and community contributions
should be the main source of funds for maintenance and repairs.
A detailed list of factors to consider is provided in Chapter 6: Recommendations.
Actions to ensure security of SolarPV systems – the presence of security guards was reported at a
majority of the functional water points. Further, one water point operator noted that
community members had been sensitized to protect the property. In Gedheys (SCZ), FGD
participants noted that children had caused minor damages to taps while playing; warnings of
disciplinary action against the children has yielded positive results as no further damage has
been reported.
Pump Appropriateness: The manufacturer’s pump performance curve for the Grundfos 5A-7
pump, used at all but 1 of the sites visited, covers a pumping range of 10 – 50m head and 0 –
8m3/hr flow. All but 3 of the 30 functional sites were within these curve limits. Appropriateness
was further evaluated based on power sizing: 17 sites were oversized, 9 were under sized and 4
were correctly sized.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Technical Recommendations
6.1.1 System/Site Design
i. Careful considerations of distance and elevation should be made with regard location
of the well, storage tank and target population so that the solar system can provide
enough energy to pump water to the tank and the tank is at the highest location to allow
water to flow by gravity. A few water collection points were at a higher elevation than the
storage tank, limiting flow by gravity. Consequently, water cannot be accessed from these
point.
ii. Enhance the design feature of the SPWSS sites by welding the solar panels in place to
ensure security and constructing them at an elevation that allows for cleaning. The solar
panels were placed on top of the elevated tanks in a majority of sites visited: while this
ensures security, it makes cleaning of the panels difficult leading to accumulation of dust
on the panels and therefore reduction in their efficiency. Additionally, ensure that all
pipes are adequately buried to protect them from vandalism or accidental breakages.
iii. Increase longevity of piping network through use of PVC pipes, especially in coastal
areas. PVC pipes do not rust and are less susceptible to calcification.
iv. Protect the water point, especially hand-dug wells, from contamination using completely
sealed concreate slabs. A few of the wells visited were either left open, covered with a
mesh or had cracked slabs risking well contamination.
v. Adopt remote monitoring of wells/boreholes. The remote monitoring platform should

be shared between UNICEF and the relevant line ministries to allow real time monitoring
of functionality status of water points.
Remote Monitoring: Grundfos
o The CIU 273 SQFlex GRM control unit is designed to work directly with the Grundfos
SQFlex pump enabling monitoring of the system’s operation anywhere in the world
through Grundfos Remote Monitoring. The control unit communicates via GPRS or SMS
and enables monitoring of the SQFlex’s performance, alarms and historical data among
others. This control unit may be installed in place of the more basic CU 200 SQFlex control
unit which has similar functions without the remote monitoring component.
o The CIU 273 unit works hand in hand with Grundfos Remote Management, a secure,
internet-based system for monitoring and managing pump installations. “Pumps,
sensors, meters and Grundfos pump controllers are connected to the [GPRS Datalogger].
Data can be accessed from an Internet connected PC, providing a unique overview of the

system. If sensor thresholds are crossed or a pump or controller reports an alarm, an SMS
[is] instantly dispatched to the person on duty]”.
o In addition to the additional cost of choosing the CIU 273 control unit over the CU 200
control unit, a fixed low fee is charged for data traffic, hosting costs and system support,
including back-up of all data.
Remote Monitoring: Lorentz
o Lorentz pumps offer two monitoring options. The first is the PS DataModule and
PumpSnanner. The DataModule is an integral data logger and remote control device for
all Lorentz pumps that collects performance data from the pump system and stores it
for periodic collection. The DataModule communicates with the PumpScanner via
Bluetooth allowing real time data viewing and historic data collection. The
PumpScanner for Android App is free to use for approved Lorentz partners, with a one-
off lifetime fee payable to activate the data logging service.
o This option offers a low-cost and simple monitoring solution. As this system is
Bluetooth reliant, its use is recommended for use by water point operators or M&E
officers who get to close proximity of the pumping system.
o The second option is the PS Communicator and pumpManager, a service that offers full
remote management and monitoring of the pumping system. The PS communicator
transmits data via cellular networks to the secure, cloud based, central web server
application, pumpManager. This enables access to information and control of the pump
remotely. Lorentz offers this service at an inclusive monthly fee for cellular data access,
application updates and web service.
o Assuming monthly costs for the lifetime of a water point, this is a more expensive
option. Its use is recommended for high value water points: High value water
points may be seen as i) wells whose installation costs are high so that this
additional component of lifetime M&E is no more than 10% of the total project cost
or ii) critical water points with regard to target population, so that water point
downtime is minimized.
vi. Incorporate groundwater monitoring sensors (that can be monitored remotely) to pumps
for the additional benefit of ground water monitoring. While there are ongoing efforts in
data collection to understand Somalia’s ground water potential, little data exists currently.
With its water access projects across the country, UNICEF stands at a unique place to
advance these efforts.

