SUBJECT CODE: AENG 222

SUBJECT NAME: FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS (AERODYNAMICS I)

EDITOR/S: AMALIA LOURDES A. NOCHE
EDIT DATE: JUNE 23, 2019

INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics – is the study of the motion of air and of the forces on solids in
motion relative to the air.
Motion of Air – refers on how the air moves within the environment especially
within the object where it flows.
Forces on solid – refers on the forces acting on the body while moving and the
reaction of the forces from the body and the air.

QUANITITES INVOLVED IN AERODYNAMIC COMPUTATIONS

1. Fluid
2. Mass
3. Area
4. Density
5. Pressure
6. Viscosity
7. Temperature

Fluids – is a material that flows, that changes its shape easily.

*It is homogenous.
*Very resistant to tension and move continuously under shear.
Ideal fluid – an ideal fluid is conceived to be fluid which has absolute no
resistance to shear forces.
*The action of any force must be normal to the contact surface and their
can be no tangential components
*Fluid may be liquid or gas. The chief difference between liquid and
gaseous fluids is its resistance to compression.
Mass – the internal measure of quantities of matter in a body.
*It remains constant unless part of the body is removed or added.
*The unit of mass is the slug or kg.
*1 slug = 32.174 lb
*1 kg = 9.8066 N

FORMULA:

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑊)
Mass (m) =
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑔)

Where:
m = mass in slug or kg
w = weight in lb or N
𝑓𝑡⁄ 𝑚
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.174 𝑠 2 or 9.8066 ⁄𝑠 2 )

Density – mass per unit volume

*It is not to be confused with specific weight which is weight per unit
volume.
FORMULA:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
Density (ρ) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)

Where:
 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑘𝑔⁄
ρ = density in ⁄𝑓𝑡 3 or 𝑖𝑛3
m = mass in slug or kg
v = volume in 𝑓𝑡 3 or 𝑚3

FORMULA FOR SPECIFIC WEIGHT:

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑤)
Specific Weight (Ɯ) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)

Where:
𝑘𝑔⁄
Ɯ = specific weight in 𝑙𝑏⁄
𝑓𝑡 3 or 𝑚3
w = weight in lb or N
v = volume in 𝑓𝑡 3 or 𝑚3

ANOTHER FORMULA FOR DENSITY:

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (γ)

Density (ρ) =
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑔)

FORMULA FOR SPECIFIC VOLUME:

1
Specific Volume (v) =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (γ)
 Pressure – it is the force divided by area.
*Pressure is measured in pounds per sq. foot or in newton per sq. meter.
*Pressure is sometimes gives as gage pressure.

FORMULA:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
Pressure (P) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

Where:

P = Pressure in 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2 or 𝑁⁄𝑚2

F = Force in N or lb
A = Area in 𝑓𝑡 2 or 𝑚2

Viscosity – is the property of fluids which tends to retard relative motion of

different parts of the fluids.
Atmosphere – is the mechanical mixture of gases surrounding the earth.

FOUR BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. Nitrogen
2. Oxygen
3. Argon
4. Carbon Dioxide
 ENGLISH SYSTEM
P = ρ gRT

Where:

P = Pressure in 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2

𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
ρ = density in ⁄𝑓𝑡 3

g = acceleration due to gravity

𝑓𝑡 . 𝑙𝑏𝑓
R = universal gas constant (58.342 𝑙𝑏 for air)
𝑚 . 𝑅

T = absolute temperature in R

METRIC SYSTEM
P = ρ RT

Where:

P = Pressure in 𝑁⁄𝑚2

𝑘𝑔⁄
ρ = density in 𝑖𝑛3
𝐽
R = universal gas constant (287.08 𝑘𝑔 . 𝐾
for air)

T = absolute temperature in K

FOUR LAYERS OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

 1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Ionosphere
4. Exosphere

STANDARD VALUES OF AIR AT SEA LEVEL

Pressure, 𝑃𝑂

= 14.7 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛2 = 2116.8 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2 = 29.92 inHg = 76 cmHg = 101.325 𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 1 atm

Density, ρ𝑂
slug⁄ kg⁄
= 0.002377 ft 3 = 1.225 m3

Temperature, 𝑇𝑂
 = 519 ᵒR = 288 K
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ𝑂
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑘𝑔⁄
= 3.7372 x 10−7 ⁄𝑓𝑡 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1.7894 x 10−5 𝑚 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐

