SUBJECT CODE: AENG 323

SUBJECT NAME: APPLIED SUPERSONIC AERODYNAMICS (AERODYNAMICS III)

EDITOR/S: MITZI FIESTA
EDIT DATE: JUNE 2019

INVISCID, COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

When a change in pressure is accompanied by such change in density, the flow is called
compressible and the amount of compressibility depends on the velocity of the air.

At supersonic speeds, all pressure changes are accompanied, either by shock waves, through
which the pressure and density are increased or else by expansion waves through which these
quantities are reduced.

GASES

A gas in composed of individual distinct particles, each in continual irregular motion and these
particles are constantly colliding with each other.

1. PERFECT GAS LAW

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

Where: P=Pressure
𝜌=Density
𝐽
R=Universal Gas Constant (287.08 𝑘𝑔.𝐾 for dry air)
T=Absolute Temperature

2. ADIABATIC PROCESS

In adiabatic change, no heat energy is added to or subtracted from the air, most
of the changes in a column of air in motion occur so rapidly that there is little
time for heat energy to interchanged with surrounding air or other objects.
𝛾
𝑃 𝜌 𝛾 𝑇 𝛾−1
= (𝜌 ) =(𝑇 )
𝑃𝑂 𝑂 𝑂

𝐶
Where: ϒ= 𝐶𝑃 = specific heat ratio
𝑉
= 1.4 for dry air
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure
𝐽
= 1000 𝑘𝑔.𝐾
Cv= specific heat at constant volume
𝐽
= 718.6
𝑘𝑔.𝐾

3. SPEED OF SOUND (Va)

Speed of sound- sound waves travel through the air at a definite speed
 Sound is transmitted by means of waves of alternate compression and
rarefaction.

English system:

𝑉𝑎 = √𝛾𝑔𝑅𝑇

Where: 𝛾 = 1.4
𝑓𝑡
𝑅 = 53.342 °𝑅
𝑓𝑡
𝑔 = 32.174 𝑠2

𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑎 = √(1.4)(32.174 2
)(53.342 )𝑇
𝑠 °𝑅
𝑉𝑎 = 49.02 √𝑇

𝑓𝑡
Where: Va = speed of sound in air in 𝑠
T = absolute temperature in °𝑅

Metric system:
𝑉𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

Where: 𝛾 = 1.4
𝐽
𝑅 = 287.08 𝑘𝑔.𝐾

𝐽
𝑉𝑎 = √(1.4)(287.08 )𝑇
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑉𝑎 = 20.05 √𝑇
𝑚
Where: Va = speed of sound in air in 𝑠
T = absolute temperature in 𝐾

4. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

5. STAGNATION PRESSURE

Stagnation pressure in compressible fluids of the stagnation point, the velocity

is zero and the pressure and density are at maximum.

𝛾−1 𝑉𝑂 2 𝛾
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 (1 + − )𝛾−1
2 𝑉𝑎𝑜 2
𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 (1 + − 𝑀𝑜 2 )𝛾−1
2
 Where: Ps = Stagnation Pressure
Po = Initial Pressure
ϒ = 1.4
Vo = Initial Velocity
Vao = Initial Speed of sound
Mo = initial mach number

6. MACH NUMBER

Mach number is the ratio of the local velocity of the fluid to the velocity of
sound at a given point.

𝑉
𝑀=
𝑉𝑎

Where: M = mach number

V = Velocity
Va= Speed of sound

7. REYNOLD’S NUMBER

For values RN less than the critical RN, the flow is smooth or laminar.
For values RN greater than the critical RN, the flow is turbulent.

𝜌𝑉𝑅
𝑅𝑁 =
𝜇

Where: V = average velocity

R = inner radius of tube
µ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity of air
ρ = air density

8. LAW OF CONTINUITY

If a fluid is moving steadily and uniformly through a closed pipe or a stream

tube, the mass of fluids passing one section in one second must be the same as
the mass of fluid passing any other section in one second.

For compressible fluid:

ρ ≠ constant

𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑜 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
For incompressible fluid:
ρ = constant
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉
Where: ρ = density
A = area
V = velocity

9. TOTAL PRESSURE

1 1 1 4 1
𝑃𝑡 = 𝛾𝑃𝑀2 (1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀 + 𝑀6 ) + 𝑃
2 4 40 1600

Use when: 0.3≤M<2.24

𝛾
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃 [(1 + 𝑀 ) − 1] + 𝑃
2

Use when: M>2.24

EXERCISE

1) The temperature and pressure at the stagnation point of a high-speed missile are 984 ˚R and 7.8
atm, respectively. Calculate the density at this point.
2) Consider air at a temperature of 230K. calculate the speed of sound.
3) An airplane is flying at sea level at 850 meters per second. What is the difference between the
total and static pressure?

PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

The term one-dimensional flow is used to described a flow in which conditions are sensibly
constant across section. Normal to the flow direction such a condition is to be found in the flow of air
through long nozzles and diffusers because the flow is constrained in all directions normal to the flow
direction, the flow is called one-dimensional even though it may expand or contract in directions normal
to the mean flow direction.

• Nozzle – a short tube or duct that usually tapers or has a construction often forms the vent of a
hose or pipe, and is used to direct the flow of fluid or to increase the velocity flow.
• Diffuser – any duct designed to flow an increasing gas flow to lower velocity at the exit of the
diffuser. A divergent duct downstream of the test section whose role is to slow the higher-
velocity air from the test section down to a very low velocity at the diffuser exit.

