Mathematics, Sciences and Socials

Lemery Colleges, Inc.
A. Bonifacio St., Brgy. Bagong Sikat, Lemery, Batangas
SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD
EDUCATION
Academic Year 2020-2021
FIRST SEMESTER
An Instructional Module and

Compilation of Resources in
GE1104: MATHEMATICS,
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL
NAME OF
STUDENT
YEAR & SECTION
Course Code: GE104

Course Description: MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL
Credit Unit: 3 Units
Instructor: Shena C. Asinas
No part of this compilation may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior
written consent of the institution.
MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 1

VISION:
“Expanding the Right Choice for Real Life Education in Southern Luzon”
MISSION:
Cognizant to the vital role of real life education, LC is committed to:
1. Provide holistic higher education and technical-vocational programs which are valued by the stakeholders.
(Academics)
2. Transform the youth into world-class professionals who creatively respond to ever changing world of work.
(Graduates)
3. Advance research production to improve human life and address societal needs. (Research)
4. Engage in various projects that aim to build strong community relation and involvement. (Community)
5. Promote compliance with quality assurance in both service delivery and program development. (Quality Assurance)
CORE VALUES:
L- Love of God and Country

C- C’s (Competent, Committed and Compassionate) in service
I- Innovative Minds
A- Aspiring People
N- Noble Dreams
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

(BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION)
At the end of this course, the students will:
1. Acquire an in depth understanding of the concepts of ecology and ecosystems as part of environmental science.
2. Identify and recognize the different ecological principles.
3. Realize the importance of the subject in the conservation of the Earth as well as of the human lives.
4. Identify the different environmental issues and problems and the different approaches to address these issues and
problems.
5. Realize the role of the human being in conserving and preserving the natural resources of the environment.
6. Help to carry out the implementation of the different laws governing environmental issues.
7. Develop a sense of responsibility by applying environment-friendly principles in a day to day activity.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON TOPICS PAGE
Title Page 1
Preliminaries Lemery Colleges’ Vision and Mission 2
Table of Contents 3
Flexible Learning Design Worksheet (Course Outline) 4
1 Environmental Science 10
2 Science, Matter and Energy 19
3 Ecosystem 50
4 Human Reproduction
5 Sustaining Resources and Environmental Quality
6 Sustaining Human Societies

B. Bonifacio St., Brgy. Bagong Sikat, Lemery, Batangas
FLEXIBLE LEARNING DESIGN WORKSHEET
COURSE
GE104
CODE
COURSE
MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL
TITLE
The course focuses on the three main topics: (a) Environmental Science which includes interrelationships among components of the natural world; environmental problems, their
COURSE causes, associated risks, preventive measures and alternative solutions, (b) People and Earth’s Ecosystems, which tackles about the impact of human activities on the environment
DESCRIPTION and the consequences of environmental modification on human activity, and (c) Human Reproduction/Population and its factors. Aside from these topics, sustainability and different
laws and provision regarding environmental conservations will also be discussed.
WAYS OF
ASSESSING THE
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES
OBJECTIVES LEARNING RESOURCES
(PREFERRED DELIVERY)
WEEK/ LEARNING (ASSESSMENT
TOPICS
SESSION NO. OBJECTIVE/S TASKS)
VIDEO/ MODULAR
VIRTUAL
RECORDE
CLASSROOM PRINTE
D LECTURE ELECTRONIC
D
▪Internalize and uphold

the Institution’s vision ▪Lemery Colleges’ Vision, ▪Lemery Colleges’ Vision, Mission, Mission,
▪Short essays
and mission Mission, Goals, and Goals and Objectives
(Students submit
1 Objectives  
▪Understand the college written work ▪STE Goals
goals and program ▪BSED Program Objectives electronically)
objectives

Mathematics, Sciences and Social Module

Lesson 1
 Define
environmental ▪Voice over
Environmental Science
Science narrated
 Identify and  Overview of powerpoint
recognize the Environmental presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mpvy36S6jEU
principles of Science
2    ▪Video Clip https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB0JA7jsqMw
sustainability  Environmental Presentation
 Discuss different Problems, Their https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TitrRpMUt0I
environmental Causes and ▪Assignments/Quiz
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytX-0nxZUCk
issues and cite Sustainability
▪Worksheets/
possible solutions Activity Sheets
 Classify the
difference between
science, energy
and matter
 Show an
experiment using Mathematics, Sciences and Social Module
3-4 scientific method Science, Matter and Energy    Lesson 2
 Identify different https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytX-0nxZUCk
forms and energy
and understand
what happen when
it undergoes
change
5 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS

6-8  Discuss the Ecosystem    ▪Voice over

difference between narrated
 Biodiversity and Mathematics in the Modern World Module Lesson
ecology and powerpoint
Evolution 3
ecosystem presentation
 Identify the major  Climate and
Biodiversity ▪Video Clip
components of
 Sustaining Presentation https://www.youtube.com/
ecosystem
 Know what Ecosystem and ▪Assignments/Quiz watch?v=M7xYj7cAzog
happens to energy Biodiversity
and matter in an ▪Worksheets/
ecosystem. Activity Sheets
https://www.youtube.com/
 Understand how
scientists study the watch?v=aMlVcGEn7EE
ecosystem.
 Define biodiversity
and appreciate its https://www.youtube.com/
importance. watch?v=loyetRWK3VU
 Understand how
does the earth’s life
cycle change over
https://www.youtube.com/
time
 Identify different watch?v=1gGTV4deOS0
geological
processes and
climate change and
how it affects
evolution
 Know the role of
different species in

ecosystem and how

they interact.
 Know and
implement the ways
on how to sustain
and manage the
different
ecosystems.
9 MIDTERM EXAMINATIONS
 Identify the factors ▪Voice over
that influence the narrated
size of human powerpoint
population Human Reproduction
presentation
 Know the ways on  Human
10 – 13 how to slow human    ▪Video Clip
Reproduction/Popul
population growth Presentation
ation and
 Identify the factors Urbanization ▪Assignments/Quiz
that causes
environmental ▪Worksheets/
problems Activity Sheets
14 SEMI FINAL EXAMINATIONS