TEMPERATURE VARIATION W/ ALTITUDE BASED FROM SEA LEVEL UP TO

TROPOPAUSE
*SEA LEVEL → 11 KM = 36, 080 FT

𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑎=
ℎ − ℎ𝑜

𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑎(ℎ − ℎ𝑜 )

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎(ℎ − ℎ𝑜 )

But ℎ𝑜 = 0,

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎ℎ

Where:
T = temperature at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause
(ᵒR or K)
𝑇𝑜 = 519 ᵒR or 288 K

𝑎 = lapse rate (-0.003566 ᵒR ⁄𝑓𝑡 or -0.00651 K ⁄𝑚 or -6.51 K ⁄𝑘𝑚)

ℎ = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (ft or m or km)

PRESSURE VARIATION W/ ALTITUDE BASED FROM SEA LEVEL UP TO
TROPOPAUSE
*SEA LEVEL → 11 KM = 36, 080 FT

𝑃 𝑇 5.26
= ( )
𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂

Since, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎ℎ

𝑃 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎ℎ 5.26
= ( )
𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂

𝑃 𝑎ℎ 5.26
𝛿= = (1 + )
𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂

Where:
𝑃
𝛿= = Pressure ratio
𝑃𝑂

P= pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (psf

or Pa)

𝑃𝑜 = 2116.8 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2 or 101, 325 Pa

𝑎 = lapse rate (-0.003566 ᵒR ⁄𝑓𝑡 or -0.00651 K ⁄𝑚 or -6.51 K ⁄𝑘𝑚)

𝑇𝑜 = 519 ᵒR or 288 K
ℎ = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (ft or m or km)
DENSITY VARIATION W/ ALTITUDE BASED FROM SEA LEVEL UP TO TROPOPAUSE
*SEA LEVEL → 11 KM = 36, 080 FT

From Perfect Gas Law

English System
P = ρ gRT
or

𝑃 ρ 𝑔𝑅𝑇
=
𝑃𝑂 ρ𝑂 𝑔𝑅𝑇𝑜

𝑃⁄
ρ 𝑃𝑂
=
ρ𝑂 𝑇⁄𝑇
𝑜

But,

𝑃 𝑇 5.26
= ( )
𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂

Substitute,

𝑇 5.26
ρ (𝑇 )
𝑂
=
ρ𝑂 𝑇
(𝑇 )
𝑂

ρ 𝑇 4.26
= ( )
ρ𝑂 𝑇𝑂

Since, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎ℎ
 ρ 𝑇𝑂 + 𝑎ℎ 4.26
= ( )
ρ𝑂 𝑇𝑂

ρ 𝑎ℎ 4.26
𝜎= = (1 + )
ρ𝑂 𝑇𝑂

Where:
ρ
𝜎= = Density ratio
ρ𝑂

ρ = density at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause

slug⁄ kg⁄
( ft 3 or m3 )
slug⁄ kg⁄
ρ𝑜 = 0.002377 ft 3 = 1.225 m3
𝑎 = lapse rate (-0.003566 ᵒR ⁄𝑓𝑡 or -0.00651 K ⁄𝑚 or -6.51 K ⁄𝑘𝑚)

𝑇𝑜 = 519 ᵒR or 288 K
ℎ = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (ft or m or km)
PRESSURE VARIATION W/ ALTITUDE ABOVE TROPOPAUSE UP TO STRATOPAUSE
*SEA LEVEL → 32 KM = 104, 960 FT