6.1.2 Sizing Systems
i. Adopt a template approach to selection of water pumps so that pump sizing is based on
need rather than a ‘one-size fits all’ approach. A template is key as a lot of the systems are
very small making individual customized designs expensive. The template in Figure 26 is
recommended. This decision tool template is based on the pump specifications, head (H)
and flow (Q), given by Lorentz and Grundfos on their products. This data is referenced in
Annex 4. Submersible solar water pumps are divided into 2 main categories; i) Helical
Rotor pumps and ii) Centrifugal pumps. As a general rule of thumb, helical rotor pumps
are applied for systems with high heads and small flows and centrifugal for systems with
low heads and large flows. While this template provides recommendations for pumps,
detailed borehole completion reports and demand studies are required for all systems to
ensure that systems are correctly sized with regard to power: oversizing systems by
installing more solar panels than is needed threatens the health of the borehole.
6.2 Programming and Management Recommendations
6.2.1 Recommendations within UNICEF
i. Develop a WASH-MIS (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Management Information

System), a centralized data collection and management system within UNICEF to
supplement the public sector partner efforts. This assignment revealed significant data
gaps and uncoordinated data management systems across the three regions (Somaliland,
Puntland and South Central Zone). The WASH-MIS should, at the least, i) develop a
system of capturing the baseline realities (i.e. # of people to be served, existing water
sources (quality, reliability, distance, cost etc.), incidences of disease among others); ii)
track interventions, including log of systems installed; iii) track key information (such as
needs assessments and well/borehole completion reports, among other data) and; ii)
define indicators of success.
ii. Facilitate service agreements between contractors and communities: the first year after
installation is critical to system sustainability: data collected showed a 40% failure rate
within the first year. UNICEF should work with its partners to establish service contracts
that last at least 2-years after commissioning. The contracts should, at a minimum, include
i) system monitoring, either remotely or in person, ii) biannual site visits for trouble
shooting and routine technical maintenance and iii) training of water point operators on
basic troubleshooting, maintenance and repairs.

Figure 26: SPWSS Pump Selection Tool

6.2.2 Recommendations Beyond UNICEF
i. Water should be provided at a fee: in a region that is highly water scarce, water is treated
as a valuable commodity, with a majority of respondents (especially in Puntland and
Somaliland) indicating a willingness to pay for it. In scaling up SPWSS, especially where
solar systems are installed at water points that were previously diesel powered, water
should continue to be provided at a fee, though cheaper. The charges should meet the
systems operating costs including wages for the water point operator and a security guard
and the savings needed for maintenance and repairs costs.
ii. Coordinated WASH efforts: Duplication of efforts was seen in multiple villages with
multiple water points installed by aid agencies or NGOs existing within a 500m radius of
each other. Following the creation of The Somalia Development and Reconstruction
Facility, the body through which Somalia receives support from development partners,
UNICEF should use its position as a WASH sector leader (according to conversations with
various sector stakeholders) to influence the formation of a national committee and
regional bodies that work with the federal and regional governments to coordinate
implementation activities. The national committee should include representatives of the
line ministries from the different regions and the key sector implementers and funders.
The regional bodies should be a consortium of all WASH sector players: funding partners,
implementing organizations and the line ministry.

ANNEX 1: LIST OF KII AND FGD PARTICIPANTS
KII Participants
# Name Organization Date Format

1 Mark Muinde Harmonic Systems June 17th 2016 Meeting
2 Caroline Makenzi Africa Solar Designs June 30th 2016 Meeting
3 Olufunso Somorin Africa Development Bank July 1st 2016 Meeting
4 Paul Muchiri Davis & Shirtliff Ltd – Meru July 8th 2016 Phone call
Branch
5 Carolyne Kwakha UNICEF – Procurement July 12th 2016 Meeting
6 Abderahman Issack UNICEF – SCZ July 18th 2016 Skype call
7 Mohamed Suleiman Saed UNICEF – NEZ Written
response
8 Mary Njue Epicenter Africa July 22nd 2016 Meeting
9 Omar Ahmed Ali WASH July 24th 2016
10 Ibrahim Omar Mohamud Government July 25th 2016 Phone call
FGD Participants
# Zone Site Name Date