1. PRESSURE-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

 𝑃2 𝜌2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
= [ ]
𝑃1 𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2

For any gas:

𝛾
𝑃2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝑃1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For air:
3.5
𝑃2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=[ 2 ]
𝑃1 𝑀2 + 5

2. DENSITY-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

𝛾
𝜌2 𝛾 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1
( ) =[ ]
𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2

For any gas:

1
𝜌2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For air:
2.5
𝜌2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=[ 2 ]
𝜌1 𝑀2 + 5

3. TEMPERATURE-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

𝛾 −1
𝑇2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1
=[ ] [ ]
𝑇1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2

For any gas:

𝑇2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
=
𝑇1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For air:
𝑇2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=
𝑇1 𝑀2 2 + 5

4. SPEED OF SOUND-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

𝑉𝑎2 2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
( ) =
𝑉𝑎1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For any gas:
 1
𝑉𝑎2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 2
=[ ]
𝑉𝑎1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For air:
1
𝑉𝑎2 𝑀1 2 + 5 2
=[ 2 ]
𝑉𝑎1 𝑀2 + 5

5. AREA-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

1 1
𝐴2 𝑀1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝛾−1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 2
= [ ] [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2

For any gas:

𝛾+1
𝐴2 𝑀1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2
For air:
3
𝐴2 𝑀1 𝑀1 2 + 5
= [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀2 𝑀2 2 + 5

EXERCISE:
𝑘𝑔
1) An air tank with a nozzle has a pressure of 9.5 x 104 Pa (gage) and density of 1.9 𝑚3. Outside the
converging-diverging nozzle, the pressure is atmospheric and designed to have a mach number
of 1.0 and 1.2 at the throat and exit, respectively. The area at the throat is 0.11 m2.

Calculate:
a. Temperature and speed of sound at the tank.
b. Pressure and density at the throat.

Solution:
a. For To
𝑃𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑅𝑇𝑜
𝑁
𝑃𝑜 196325 2
𝑇𝑜 = = 𝑚
𝜌𝑜 𝑅 𝑘𝑔 𝐽
(1.9 3 ) (287.08 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑇𝑜 = 359. 93𝐾
For Vao
𝑉𝑎𝑜 = 20.05√𝑇𝑜
𝑉𝑎𝑜 = 20.05√359.93𝐾
𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑜 = 380.39
𝑠
b. For PT
3.5
𝑀𝐸𝑋 2 + 5
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐸𝑋 [ ]
𝑀𝐸𝑋 2 + 5
 3.5
(1.2)2 + 5
𝑃𝑇 = (101325 𝑃𝑎) [ ]
(1)2 + 5
𝑃𝑇 = 129803.91 𝑃𝑎

For ρT:
𝑃𝑇 𝜌𝑇 𝛾
=( )
𝑃𝑂 𝜌𝑂
1
𝑃𝑇 𝛾
𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑂 ( )
𝑃𝑂
1
𝑘𝑔 129803.91 𝑃𝑎 1.4
𝜌𝑇 = (1.9 3 ) ( )
𝑚 196325 𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑇 = 1.414 3
𝑚

MACH NUMBERS AND SHOCKWAVES

MACH NUMBER CLASSIFICATION

1. Incompressible, M < 0.3
2. Subsonic, M < 1
3. Sonic, M = 1
4. Transonic, 0.8 < M < 1.2
5. Supersonic, 1 < M < 5
6. Hypersonic, M > 5

SHOCK WAVE
• A large amplitude compression waves such as that produced by an explosion, caused by
supersonic motion of a body in motion.
• Manifest the collapsed area of the dense region where the density in instantaneous.
• Formed thru the continuous compilation of particles traveling at high speed that form a
boundary line.
• The energy equation may be used to show that If the speed decreases so also does the
mach number, while the pressure, density, and temperature all increase.

TYPE OF WAVES
1. Shock Waves/Compression Waves
• Formed when the density is increased through a shock wave.
a. Normal Shock Waves (NSW) – forms by blunt bodies
b. Oblique Shock Waves (OSW) – a function of deflecting angles
2. Expansion Waves
• When the density is decreased, the change is gradual rather than as in the
compressive case, and is always of the oblique type.
• Because the change is gradual, it is not a shock wave and has no normal type
corresponding to compressive case.

THE WATER-WAVE ANALOGY

1. SUBSONIC SPEED
a. Disturbances sent out by stationary objects

• The disturbance will send out small waves at a certain velocity which are
always concentric with each other.
• These waves maybe linked to the pressure impulses set up by similar
disturbance in a motionless body of air, or they may be more readily
visualized by the pressure waves resulting from an explosion in a
motionless body of air.
b. Disturbances sent-out by particles moving at velocity less than the speed of
sound

• The disturbance sent out as the particle passes station 4 remains ahead
and outside of all successive disturbance sent out while on the way to
the last station.
• The water or air wheel ahead of the object is warned of its presence by
the waves or pressure impulses sent out by the approaching body and
the air will begin to change conditions before the body reaches the
point.

2. SUPERSONIC SPEED
Disturbance pattern created by particle moving faster than the speed of sound.
• The object travels faster than the wavelets intersect, reinforcement
each other and create a new and much stronger wave along the tangent
common to all wavelets.
• The portion of the wavelets ahead of the point of tangency will lose
their identity and be merge into the envelop created by the other
wavelets.
Replaces the wavelets in water by pressure impulses in the air, it can be seen that a definite line
of demarcation is set up in the air, separating the region affected by the body from the free-
stream conditions:

1. MACH LINE
• The line of disturbance created along the envelope of individual wavelets
• The point of contact with the circles of their common tangent is the location of
the source
• The disturbance at this point tends to build up into a much stronger disturbance
than the one being created by the source; but since the latter infinitesimal, the
disturbance remains vanishingly weak.
• No change in flow properties across the common tangent which, however,
divides the region which affected by the disturbance from that which is not. This
is known as the normal mach line.