From Perfect Gas Law

English System
P = ρ gRT

𝑃 1.26
𝛿= = 4.805 𝑥 10−5ℎ
𝑃𝑂 𝑒

Where:
𝑃
𝛿= = Pressure ratio
𝑃𝑂

P= pressure at any altitude above tropopause up to stratopause

𝑃𝑜 = 2116.8 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2

ℎ = any altitude above tropapause up to stratopause

Metric System
P = ρ RT

𝑃 1.26
𝛿= = 1.578 𝑥 10−4ℎ
𝑃𝑂 𝑒

Where:
𝑃
𝛿= = Pressure ratio
𝑃𝑂

P= pressure at any altitude above tropopause up to stratopause

𝑃𝑜 = 101, 325 Pa
 ℎ = any altitude above tropapause up to stratopause

DENSITY VARIATION W/ ALTITUDE ABOVE TROPOPAUSE UP TO STRATOPAUSE

*SEA LEVEL → 32 KM = 104, 960 FT

From Perfect Gas Law

English System
P = ρ gRT

ρ 1.68
𝜎= = −5
ρ𝑂 𝑒4.805 𝑥 10 ℎ

Where:
ρ
𝜎= = Density ratio
ρ𝑂

ρ = density at any altitude above tropopause up to stratopause

slug⁄
ρ𝑜 = 0.002377 ft 3
ℎ = any altitude above tropapause up to stratopause

Metric System
P = ρ RT

ρ 1.68
𝜎= = −4
ρ𝑂 𝑒1.578 𝑥 10 ℎ

Where:
ρ
𝜎= = Density ratio
ρ𝑂
 ρ = density at any altitude above tropopause up to stratopause
kg⁄
ρ𝑜 = 1.225 m3
ℎ = any altitude above tropapause up to stratopause

ALTIMETERS
A pressure gauge which indicates an altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding
to the measured pressure.

Pressure altitude (hp) – the altitude given by an altimeter set to 29.92 inHg.
Density altitude (hd) – the altitude corresponding to a given density in the standard
atmosphere.
Temperature altitude (ht) – the altitude corresponding to a given temperature in the
atmosphere.

*Note: In an atmosphere w/ standard conditions, all three altitudes are the same. On
the other hand, in a non-standard atmosphere, they will all be different.

BASIC AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES

The Continuity Equation
Principle of Mass Conservation (Law of Continuity)
- The mass flow of fluid that passing to one section of the table in one
second is equal to the mass flow of fluid that passing to the other
section of the tube in one second.
 Where:
m = mass flow of the fluid (𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑠 or 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠)
ρ = density of fluid
A = cross sectional area (𝑓𝑡 2 or 𝑚2 )
V = velocity of the fluid (𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 or 𝑚⁄𝑠)

For incompressible fluid, ρ is constant

𝑚1 = 𝑚2
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

A1 V1 = A2 V2 EQ. 1

Or
AV = constant EQ. 2

Differentiating EQ. 2 both sides

𝑑𝑉 − 𝑑𝐴
=
𝑉 𝐴

For compressible fluid, ρ is not constant

𝑚1 = 𝑚2
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 EQ. 4

Or
ρ AV = constant EQ. 5
 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 𝑑ρ
+ + =0
𝑉 𝐴 ρ

THE INCOMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Bernoulli’s Principle

- States that as the air velocity increases the pressure decreases; and as the air
velocity decreases, the pressure increases.
- States that the total energy of a particle in motion is constant at all points on its
path in a strategy flow.

Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion to this segment of the stream tube:

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ = +
2 ρ 2 ρ
VENTURI TUBE
- The venture tube is a convergent – divergent with a short cylindrical throat or
constricted section.
- A device used to determine the rate of flow of fluid through tube my measuring the
difference in pressure between the throat section and the entrance section:

*The faster the velocity, pressure decreases.

𝑄 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )
=√ 𝐴
𝐴2 ρ[1−(𝐴2 )]
1

𝜋𝑑22 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )

𝑄= 4
4
√ρ[1−(𝑑2) ]
𝑑1
THE ISENTROPIC EQUATION OF STATE
Isentropic process – A process which is both adiabatic and reversible
Adiabatic process – A process in which no heat is added or taken away.
Reversible process – A process in which no friction or other dissipative effects occur.
First Law of Thermodynamics
- An amount of heat added to a unit mass of gas will result in a differential
state/change in internal energy (de) and an expansion (pdv) of the gas being v
the specific volume.

