COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SPECIALIZATION: ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT OF POWER SYSTEM QUALITY AND RELIABILITY

NAME ID NO
KASEHUN GETINET WU1204210

SUBMITTED TO: GINBAR E. (PhD)

SUBMISSION DATE: MAY 24, 2020

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 1. Discuss what is non-linear load. Explain also the causes of non-
linear load (2pts). Explain the following parameters (6pts).
A Non Linear Load [NLL] is a load with current consuming characteristics that do not follow
the same fundamental shape as the applied voltage waveform.
Non-linear load is AC circuits in which current and voltage waveforms are not sinusoidal.
This is usually because these loads contain electronic devices that do not conduct current over
the full cycles of the applied voltage. In other words, this kind of load does not have a constant
relation current vs. voltage along the alternating period. Some examples of non-linear loads,
capable of injecting harmonics into an electrical distribution, are: industrial equipment’s
(welding, arc furnace), variable frequency drives (VFD), line-switched rectifiers, switch-mode
power supplies, lighting ballasts and also modern electronic equipment’s, at low load levels,
even they could be designed to optimize efficiency around its rated working point. All these
circuits can contain semiconductor power devices such as diodes, thyristors (SCR’s), transistors,
and/or switching of loads or circuits.
Or
A load is considered as non-linear if its impedance changes with the applied voltage. The
changing impedance means that the current drawn by the non-linear load will not be sinusoidal
even when it is connected to a sinusoidal voltage. These non-sinusoidal currents contain
harmonic currents that interact with the impedance of the power distribution system to create
voltage distortion that can affect both the distribution system equipment and the loads connected
to it.
Non-linear loads cause a number of disturbances such as;
 Voltage waveform distortion,
 Overheating in distribution transformers, and other distribution equipment,
 Higher than rated currents in circuits, and heating in neutral conductors.
A. Power Factor (PF)
 PF is the cosine angle between the voltage and current.
 Power factor is the ratio between the “real”, power and the “apparent” power of an
electrical system

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 Is a better measure of power quality when non-linear loads are present, and is the ratio of
true power to the apparent power, which takes into account both phase shift and the wave
shape distortion.
 Real power = working power = kW
 Apparent power = Volts x Amps = kVA
 Reactive power = magnetizing power = kVAR

Where,
 P - Active Power, considering harmonics, and phase displacement φn between voltage
and current for each:

 S - Apparent Power, considering not only active (P) and reactive power (Q), but also
distortion power (D),

B. Displacement power factor or fundamental power factor

 Is the ratio of the true power used by the load and the power provided by the utility.
 Displacement power factor is only relevant for purely sinusoidal systems and will lead to
errors if applied to nonlinear loads.

Where,
P1 – Active Power of the fundamental
S1 – Apparent Power of the fundamental.

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 C. Active Power (P)
 is called real power, is measured in Watts or kW and performs Useful Work
D. Reactive Power (Q)
Electrical equipment like motors and transformers require reactive power creates a Magnetic
Field and allow work to be performed. This reactive power is called volt-amperes-reactive.
Reactive power is required by many loads to provide magnetizing current for:
 Motors
 Power transformers
 Welding machines
 Electric arc furnaces
 Inductors
 Lighting ballasts

Relationship between P, Q and S

E. Distortion Power (D):

 Ratio of the RMS of the harmonic content of a periodic wave to the RMS of the
fundamental content of the wave, expressed as a percent. This is also known as the total
harmonic distortion (THD);

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F. Total harmonic distortion (THD)
 Is the ratio between the sum of all the rms values of the harmonic components and the
fundamental component expressed as a percentage. Harmonic cause losses within the
power distribution network; have significant effects on distribution equipment; and can
lead to increased costs due to increase maintenance, failures or device de-rating.
 The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a signal is a measurement of the harmonic
distortion present and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic
components to the power of the fundamental.
 Total Harmonic Distortion is used to measure the effective value of harmonic distortion.

 Increasing non-linear loads cause various undesirable effects and power quality
problems. The use of power converters, electronic equipments and other non-linear loads
are rapidly increasing in industry and also by consumers.

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 2. What are harmonics? How do harmonics affect the electrical
system and load? (2pts).
Harmonics
 Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the supply frequency (fundamental frequency). The location of the
harmonics emerging because of the utilization of non-linear loads. These harmonics are
creating distorted voltages and currents in the power system. Distortion of voltages and
currents can affect the power quality.
 Harmonic waveform distortion is just one of many different disturbances that perturb the
operation of electrical systems.
 The main source of the harmonics is any non-linear loads that produce the voltage
harmonics and current harmonics
 Distorted waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the harmonics..
What do harmonics do?
 Harmonics are carried through the system from the source and can nearly double the
amount of current on the neutral conductor in three phase four wire distribution systems.
 Distorted currents from harmonic producing loads also distort the voltage as they pass
through the system impedance. Therefore, a distorted voltage can be presented to other
end users on the system.
Source of harmonics
 Solid state electronic devices which contain a poor power supply:
 Computers
 Laser printers
 Copy machines
 File servers
 Battery chargers
 Solid state UPS units
 Rectifiers

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  Welding units
 Arc fances
Effects of Harmonics
 Overheated transformers and motors: incease hysteresis (magnetization) lsses in steel and
iron cores of transformers,motors and magnetic trip units of circuit breakers .
 Heating of neutral conductors
 Low voltage at end loads
 Operation problems of relays and circuit breakers
 Communication problems
 Current measurement problems

 Harmonics can cause a number of problems for both the electricity consumer and the
Electrical supply companies some of which are:
 Causing greater cable losses in all power distribution cables resulting in poorer energy
efficiency.
 Operation of circuit breakers and fuses causing power failures
 Circulating currents in the windings of distribution transformers, reducing the age,
reliability and efficiency of the transformer
 Further reduction of power factor.
How can harmonics be reduced?
 Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits
 Filter capacitor banks
 Harmonic mitigating transformers
 Proper grounding.