2. MACH NUMBER
• The ratio between the speed of the air and the speed of sound in the air, which
is of so much importance at supersonic speeds.

𝑉
𝑀=
𝑉𝑎

3. MACH ANGLE (μ)

• The angle which the mach line makes with the free-stream direction,
• Defined by the relative velocities between the free airstream V, and the speed
of sound in the stream Va.

𝑉𝑎 1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇 =
𝑉 𝑀
𝑉𝑎

2
𝑉 2 (1−𝑉𝑎 )
√𝑉 2 −𝑉𝑎2 𝑉 2 −𝑉𝑎2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = 𝑉
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = √ 𝑉2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = √ 𝑉2
𝑉2

1 1 𝑀 2 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = √1 − 𝑉2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = √1 − 𝑀2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 = √ 𝑀2
𝑉𝑎2

√𝑀2 − 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇 =
𝑀

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑉𝑎 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 = √𝑉 2 −𝑉𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 = √ 𝑉2
√𝑉 2 −𝑉𝑎 2 𝑉𝑎2 ( −1)
𝑉𝑎2
 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 =
√𝑀2 − 1

BASIC NORMAL SHOCK WAVE EQUATIONS

The shock wave is a thin region of highly viscous flow. The flow through the shock is adiabatic but non-
isentropic.

1. THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

2. THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑉1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑉2 2

3. THE COMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION

𝑉1 2 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝛾 𝑃2
+ = +
2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2

4. THE PERFECT GAS LAW EQAUTION

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜌2
=
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝜌1

5. FROM EQUATION 1

𝜌2 𝑀1 2 𝑃1
=
𝜌1 𝑀2 2 𝑃2
6. FROM EQUATION 2

𝑃2 1 + 𝛾𝑀1 2
=
𝑃1 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 2

7. FROM EQUATION 3

2
𝜌2 𝑃2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 + 2
= [ ]
𝜌1 𝑃1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2

8. EQUATING EQUATION 5 AND 7

2
𝑃2 2 𝑀1 2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
( ) = [ ]
𝑃1 𝑀2 2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2

9. EQUATING EQUATION 6 AND 8

2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
𝑀2 =
2𝛾𝑀1 2 − (𝛾 − 1)

10. FOR ANY GAS

1
(𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 2
𝑀2 = [ ]
2𝛾𝑀1 2 − (𝛾 − 1)

11. FOR AIR

1
𝑀1 2 + 5 2
𝑀2 = [ ]
7𝑀1 2 − 1

12. PRESSURE ACROSS NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

FOR ANY GAS

𝑃2 2𝛾𝑀1 2 − (𝛾 − 1)
=
𝑃1 𝛾+1

13. FOR AIR

𝑃2 7𝑀1 2 − 1
=
𝑃1 6

14. DENSITY ACROSS NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

 FOR ANY GAS
𝜌2 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀1 2
=
𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2

15. FOR AIR

𝜌2 6𝑀1 2
=
𝜌1 𝑀1 2 + 5

16. TEMPERATURE ACROSS NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

FOR ANY GAS
2
𝑇2 2𝛾𝑀1 2 − (𝛾 − 1) (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
=[ ][ ]
𝑇1 𝛾+1 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀1 2

17. FOR AIR

𝑇2 (7𝑀1 2 − 1)(𝑀1 2 + 5)
=
𝑇1 36𝑀1 2

18. VELOCITY ACROSS NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

FOR ANY GAS
2
𝑉2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
=
𝑉1 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀1 2
19. FOR AIR

𝑉2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=
𝑉1 6𝑀1 2

EXERCISE
1) Consider a normal shock wave in air where the upstream flow properties are V1=680 m/s, T1=288
K, and P1= 1 atm. Calculate the velocity, temperature and pressure downstream of the shock.

Given: Required:
NSW V2, T2 and P2
V1=680 m/s
T1=288K
P1=1 atm

Solution:

For M1:

𝑚
𝑉1 𝑉1 680 𝑠
𝑀1 = = = = 2.0
𝑉𝑎1 20.05√𝑇1 20.05√288𝑘
For V2:
 𝑀1 2 + 5 𝑚 (2)2 + 5 𝑚
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ( ) = (680 )[ ] = 255
6𝑀1 2 𝑠 6(2)2 𝑠

For T2:
𝑇2 (7𝑀1 2 − 1)(𝑀1 2 + 5)
=
𝑇1 36𝑀1 2

(7𝑀1 2 − 1)(𝑀1 2 + 5)
𝑇2 = (𝑇1 ) [ ]
36𝑀1 2

(7(2)2 − 1)((2)2 + 5)
𝑇2 = (288𝐾) [ ] = 486𝐾
36(2)2

For P2:
𝑃2 7𝑀1 2 − 1
=
𝑃1 6
7𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑃2 = (𝑃1 ) [ ]
6

7(2)2 − 1
𝑃2 = (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚) [ ] = 4.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚
6

STAGNATION PRESSURE

Since the flow through the shock is adiabatic, there is no change in stagnation temperature, i.e,
To1 = To2.