1 Puntland Dhiganle Shukri Hassan Abdalle June 22nd 2016
2 Puntland Dhiganle Hashi Ahmed Elmi June 22nd 2016
3 Puntland Dhiganle Awil Yusuf Farah June 22nd 2016
4 Puntland Dhiganle Ahmed Mohamed Farah June 22nd 2016
5 Puntland Dhiganle Abdiaziiz Abdillaahi Ali June 22nd 2016
6 Puntland Dhiganle Abdilqadir Mohamed Ahmed June 22nd 2016
7 South Central Gedheys Mohamed Hassan Salad June 28th 2016
8 South Central Gedheys Abdillahi Jamac Mohamed June 28th 2016
9 South Central Gedheys Nuur Ahmed Ibraahim June 28th 2016
10 South Central Gedheys Xade Hassan Maxamed June 28th 2016
11 South Central Gedheys Sheikh Muuse Mahamed June 28th 2016
12 Somaliland Cadaadley Mr. Cumar nuur July 10th 2016
13 Somaliland Cadaadley Mr. Abdirisak Aw Abdi Xandule July 10th 2016
14 Somaliland Cadaadley Mr. Abdi Hassan Wacays July 10th 2016
15 Somaliland Cadaadley Mr. Xariir Saeed July 10th 2016
16 Somaliland Cadaadley Mr. Abdi Ismail Dualle July 10th 2016
17 Somaliland Cadaadley Mrs. Bahsan Ismail July 10th 2016
18 Somaliland Cadaadley Mrs. Habiiba Ibrahim Ali July 10th 2016

ANNEX 2: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS AND BUSINESSES
Somaliland
Region Village Institution Business
Awdal Sheed Dheer Primary School Tea/coffee shop
Awdal Gargara Primary School Restaurant
Awdal Magalo cad Primary School Tea/coffee shop
Awdal Fadhi Xun Primary School Micro trader
Maroodi jeex Carobeydho Mosque Micro trader
Maroodi jeex Xumbaweyne Mosque Micro trader
Maroodi jeex Caddaadley Primary School Micro trader
Maroodi jeex Dhaboolaq Mosque Micro trader
Sahil Lafaruug Primary School Micro trader
Sahil LasoDawaco Health Centre Micro trader
Sahil Dubur Primary School Micro trader
Sahil Huduse Primary School Medium trader
Sahil Lalleys Tea/coffee shop
Puntland

Nugal Dhaganle Mosque Micro trader
Nugal Dhinawda Dhigdhigley Mosque Restaurant
Mudug Gobsho Quranic School Small trader
Mudug Garacad Mosque Hotel/Guest houses
Mudug Fardacune Medium trader
Nugal Rabbable Mosque Tea/coffee shop
Nugal Falaydhyal Micro trader
Bari Jiingadda Health centre Micro trader
Bari Lasodacawo Health centre Micro trader
Bari Yalho Health centre Micro trader
Bari Qaw Secondary school Micro trader

South Central Zone
Mudug Camaro Mosque Technical (e.g. electrician, plumbing
etc.)
Mudug Xin dawaco Mosque Small trader
Galgadud Wad Mosque Small trader
Mudug Hobyo Mosque Micro trader
Hiran Hospital Hospital Micro trader
Hiran Siigaalow School Small trader
Galgadud Gedheys Mosque Small trader
Hiran Jawiil School Micro trader
Sh Hoose Xawo Tako Secondary School Micro trader
Sh Hoose Twenty-one October Primary school Micro trader
Sh Hoose Gosha iyo Gandiga Secondary School Garage (motorbikes and cars)
Sh Hoose Raqeyle Secondary School Micro trader
Sh. Hoose Wargeesed Micro trader
Sh dhexe Timire Primary school Micro trader
Sh dhexe Kulundi Quranic school Micro trader
Sh dhexe Buulo Makiino Quranic school Micro trader
Sh dhexe Sabuun Primary school Micro trader
Sh dhexe Lamawaab Primary school Micro trader
Goedo Luuq Godey Quranic school Micro trader
Goedo Geedweyne Health centre Micro trader
Goedo Luuq MCH Primary school Tea/coffee shop
Sh Hoose Dowlawe Health centre Garage (motorbikes and cars)

