AERODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

- Study of motion of air and of the forces on solids in motion relative to the air. PRESSURE

ATMOSPHERE o Is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface.

o Pa, atm, inHg, mmHg, psi, psf, torr
- Layer of gases surrounding Earth and is being held by Earth’s gravity.
𝐹
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 𝑃=
𝐴
- The earth’s atmosphere at sea level has the following percentages by volume pf these gases: DENSITY
NITROGEN 78.08% o Is the mass of a substance per unit volume.
OXYGEN 20.94% o Slugs/ft3 , kg/m3
ARGON 0.94%
𝑚
TRACE GASES 𝜑=
𝑉
HYDROGEN 0.01%
NEON 0.0012%
HELIUM 0.0004%
TEMPERATURE
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03%
- Water vapor also is always present, the amount varying with the temperature and other o Measure of average kinetic energy of the particles in the gas.
factors, but averaging about 1.2% at the earth’s surface. o Kelvin (K), ˚R (Rankine), ˚C (Celsius), ˚F (Fahrenheit)
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 5
˚C = (˚F − 32)
9
- Atmosphere is comprised of layers based on temperature.
1. TROPOSPHERE (0 to 11 km) K = ˚C + 273
o As altitude increases, temperature decreases
9
o TROPOPAUSE (11 km to 25 km) ˚F = ˚C + 32
▪ Dividing surface between troposphere and stratosphere where temperature 5
is insignificantly changing, therefore is assumed to be constant. ˚R = ˚F + 460
2. STRATOSPHERE (11 to 50 km)
o As altitude increases, temperature increases
3. MESOSPHERE (50 to 85 km) VELOCITY
o As altitude increases, temperature decreases
4. THERMOSPHERE (85 km and above) o Is the displacement traveled by an object per unit time.
o As altitude increases, temperature increases o m/s , ft/s , km/hr , mi/hr
5. EXOSPHERE
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

engr.lirasan
AERODYNAMIC FORCES EQUATION OF STATE

- is the force exerted on a body by the air (or some other gas) in which a body is immersed, - The relation among p, 𝜌, and T for a gas is called the equation of state.
and is due to the relative motion between the body and the gas. - Air under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, such as those encountered in
subsonic and supersonic (light through the atmosphere), behaves very much as a perfect
LIFT
gas.
o force component perpendicular to the direction of relative motion.
- A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible.
o is the force that holds an airplane in the air. The wings create most of the lift used
by airplanes 𝑝 = 𝜑𝑅𝑇
DRAG
o force component parallel to the direction of relative motion 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
o is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion.
SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT (R)
o It tends to slow an object.
o is caused by friction and differences in air pressure. An example is putting your hand - is the universal gas constant and is the molecular weight of the material, the value in which
out of a moving car window and feeling it pull back. varies from one type of gas to another.
THRUST 𝐽 lbf ft
o The force created by a propeller or a jet engine - 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
, slugs ˚R
o is a force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the motion
WEIGHT
o is the force caused by gravity STANDARD SEA LEVEL CONDITION (SSLC) CONSTANTS

PRESSURE = 1 atm
= 101325 Pascals (Pa)
where: Pa = N/m2
= 2116.8 psf
where: psf = lbf/ft2
= 14.7 psi
where: psi = lbf/in2
= 760 mmHg
where: mmHg = millimeters mercury
SOURCE OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES
= 29.92 inHg
- no matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and moments on where: inHg = inches of mercury
the body are due entirely to these basic sources: = 760 torr
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
o the normal force due to the pressure on the surface of the body TEMPERATURE = 15˚C (Celsius)
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION = 288.16 K (Kelvin)
o the shear force due to the viscosity of the gas, also known as skin friction. = 59˚F (Fahrenheit)
= 460˚R (Rankine)

engr.lirasan
 DENSITY (air) = 1.225 kg/m3
= 0.002377 slugs/ft3
DENSITY (water) = 1000 kg/m3
= 1.94 slugs/ft3

R (Specific Gas Constant) J

= 287.08 kg K
where: J = joules = Nm
lbf ft
= 1716 slugs ˚R

λ (Lapse Rate) = -6.5 K/km

= -0.003566 ˚R/ft

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

LAPSE RATE (λ)

o Rate at which temperature changes with height in the atmosphere.

TEMPERATURE-ALTITUDE RELATIONSHIP
∆𝑇
λ=
∆𝐻 𝑇 = 𝑇0 + ∆𝐻
𝐾 𝑅 PRESSURE-ALTITUDE RELATIONSHIP
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: λ = =
𝑘𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑝ℎ 𝑇𝐻
REGIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE = ( )5.26
𝑝0 𝑇0
GRADIENT REGION 𝑝ℎ 𝑇0 + ∆𝐻 5.26
=( )
o Region where temperature changes with height. 𝑝0 𝑇0
DENSITY-ALTITUDE RELATIONSHIP
ISOTHERMAL REGION
𝜑ℎ 𝑇𝐻
o Region where temperature is constant with changing height. = ( )4.26
𝜑0 𝑇0
𝜑ℎ 𝑇0 + ∆𝐻 4.26
=( )
𝜑0 𝑇0

engr.lirasan
HYDROSTATIC EQUATION TYPES OF FLOWS

∆𝑝 = −𝜑𝑔∆𝐻 - INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

o Flow where in velocity is less than 100 m/s, density is neglected.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2
- States that, mass can be neither created nor destroyed.
𝜑1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜑2 𝐴2 𝑉2
CONTINUITY EQUATION
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
- states that the rate at which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves
the system. - COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
o Flow where in velocity is more than 100 m/s.
𝑚̇ = 𝜑𝐴𝑉 𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝜑1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜑2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑚̇ = ,
𝑠 𝑠
1. A liquid flows through a pipe with a diameter of 10cm at a velocity of 9cm/s. If the diameter
𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2
of the pipe then decreases to 6cm, what is the new velocity of the liquid?
Solution:
Analyze what type of flow.
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW, density must remain constant.
Use the continuity equation,

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
Solving the initial cross-sectional area yields:
A1=πr2 , The initial radius is 5cm.
A1=π (5cm)2
A1=25π cm2.

Then find the final area of the pipe:

A2=πr2, The final radius is 3cm.
A2=9π cm2.

Using these values in the continuity equation allows us to solve the final velocity.
CONVERGING TUBE DIVERGING TUBE
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

(25𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 )(9 𝑐𝑚/𝑠) = (9𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 )(𝑣2 )

𝑣2 = 25 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

engr.lirasan