From Perfect Law:

 𝑃𝑜2 𝜌𝑜2
=
𝑃𝑜1 𝜌𝑜1

Applying the isentropic law upstream and downstream of the shock gives:

a. PRESSURE-DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
UPSTREAM
1
𝑃𝑜1 𝛾
𝜌𝑜1 = 𝜌1 ( )
𝑃1
DOWNSTREAM
1
𝑃𝑜2 𝛾
𝜌𝑜2 = 𝜌2 ( )
𝑃2

b. PRESSURE-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

UPSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
𝛾
2 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑜1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
=[ ]
𝑃1 2

• FOR AIR
3.5
𝑃𝑜1 𝑀1 2 + 5
=( )
𝑃1 5
DOWNSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
𝛾
𝑃𝑜2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝑃2 2

• FOR AIR
3.5
𝑃𝑜2 𝑀2 2 + 5
=( )
𝑃2 5

c. DENSITY-MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

UPSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
1
2 𝛾−1
𝜌𝑜1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
=[ ]
𝜌1 2

• FOR AIR
2.5
𝜌𝑜1 𝑀1 2 + 5
=( )
𝜌1 5
DOWNSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
 1
2
𝜌𝑜2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 + 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝜌2 2

• FOR AIR
2.5
𝜌𝑜2 𝑀2 2 + 5
=( )
𝜌2 5

d. TEMPERATURE- MACH NUMBER RELATIONSHIP

UPSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
2
𝑇𝑜1 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 + 2
=
𝑇1 2

• FOR AIR
𝑇𝑜1 𝑀1 2 + 5
=
𝑇1 5
DOWNSTREAM
• FOR ANY GAS
2
𝑇𝑜2 (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 + 2
=
𝑇2 2

• FOR AIR
𝑇𝑜2 𝑀2 2 + 5
=
𝑇2 5

e. STAGNATION PRESSURE ACROSS NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

• FOR ANY GAS
1 𝛾
𝑃𝑜2 𝛾+1 𝛾−1 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀1 2 𝛾−1
=[ ] [ ]
𝑃𝑜1 2𝛾𝑀1 2 − (𝛾 − 1) (𝛾 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
• FOR AIR

2.5 3.5
𝑃𝑜2 6 6𝑀1 2
=[ ] [ 2 ]
𝑃𝑜1 7𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 + 5

EXERCISE:
1) The flow just upstream of a normal shock is given by P1=1 atm, T1=288K, and M1=2.6. calculate
the following just downstream of the shock: P2, T2, M2, Po2, and To2.

Given: Required:
NSW P2, T2, M2, Po2, and To2
P1=1 atm
T1=288K
M1=2.6
 Solution:
For P2:
7𝑀1 2 − 1 7(2.6)2 − 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( ) = (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚) ( ) = 7.72𝑎𝑡𝑚
6 6
For T2:
(7𝑀1 2 − 1)(𝑀1 2 + 5)
𝑇2 = (𝑇1 ) [ ]
36𝑀1 2
(7(2.6)2 − 1)((2.6)2 + 5)
𝑇2 = (288𝐾) [ ] = 694.64𝐾
36(2.6)2
For M2:
1
𝑀1 2 + 5 2
𝑀2 = [ ]
7𝑀1 2 − 1
1
(2.6)2 + 5 2
𝑀2 = [ ] = 0.50
7(2.6)2 − 1
For Po2:
3.5
𝑃𝑜2 𝑀2 2 + 5
=( )
𝑃2 5
3.5 3.5
𝑀2 2 + 5 (0.50)2 + 5
𝑃𝑜2 = 𝑃2 ( ) = (7.72 𝑎𝑡𝑚) ( ) = 9.16𝑎𝑡𝑚
5 5
For To2:
𝑇𝑜2 𝑀2 2 + 5
=
𝑇2 5
𝑀2 2 + 5 (0.5)2 + 5
𝑇𝑜2 = (𝑇2 ) ( ) = (644.64𝐾) ( ) = 676.87𝐾
5 5

OBLIQUE SHOCK AND EXPANSION WAVES

THE APPROXIMATE THEORY

1. THE LINEAR TERM DERIVATION (FIRST ORDER APPROXIMATION)

Ackeret or First Order Theory supports the theorem that pressure on the surface
depends on the deflection angle and the freestream conditions.

Pressure changes through a compression oblique shock wave and expansion wave

∆𝑃 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 2𝜃
= =
𝑞 𝑞 √𝑀2 − 1

Where: 𝜃= Defelction angle in RADIAN

∆𝑃
𝑞
= change in pressure across an oblique compression wave
M= Freestream mach number
Note that the formula above was derived from compression wave, applicable both for
expansion (𝜃 is – 𝜃 ) and compression waves (𝜃 is + 𝜃 ).

It was found in equation above that the pressure changes in supersonic flow are
functions of mach number rather than velocity alone. In as much as pressure changes, it
is desirable to have coefficient and force expressions as functions of these two
parameters if possible.

1
The expression 𝑞 = 2 𝛾𝑃𝑀2 is considerably more efficient to use with supersonic terms
than the pressure form.
𝑃2 ∆𝑃 𝛾 2
=1+ 𝑀
𝑃1 𝑞 2 1

The two dimensional pressure change then becomes:

𝑃2 𝛾𝑀1 2 𝜃
=1+
𝑃1
√𝑀1 2 − 1

Under certain conditions, it is advantageous to express the change to the initial

pressure:
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ∆𝑃 𝛾 2
= 𝑀
𝑃1 𝑞 2 1

NORMAL FORCE COEFFICIENT, CN

In as much as the normal lifting force of a wing is the difference between the pressure
on the upper and lower surfaces, and can be seen that two-dimensional wing of zero
thickness will have a normal force coefficient of:

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐶𝑁 = ( ) −( )
𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝑈

2𝜃 2𝜃
𝐶𝑁 = −−
√𝑀1 2 − 1 √𝑀1 2 − 1

4𝜃
𝐶𝑁=
√𝑀1 2 − 1
EXERCISE:
1) A thin plate with infinite span is set at a positive angle of attack in a supersonic
airstream. The pressure across a supersonic wave generated from the leading
edge on the lower surface of the plate is given by a linear theory equation:
𝑃2
= 1 + 2.8𝜃
𝑃1
 Where: P2 and P1 are the air pressures downstream and upstream of the wave,
respectively, and 𝜃 is the angle of attack in radian.