Pressure – Specific Volume Relationship

𝑃2 𝑉 𝛾
= ( 2)
𝑃1 𝑉 1

Pressure – Density Relationship

𝑃2 ρ2 𝛾
= (ρ )
𝑃1 1

Pressure – Temperature Relationship

𝑃2 T 𝛾 ⁄𝛾−1
= ( 2)
𝑃1 T 1

Pressure – Specific Weight Relationship

𝑃2 Ɯ
𝛾
= ( 2)
𝑃1 Ɯ 1

* 𝛾 = 𝐾 = 1.4

SUMMARY OF FORMULAS

𝑃2 ρ2 𝛾 𝑉2 𝛾 Ɯ2 𝛾 T2 𝛾⁄𝛾−1
=( ) =( ) =( ) =( )
𝑃1 ρ1 𝑉1 Ɯ1 T1
SPEED OF SOUND
- sound waves travel through the air at a definite speed.

FORMULA

γP
Va = √ ρ

English System

Va = √γgRT

Va = 49.02√T

Where:
Va = speed of sound in air in feet per second
T = absolute temperature in ᵒR

Metric System

Va = √gRT

Va = 20.05√T

Where:
Va = speed of sound in air in meters per second
T = absolute temperature in K
THE COMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION

𝑣12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝛾 𝑃2
+ ∙ = + ∙
2 𝛾 − 1 ρ1 2 𝛾 − 1 ρ2

AIRSPEED MEASUREMENTS

Pitot – Static Tube – an instrument consisting of two tubes having their points of origin
in the open end unobstructed by airstream.
Static Pressure (P) – the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a surface at rest
relevant to the fluid.
Stagnation Pressure or Total Pressure (Pt) – pressure at stagnation point where the
velocity of the medium is equal to zero.

FORMULA
1
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃 = ρV 2 EQ. 1
2

Equivalent Airspeed, Ve

2(𝑃𝑡−𝑃)
𝑉𝑒 = √
ρ𝑜

True Airspeed, V
𝑉𝑒
𝑉=
√𝜎

HIGHSPEED AIRSPEED INDICATORS (COMPRSSIBLE FLOW)

Mach Number, (M) – the true airspeed of the aircraft divided by the speed of sound in
the air through which the aircraft is flying through at the time.
 𝑉
𝑀=
𝑉𝑎

Where:
M = Mach number
V = Flight speed
Va = Ambient speed of sound

Classification of Mach Number

Three different regimes of aerodynamic flow:

1. If M < 1, the flow is subsonic
2. If M = 1, the flow is sonic
3. If M > 1, the flow is supersonic

Two other specialized aerodynamic regimes:

1. If 0.8 < M < 1.2, the flow is transonic
2. If M > 5, the flow is hypersonic

AIRFOIL THEORY
Airfoil Construction

Airfoil – a steamlined body which when set at a suitable angle of attack produces
more lift than drag.
Mean Camber Line – the line joining the midpoints between the upper and lower
surfaces of an airfoil measured normal to the chord line.
Chord line – the line joining the endpoints of the mean camber line.
Thickness – the height of profile measured normal to the chord line.
Thickness ratio – the maximum thickness to chord ratio.
 Camber – the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line.
Leading Edge Radius – the radius of a circle tangent to the upper and lower
surfaces, with its center located on a tangent to the mean camber line drawn
through the leading edge of this line.
Leading Edge – the foremost edge of an airfoil.
Trailing Edge – the rearmost edge of a body.
Skin Friction – an air resistance, the tangential component of force on the
surface of a body.
Turbulent flow – a flow in which the velocity varies erratically in both magnitude
and direction with time.
Laminar flow – the air flowing in their sheets or layer close to the surface of a
wing with no disturbance between the layer of air.
Boundary layer – layer of air adjacent to the airfoil.
Laminar boundary layer – the flow is steady and smooth as a result.
Turbulent boundary layer – the flow is unsteady and not smooth.

NACA AIRFOIL CONSTRUCTION

Examples:
1. NACA 4415 – 4 digit

a) Camber = 0.04C
b) Position of camber = 0.4C
c) Maximum thickness = 0.15C

2. NACA 22018 – 5 digit

a) Camber = 0.02C
0.30
b) Position of camber = 0.30C = 𝐶
2
c) Maximum thickness = 0.18C
3. NACA 653 – 421 – 6 series

6 – series designation
5 – minimum pressure at 0.5C
3 – drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of lift
coefficient of 0.3 above and below the design life coefficient
4 – design lift coefficient 0.4
21 – maximum thickness 0.21C

4. NACA 747A315

7 – series designation
4 – favorable pressure gradient on the upper surface from L.E. to 0.4C at
the design life coefficient.