ANNEX 3: LIST OF SAMPLED WATERPOINTS
Table 8: North West Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 14; # of Households (HH) – 90; # of other tools- 37)
MORODI JEEX SAHIL/SAXIL AWDAL
Site HH Sample Other Tools Site HH Sample Other Tools Site HH Sample Other Tools
Carobaydhay 4 3 Laalayska 6 2 Fadhi Hun 7 3
Cadadley 8 3 Dubur 6 3 Sheed Dheer 5 2
Dhaboolaq 4 2 Lasodawaco 11 3 Gargaara 6 3
Xumba Weyne 4 3 Daraygodle 5 1 Magaalocad 7 3
(Non-UNICEF)
Hudisa 5 3
Lafarug 12 3
Total 20 11 Total 45 15 Total 25 11
Table 9: North East Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 13; # of Households (HH) – 75; # of other tools - 25)
MUDUG BARI NUGAL
Site HH Sample Other Tools Site HH Sample Other tools Site HH Sample Other Tools
Garacad 12 3 Qaaw 4 3 Falidhyale 5 1
Dhinowda 5 1 laasadawaco 6 2 Rabable 4 3
Gobsho 5 2 Yalho 4 2 Dhiganle 9 1
Fardacune (Non 5 2 Jingada (Non 6 3 Herta Tukaraq 5 1
Unicef ) Unicef)
22aad (Non Unicef) 5 1
Table 10: South and Central Zone (# of Sampled Sites – 23; # of Households (HH) – 135; # of other tools - 57)
HIRAAN MIDDLE SHABELLE* LOWER SHABELLE
Site HH Sample Other Tools Site HH Other Tools Site HH Sample Other Tools
Sample
Jawiil 6 3 Lamo Waab 6 2 Twenty-one October 6 3
Siigaalow (Gaarane) 4 3 Saabuun (Non- 5 2 Xaawo Taako 6 2
UNICEF)

Beled Weyne 8 3 Timire (Non- 5 2 Raqayle 6 2
Hospital UNICEF)
Kalundi (Non- 5 3 Gosha 6 3
UNICEF)
Bulo Makiino 5 3 Doonlaawe 6 3
(Non-UNICEF)
Aw Cusmaan 6 1
War Garseed 6 2
GAL-MUDUG GEDO
Site HH Sample Other Tools Site HH Sample Other Tools
Wad 5 2 Luuq Gudey 5 3
Gidhays 6 3 Ged Weyne 8 1
Hobyo 8 3 Luuq MCH 6 2
Xin Dawaco 4 3
Camaara 7 3
Total 30 14 Total 19 6

ANNEX 4: PUMP SPECIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTORS
Grunfos SQ FLEX pumps17
Pump model Motor type Max height (m) Max flow (m3/h)
SQFO,6-2 Helical Rotor 120 0.6
SQFO,6-3 Helical Rotor 200 0.6
SQF1,2-2 Helical Rotor 120 1.2
SQF3A-10 Centrifugal 70 4.5
SQF5A-3 Centrifugal 15 8
Lorentz PS models181920
Pump model Motor type Max height (m) Max flow (m3/h)
PS200HR Helical Rotor 50 2.6
PS150C Centrifugal 20 4
PS9k Centrifugal 180 136
# Contacts: Grundfos Solar PV Distributors in Contacts: Lorentz Solar PV Distributors in Eastern
Eastern Africa21 Africa22
17 SQFlex Pumps– Grunfos http://advancepower.net/pdf/SQFlexBrochure.pdf

18 PS Pumps-Lorentz http://www.kgelectric.co.za/assets/product_docs/lorentz/overviews_1013/lorentz_psk_general_en-en.pdf
19 PS Pumps -Lorentz http://www.kgelectric.co.za/assets/product_docs/lorentz/overviews_1013/lorentz_ps_c_general_en-
en.pdf
20 PS Pumps – Lorentz http://www.kgelectric.co.za/assets/product_docs/lorentz/overviews_1013/lorentz_ps_hr_general_en-
en.pdf
21 Contacts provided by Grundfos Area Manager for Eastern Africa
22 Contacts from the Lorentz Website