Determine: Freestream mach number

Solution:
𝑃2 𝛾𝑀1 2 𝜃
=1+ = 1 + 2.8𝜃
𝑃1
√𝑀1 2 − 1

𝛾𝑀1 2 = 2.8√𝑀1 2 − 1

2.8
𝑀1 2 = √𝑀1 2 − 1
𝛾

2.8
𝑀1 2 = √𝑀1 2 − 1
1.4

𝑀1 2 = 2√𝑀1 2 − 1
Squaring both sides:

𝑀1 4 = 4(𝑀1 2 − 1)

𝑀1 4 = 4𝑀1 2 − 4

𝑀1 4 − 4𝑀1 2 + 4 = 0

(𝑀1 2 − 2)(𝑀1 2 − 2) = 0

𝑀1 2 − 2 = 0

𝑀1 2 = 2

𝑀1 = √2

𝑀1 = 1.41

2. HIGHER ORDER OR THIRD ORDER APPROXIMATION (BUSEMAN’S METHOD)

Corrections to “linear” terms

𝑃2 ∆𝑃 𝛾 2
=1+ 𝑀
𝑃1 𝑞 2 1
For expansion wave:
 ∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 + 𝐶3 𝜃 3
𝑞

For compression wave:

∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 + (𝐶3 − 𝐷)𝜃 3
𝑞

Note: in case of oblique compression wave, it is necessary to add another term, also of
third order magnitude to correct for the increase in entropy, i.e, conversion of a certain
amount of pressure into heat energy of the air passing through the wave.

Where:

2
𝐶1 =
√𝑀1 2 − 1

𝛾𝑀4 + (𝑀2 − 2)2

𝐶2 =
2(𝑀2 − 1)2

1 𝛾 + 1 8 2𝛾 2 − 7𝛾 − 5 6 5(𝛾 + 1) 4 4
𝐶3 = 2 3.5
[ 𝑀 − 𝑀 + 𝑀 − 2𝑀2 + ]
(𝑀 − 1) 6 6 3 3

For air: 𝛾 = 1.4

1 4
𝐶3 = [0.4𝑀8 − 1.813𝑀6 + 4𝑀4 − 2𝑀2 + ]
(𝑀2 − 1)3.5 3

(𝛾 + 1)𝑀4 5 − 3𝛾
12 [( 4 ) 𝑀4 + (𝛾 − 3)𝑀2 + 2]
𝐷=
(𝑀2 − 1)3.5

For air: 𝛾 = 1.4

0.2𝑀4 − 1.6𝑀2 + 2
𝐷 = 0.2𝑀4 [ ]
(𝑀2 − 1)3.5

FIRST ORDER APPROXIMATIONS

COMPRESSIVE CASE:

∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝐿 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝐿2 1
 ∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (+)
𝑞 𝐿

EXPANSIVE CASE:
∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝑈 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝑈2 1

∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (−)
𝑞 𝑈

SECOND ORDER APPROXIMATIONS

COMPRESSIVE CASE:

∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝐿 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝐿2 1
∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (+)
𝑞 𝐿

EXPANSIVE CASE:
∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝑈 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝑈2 1

∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (−)
𝑞 𝑈

THIRD ORDER APPROXIMATIONS

COMPRESSIVE CASE:

∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝐿 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝐿2 1
∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 + (𝐶3 − 𝐷)𝜃 3 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (+)
𝑞 𝐿

EXPANSIVE CASE:
∆𝑃 𝛾 2
𝑃2 𝑈 = 𝑃1 [1 + ( ) 𝑀 ]
𝑞 𝑈2 1

∆𝑃
( ) = 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2 + 𝐶3 𝜃 3 , 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 (−)
𝑞 𝑈

THE EXACT THEORY

Changes in pressure through an OSW in two-dimensional supersonic flow
ASSUMPTIONS:
a. The effect of viscosity in the air and in the formation of boundary layer is
neglected. It is assumed that the flow over the surface is not affected by
frictional forces, separation and wave effects are likewise neglected.
b. The flow is assumed to be irrational. This will be true only when the air reflected
along a plane surface. Whenever the surface in the airstream has a curvature,
the initial wave will be curve and the flow will have vorticity.
c. No heat conduction exists between the adjacent streamline or across the
shockwaves. The error incurred by the assumption is negligible.
d. As with the approximate theory, the shock wave must be attach to the corner or
leading edge of the surface over which the air is flowing.

Relationship of NWS to OSW

NSW OSW
M1 𝑀𝑁 1
V1 𝑉𝑁 1
M2 𝑀𝑁 2
V2 𝑉𝑁 2

AHEAD OF THE SHOCK WAVE

𝑉𝑁 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑤 = , 𝑉 = 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑤
𝑉1 𝑁 1
𝑀𝑁 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑤 = , 𝑀𝑁 1 = 𝑀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑤
𝑀1

AFTER THE SHOCK WAVE

𝑉𝑁 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃) = , 𝑉 = 𝑉2 (𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃)
𝑉2 𝑁 2
𝑀𝑁 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃) = , 𝑀𝑁 2 = 𝑀1 (𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃)
𝑀2

ALL NSW EQUATIONS CAN BE OSW EQUATIONS

NSW

𝑃2 2𝛾𝑀1 2 −(𝛾−1) 7𝑀1 2 −1

1. 𝑃1
= 𝛾+1
= 6

𝜌2 (𝛾+1)𝑀1 2 6𝑀1 2
2. = 2 =
𝜌1 (𝛾−1)𝑀1 +2 𝑀1 2 +5

2
𝑇2 2𝛾𝑀1 2 −(𝛾−1) (𝛾−1)𝑀1 +2 (7𝑀1 2 −1)(𝑀1 2 +5)
3. =[ ][ ] =
𝑇1 𝛾+1 (𝛾+1)𝑀1 2 36𝑀1 2
 1 1
(𝛾−1)𝑀1 2 +2 2 1 𝑀 2 +5 2
4. 𝑀2 = [2𝛾𝑀 2 −(𝛾−1)] = [7𝑀 2 −1]
1 1

𝑉2 (𝛾−1)𝑀1 2 +2 𝑀1 2 +5
5. 𝑉1
= 2 = 6𝑀1 2
(𝛾+1)𝑀1

OSW

𝑃2 2𝛾𝑀𝑁 1 2 −(𝛾−1) 2𝛾𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −(𝛾−1) 7𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1

1. 𝑃1
= (𝛾+1)
= (𝛾+1)
= 6

𝜌2 (𝛾+1)𝑀𝑁 1 2 (𝛾+1)𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 6𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤

2. 𝜌1
= (𝛾−1)𝑀 2 +2 = (𝛾−1)𝑀 2 2 =𝑀 2 2
𝑁1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑤 +2 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑤 +5

𝑇2 2𝛾𝑀𝑁 1 2 −(𝛾−1) (𝛾−1)𝑀𝑁 1 2 +2 2𝛾𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −(𝛾−1) (𝛾−1)𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 +2

3. 𝑇1
= [ 𝛾+1
] [ (𝛾+1)𝑀 2 ] =[ 𝛾+1
] [ (𝛾+1)𝑀 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ] =
𝑁1 1 𝑤
(7𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1)(𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 +5)
36𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤

1
1 1 2
(𝛾−1)𝑀𝑁 1 2 +2 2 (𝛾−1)𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 +2 2 𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 +5
4. 𝑀𝑁 2 = [2𝛾𝑀 2 −(𝛾−1) ] =[ 2𝛾𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −(𝛾−1)
] =[ 7𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1
]
𝑁1

1 1
𝑀𝑁 2 (𝛾−1)𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 +2 2 𝑀 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 +5 2
5. 𝑀2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 = [2𝛾𝑀 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 −(𝛾−1) ] csc(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃) = [7𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1] csc(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃)
𝑤 −𝜃) 1 𝑤 1 𝑤

𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1
6. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃𝑤 (𝛾𝑀 2 2 )
1 +𝑀1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑤 +2

𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 −1
7. 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 [2𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃𝑤 (𝛾𝑀 2 2 )]
1 +𝑀1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑤 +2

𝜌 𝜌
8. 𝑀1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑤 (6 − 𝜌2 ) = 5 𝜌2
1 1

𝜌
5 2
2 2 𝜌1
9. 𝑀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑤 = 𝜌
6− 2
𝜌1

1
𝜌 𝜌
5 2 +30−5 2 2
𝜌1 𝜌1
10. ( 𝜌 𝜌 ) csc(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃)
35 2 −6+ 2
𝜌1 𝜌1

1
2
5
11. 𝑀2 = ( 𝜌 ) csc(𝜃𝑤 − 𝜃)
6 2 −1
𝜌1

𝜌
6 2 +1
2 2 𝜌1
12. 𝑀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑤 = 7
 𝜌
𝑃2 6 2 −1
𝜌1
13. = 𝜌
𝑃1 6− 2
𝜌1

PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION WAVES

The expansion fan is a continuous expansion region which can be visualized as an infinite number of
1
mach waves each making the mach angle 𝜇 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 with the local flow direction.
𝑀

Since the expansion through the wave takes place across a continuous succession of mach waves, and
for each wave, the expansion is isentropic. This is in direct contact to flow across an oblique shock,
which always experiences an entropy increase. The fact that the flow through an expansion wave is
isentropic is a greatly simplifying aspect.

An expansion wave from a sharp convex corner is called a centered expansion wave. Ludwig Prandtl and
Theodor Meyer first worked at the theory for centered expansion waves in 1907-1908, and hence such
waves are commonly denoted as Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves.

STEPS IN SOLVING EXPANSION WING PROBLEMS

1 𝑉𝑎 1
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇1 = 𝑀 = 𝑉1
1

𝑉𝑁 1 = 𝑉𝑎 1 ; 𝑀𝑁 1 − 𝑀𝑁 2

𝑉𝑁 1 𝑀𝑁 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇1 = =
𝑉1 𝑀1
1 𝑀𝑁 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇2 = =
𝑀1 𝑀2

2. To find 𝑀2 , use:
[𝑓(𝜇2 )] = 𝑓(𝜇1 )

3. [𝑓(𝜇2 )] = [𝑓(𝜇1 )] − 𝜃
To find 𝜇2 , use:
𝜇2 = 𝑓[𝑓(𝜇2 )]

𝑇2 5+𝑀 2
4. 𝑇1
= 5+𝑀1 2 , from the formula of Bernoulli’s theorem if compressible using M1 and M2 if
2
M2 is given.

𝑉𝑇 1
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇1 =
𝑉1
𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜇2 = 2
𝑉1

3.5
𝑃2 𝑔(𝜇 ) 5+𝑀 2
6. 𝑃1
= 𝑔(𝜇2 ) = [5+𝑀1 2 ]
1 2
 2.5
𝜌2 ℎ(𝜇2 ) 5+𝑀1 2
7. = =[ ]
𝜌1 ℎ(𝜇1 ) 5+𝑀2 2

AIRFOIL CHARACTERICTICS
TWO-DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

BASIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WINGS

1. Lift- is the component of force which is normal to the direction of the freestream in
infinite distance ahead of the airfoil.