1 Asenath Ndegwa CENTER FOR ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES LTD
NGO Sales Manager (Distribution partner)
DAVIS & SHIRTLIFF LTD PO Box 64921- 00620 Nairobi, Kenya
PO Box 41762 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 20 8000 175 / +25420 8000 176/ +254 20
Tel: +254 020 6968000 / 0711 079 000 856 1253
Fax: +254 020 557617 Fax: +254 20 856 2310
Direct Line: +254 020 6968218 / 0711 079 218 Mobile: +254 7 2251 2004 / +254 7 3351 2004
Mobile: +254 721 548 881 E-mail: info@cat.co.ke
Email: Martin.Muraya@dayliff.com Website: http://cat.co.ke/
Website: Www.davisandshirtliff.com
2 Bernard Cherugut DAVIS & SHIRTLIFF LTD
Sales Manager (Distribution partner)
TRANSAFRICA WATER SYSTEMS LIMITED PO Box 41762 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Mombasa Road, Charan Center Tel: +254 020 6968000 / 0711 079 000
PO Box 1179 00502, Nairobi, Kenya Fax: +254 020 557617
Tel: +254 020 2632203/+254 20 2632204 E-mail: dayliffinfo@dayliff.com
Mobile : +254 718 725151/+ 254 724 616749 Website: https://www.dayliff.com/
Fax : (+ 254 20) 2632200
Email : bcherugut@transafricawater.com
Website: Www.transafricawater.com
3 Mahesh Halai SOLARGEN TECHNOLOGIES
AGRO IRRIGATION & PUMP SERVICES LIMITED (Distribution partner)
Old Airport Road, Embakasi, Nairobi Address: House No. 2, Behind Safari Hotel
P.O. Box 32111-00600, Nairobi, Kenya Zobe, Mogadishu, Somalia
Tel: +254-20-2313151/2, 2513106/7/8/9/10 Tel: +252 618 515 416 / +252 698 515 416 / +252
Mobile: +254-735888000 / +254-726991991 616 100 174
Fax: +254-20-2513152 Mobile: +254 721 163 334
E-Mail: mahesh@agroirrigation.com , E-mail: hq@solartechnologies.com
admin@agroirrigation.com Website: http://solargentechnologies.com/
Website: Www.agroirrigation.com
4 Mary Njue EPICENTER AFRICA LTD
EPICENTER AFRICA LTD (Premier – Sales and Service Partner)
Prime Carton Industrial Park, Prime Carton Industrial Park,
Mombasa Road, Nairobi, Kenya. Mombasa Road, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel: +254 20 2346431 Tel: +254 20 2346431
Mobile: +254 72 2432061 Mobile: +254 72 2432061
Sales: +254 70 1617833 Sales: +254 70 1617833
E-mail: info@epicenterafrica.com E-mail: info@epicenterafrica.com
Website: http://www.epicenterafrica.com/ Website: http://www.epicenterafrica.com/

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CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR UNICEF’s EVALUATION OF

THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR POWERED WATER SYSTEMS

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 i

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 ii

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 1

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 2

Recommendations for Scaling-up SPWSS

In conclusion, UNICEF has demonstrated exceptional competence in project delivery and is

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 4

UNICEF’s vision in Somalia is to develop and scale up sustainable community-managed water

1.2 Objectives of this assignment

UNICEF is looking to either re-orient or enhance sustainable development of community solar

1.3.1 Climate and Solar Radiation

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 6

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 7

5 SWALIM – Somalia Water and Land Information Management; http://www.faoswalim.org/water/water-resources/ground-

2.1 Evaluation Design

Field data collection was implemented

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 10

2.1.2 Data Collection Tools

Survey design and administration

Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group Discussions.

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 11

Water Quality Testing

2.2 Data analysis

i. Population estimate values used in data analysis were as reported in UNICEF’s

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 12

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 13

3.1.1 Household Demographics

Gender of Household respondents

Majority of the respondents, at 65%, were female. In

Figure 4: Gender of HH Respondents

Age group of respondents

Majority of the respondents interviewed were above 30

Marital status of respondent

separated. South Central Somali had no respondent Somalilan

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 14

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 15

Average No. of people Average No. of school Average No. of animals

Household type and location

Most respondents indicated that their

Figure 7: Type of household Camp, Rural,

respectively. However, it is the Consultant’s view that all

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 16

3.1.2 Business and Institution demographics

Unlike the household interviews, a larger proportion of

female. The largest number of male respondents were Male Female

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 17

3.2 Technical Review

3.2.1 Technical reports

Water point Functionality Rate

Functionality was defined as

Figure 10: Water point functionality rate

Appropriateness of System Sizing

Appropriateness of system sizing was performed for

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 18

Flow Rate (m3/hr)

Figure 12: Water point head and flow rate

The average water use in Puntland South Central Zone

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 19

3.2.2 Water quality

Evaluation of solar powered water supply systems in Somalia | August | 2016 20

Falaydh yale Metallic taste & 2 2 - 1 10