𝐿 𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = =
1 2 𝑞𝑠
2 𝛾𝑃𝑀 𝑠
1
Where: 𝑞 = 2 𝛾𝑃𝑀2

2. Drag- is the component of force parallel to the freestream direction ahead of the wing.

𝐷
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑞𝑠
1
Where: 𝑞 = 2 𝛾𝑃𝑀2

THREE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL DRAG

a. Form or pressure drag or “wave drag” – is the airwise force resulting from the
pressure distribution when the wing is at the angle of attack at which no lift is
generated.
b. Skin friction- is the force created by the tendency of the layer of the air next to
the surface of the body to cling to the layer next to it until the free-stream
velocity is reached. This shearing action creates a drag on the surface which is a
function of the viscosity, velocity, density, and type of flow (laminar or
turbulent) of the air as well as the airwise surface dimension.
c. Drag due to lift or “Drag due to normal force” – it is the component of the
normal force which is parallel to the direction of the freestream. It exist only
when the airfoil is in an attitude to supply lift and hence is usually given the
name shown at the heading.

3. Axial Force- is the component of force parallel to the chord or axis of the wing or body
and is equal to the form drag plus skin at zero degrees angle of attack.

4. Normal Force- is the component normal to the chord line of the wing.

5. Resultant Force- is the force representing the resultant of the addition of all local
aerodynamic and viscous forces on the wing from which lift and drag forces are
resolved.
6. Moment- is the resultant of the moments of all forces on a body about some chordwise
reference point.

AEODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE-

WEDGE AIRFOIL

∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2
𝑞
∆𝑃
Where: = pressure change across an oblique compression or an expansion wave
𝑞
𝜃 = local angle in radians between the surface and freestream direction
M= freestream mach number

Definition of regions for studying aerodynamic characteristic of double wedge airfoils

𝜃 = (+) when the freestream is deflected toward the surface

𝜃 = (−) when the freestream is away from the surface

The values of 𝜃 to be used in the pressure equation for each surface are as follows:

𝜃1 = −𝛼 + 𝛽 away from the surface; 𝛼 is bigger than 𝛽

𝜃2 = −𝛼 − 𝛽 opposite; open to the left
𝜃2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽
𝜃2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽

Where: 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝛽 = 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠

Pressure difference over the front and rear halves of the airfoil at angle of attack

Pressure distribution over symmetric double-wedge airfoil:

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
( ) = ( ) −( )
𝑞 𝐹 𝑞 3 𝑞 1

∆𝑃
( ) = 2𝐶1 𝛼 + 4𝐶2 𝛼𝛽
𝑞 𝐹

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
( ) =( ) −( )
𝑞 𝑅 𝑞 4 𝑞 2

∆𝑃
( ) = 2𝐶1 𝛼 − 4𝐶2 𝛼𝛽
𝑞 𝑅
 𝑁
The normal force coefficient 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑞𝑠 will be the total difference between the upper and
lower pressure differences ( divided by two to retain the coefficient from based on total
planform area)

𝑁 1 ∆𝑃 1 ∆𝑃
𝐶𝑁 = = ( ) + ( )
𝑞𝑠 2 𝑞 𝐹 2 𝑞 𝑅

𝑁 4𝛼
𝐶𝑁 = = 2𝐶1 𝛼 =
𝑞𝑠 √𝑀2 − 1
Where: 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
2
𝐶1 = 2
√𝑀 −1

The total lift and the pressure drag force

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐹= 𝑞𝑠
√𝑀2 − 1

𝛾 𝑀2
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑃 𝑠
3 √𝑀2 − 1
𝑀2
Where: = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
√𝑀 2 −1

This indicates that, theoretically, the lift and pressure drag for given wing angles would decrease in the
mach number range just above 1, reaching a minimum at 𝑀 = √2 and increasing thereafter. However,
the theory breaks down in the neighborhood of M=1 to 1.4 (the coefficient would be equal to infinity at
M=1). And when viscous effects of the air are included, such as decrease, particularly in drag force, is
very difficult to attain.

It is to be noted that the pressure force increase is approximately linear with mach number in high range
of mach numbers, i.e., above about M=2.0.

The component of pressure force in the airwise direction at zero degrees angle of
attack

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
( ) =( ) −( )
𝑞 𝑈 𝑞 1 𝑞 2

∆𝑃
( ) = 2𝐶1 𝛽 − 4𝐶2 𝛼𝛽
𝑞 𝐹

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
( ) = ( ) −( )
𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 3 𝑞 4

∆𝑃
( ) = 2𝐶1 𝛽 + 4𝐶2 𝛼𝛽
𝑞 𝐿
Total chord wise force coefficient

1 ∆𝑃 1 ∆𝑃
𝐶′𝐷𝐹 = ( ) + ( )
2 𝑞 𝑈 2 𝑞 𝑈

4𝛽
𝐶′𝐷𝐹 =
√𝑀2 − 1

Based on the maximum thickness of the airfoil

Where: 𝐶′𝐷𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

But,
𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶′𝐷𝐹 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
If,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 ≅ 𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶′𝐷𝐹 𝛽
Therefore:

4𝛽 2
𝐶′𝐷𝐹 =
√𝑀2 − 1
Based on planform area

Drag due to normal force or due to lift

4 ∝2
𝐶𝐷𝐿 =
√𝑀2 − 1

Total two-dimensional (sectional) drag of this airfoil

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷 𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓

4𝛽 2 4 ∝2
𝐶𝐷 = + + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓
√𝑀2 − 1 √𝑀2 − 1

4(𝛽 2 +∝2 )
𝐶𝐷 = + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓
√𝑀2 − 1

Where: ∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Coefficient of moment (𝐶𝑀 0.5 )about the mid-chord

By summing the lift of each surface times the distance to its center of pressure
divided by the chord length to retain non dimensionality

1
𝐶𝑀 0.5 = 0.25 [ (2𝐶1 ∝ +4𝐶2 𝛼𝛽)]
2
 𝐶𝑀 0.5 = 𝐶2 𝛼𝛽

Center of pressure (C.P) distance ahead of mid-chord point

Moment divided by the normal force

𝐶𝑀 0.5
𝐶. 𝑃0.5 =
𝐶𝑁

𝐶2 𝛼𝛽
𝐶. 𝑃0.5 =
2𝐶1 𝛼

𝐶2 𝛽𝑐
𝐶. 𝑃0.5 =
2𝐶1
Additional drag due to skin friction

• depends on the type of strength of shock waves created on the local RN

whether or not the flow is laminar turbulent.
• Maybe approximated by the use of coefficients developed by Blasius
(laminar) and Von Karman (turbulent) flow.

a. Laminar Flow

1.328
𝐶𝐷𝑓 =
√𝑅𝑁
b. Turbulent flow

0.455
𝐶𝐷𝑓 =
(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅𝑁 )2.58

(𝑅𝑁 )𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡. = 3.5 𝑥 105 𝑡𝑜 106

Optimum cross-sectional shapes

Moving the point of maximum thickness forward or aft of the mid-chord point
changes the lift-curve slope by a small second-order amount only. Likewise, making
the sectional shape unsymmetrical about the chord line does not affect the lift curve
but displaces it so that the lift is not zero at zero angle of attack.

Three general contours that include the most practical types:

a. The Double Wedge

 b. The Biconvex or Double Circular
Arc

c. The Modified Wedge

I. Modified Double Wedge (a*=1/3)

II. Modified
Double Wedge
(general)

The form drag of a double wedge cross-sectional is a function of the square of the semi-wedge angle 𝛽
of the leading and trailing edge.

The form drag coefficient for any given type of airfoil cross section maybe expressed directly as a
function of the thickness ratio:

𝑘1 𝜏 2
𝐶𝐷 𝐹 =
√𝑀2 − 1

Where: 𝜏 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ. 𝑡/𝑐

𝑘1 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒
 Type 𝑘1
Double-Wedge 4
Biconvex 5.33
Modified Double-Wedge (a*=1/3) 6
Modified Double-Wedge 2/a*
Note: a* is the fraction of chord length of the wedge shape of each end.

The table above means that the double-wedge type of cross-section is the optimum shape because it
has the least drag for a given thickness ratio. A different shape may have greater drag for a given
thickness ratio but may be considerably stronger, thus permitting a much lower thickness ratio for a
given allowable stress, with the net result for a given allowable stress, with the net result that the drag is
less than that of the double-wedge type.

THE OPTIMUM ANGLE OF ATTACK AND MAXIMUM N/D RATIO

The optimum angle of attack for maximum N/D expression to determine the slope as a function
of angle of attack and setting this expression equal to zero because the optimum angle occurs
where D/N is minimum.

1
∝ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 = √𝑘1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 √𝑀2 − 1
2

Substituting the expression for optimum angle of attack into the expression for N/D, the relation
for maximum normal force-drag ratio is obtained

4 ∝ 𝑜𝑝𝑡
𝐶𝑁 √𝑀2 − 1
( ) =
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝐶 + 4 ∝ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 + 𝐶
𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓
√𝑀2 − 1

𝐶𝑁 1
( ) =
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
√𝑘1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 √𝑀2 − 1

It is to be noted that the expression for optimum angle of attack is related to the maximum lift-
drag ratio by the relation:

1
∝ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
𝑁
2 (𝐷 )
𝑀𝐴𝑋
Where: ∝ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
Likewise, the maximum lift-drag ratio occurs at the angle of attack at which the drag due to lift is
just equal to sum of the form and friction drag, where:

𝐶𝐷 𝐿 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓

𝑘1 𝜏 2
𝐶𝐷 𝐿 = + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓
√𝑀2 − 1
And
𝐶𝐷 𝐿 = 2(𝐶𝐷 𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑓 )
( )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷

MOMENT AND CENTER OF PRESSURE

For the double-wedge

𝐴𝐶𝑠 𝑡𝑐 𝑡 𝛽
𝐴′ = 2
= 2= =
𝑐 2𝑐 2𝑐 2

𝛽 = 2𝐴′

Substituting (𝛽 = 2𝐴′ ) into (𝐶𝑀 0.5 = 𝐶2 𝛼𝛽)

𝐶𝑀 0.5 = 𝐶2 𝐴′ ∝

𝐶𝑀 0.5
Substituting (𝐶𝑀 0.5 = 𝐶2 𝐴′ ∝) into (𝐶. 𝑃0.5 = )
𝐶𝑁

𝐶2 𝐴′ ∝)
𝐶. 𝑃0.5 =
𝐶2 ∝ 𝑐)

𝐶2 𝐴′ 𝑐)
𝐶. 𝑃0.5 =
𝐶1 )

Note: the derived expressions are general for all symmetrical shapes, and the value of A’
for the various types is as given in table below:

Shape 𝐴𝑐𝑠
𝐴′ = 2
𝑐
Double Wedge 𝜏
2
Biconvex 2𝜏
∗
3
Modified Double Wedge (a*=1/3) 2𝜏
3
Modified Double Wedge- General (1 − 𝑎 ∗)𝜏
 *= actually computed by assuming a parabolic rather than a circular arc section.
Expression for the true circular-arc (termed biconvex). Type is very complicated, but quantitative
values are very nearly the same, hence, this form is used.