15-16  Define pollution Sustaining Resources and   ▪Voice over
 Identify different Environmental Quality narrated
kinds of pollution powerpoint
 Pollution and
and environmental presentation
hazards Environmental
Hazards ▪Video Clip
 Recognize the
 Waste Disposal Presentation
effects of pollution

and environmental
hazards in the
ecosystem and in
human health
 Identify different ▪Assignments/Quiz
kinds of waste ▪Worksheets/
 Appreciate the Activity Sheets
importance of 3Rs
in dealing with
waste disposal and
management
17  Define economics Sustaining Human Societies   ▪Voice over
and know how narrated
 Environmental
economic system powerpoint
related to the Economics, Politics presentation
biosphere and Worldviews
 International and ▪Video Clip
 Use different
Local Environmental Presentation
economic tools in
dealing with Organizations
▪Assignments/Quiz
environmental
problems ▪Worksheets/
 Identify different Activity Sheets
environmental laws
and local and
international
organizations
 Create a sense of
responsibility by
being an influence

of environmental
policies
18 FINAL EXAMINATIONS
GRADING SYSTEM:
(LECTURE/ LABORATORY COURSES)
MAJOR EXAM : 60%
CLASS STANDING : 40%
-Assignment
-Seatwork/ Activities
-Project
-Quiz
-Report
-Presentation
-Case Studies
-Problem Analysis
-Other outputs
TOTAL 100%

C. Bonifacio St., Brgy. Bagong Sikat, Lemery, Batangas
Lesson 1
TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
DURATION: 1 WEEK
PREFERRED DELIVERY: Video/ Recorded Lecture/Printed Module
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, students will have completed the following objectives:
 Define environmental Science
 Identify and recognize the principles of sustainability
 Discuss different environmental issues and cite possible solutions
 Classify the difference between science, energy and matter
 Show an experiment using scientific method
 Identify different forms and energy and understand what happen when it undergoes change
TO DO LIST
Reading
o Course Content and Lecture in Module Lesson 1 (page 10-18)
Watch Lecture Video

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB0JA7jsqMw
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TitrRpMUt0I
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytX-0nxZUCk
Take Activity 1.1

COURSE CONTENT
What is Environmental Science?
 Environmental Science is a field that deals with the study of the interaction between human systems and natural
systems. Natural systems involve the earth itself and life.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ITS CONTENT

Every one of us is sustained by various kinds of natural resources – such as food, materials, and energy that are
harvested or otherwise extracted from the environment. Our need for those resources is absolute – we cannot survive
without them. Moreover, the same is true of all other species – every organism is a component of an ecosystem that
provides the means of subsistence.
Collectively, the needs and activities of people comprise a human economy. That economy operates at various
scales, ranging from an individual person, to a family, to communities such as towns and cities, nation-states (such as
Canada), and ultimately the global human enterprise. While an enormous (and rapidly growing) number of people are
supported by the global economy, a lot of environmental damage is also being caused. The most important of the damages
are the depletion of vital natural resources, various kinds of pollution (including climate change), and widespread destruction
of natural habitats to the extent that the survival of many of the natural ecosystems and species of Earth are at grave risk.
These issues are of vital importance to all people, and to all life on the planet. Their subject matter provides the
context for a wide-ranging field of knowledge called environmental studies, an extremely broad field of knowledge that
examines the scientific, social, and cultural aspects of environmental issues. As such, the subject matter of environmental
studies engages all forms of understanding that are relevant to identifying, understanding, and resolving environmental
problems.

Within that context, environmental science examines the science-related implications of environmental issues (this
is explained in more detail in the following section). The subject matter of environmental science is the focus of this book.
Issues related to environmental problems are extremely diverse and they interact in myriad ways. Despite this
complexity, environmental issues can be studied by aggregating them into three broad categories:
1. the causes and consequences of the rapidly increasing human population
2. the use and depletion of natural resources
3. damage caused by pollution and disturbances, including the endangerment of biodiversity
These are extremely big issues – their sustainable resolution poses great challenges to people and their economy
at all scales. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that the study of environmental issues should not be regarded as
being a gloomy task of understanding awful problems – rather, the major goal is to identify problems and find practical ways
to repair them and prevent others from occurring. These are worthwhile and necessary actions that represent real progress
towards an ecologically sustainable economy. As such, people who understand and work towards the resolution of
environmental problems can achieve high levels of satisfaction with their contribution, which is something that helps to make
life worth living.
Image 1.1. Planet Earth. Earth is the third closest planet to the Sun, and it is the only place in the universe
that is definitely known to sustain life and ecosystems. Other than sunlight, the natural resources needed to
sustain the human economy are restricted to the limited amounts that can be extracted on Earth. This
estern Hemisphere was taken from a distance of 35-thousand km from the surface of Earth.
Source: R. Stöckli, N. El Saleous, and M. Jentoft-Nilsen, NASA
GSFC; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=885
Specialists examining these and other questions related to environmental issues may come from many specific
areas of study, each of which is referred to as a discipline. However, the various ways of understanding each issue may be
integrated into comprehensive studies of the subject matter – this is why environmental studies is referred to as
interdisciplinary field. For environmental science, the most relevant of the disciplinary subjects are atmospheric science,
biology, chemistry, computer science, ecology, geography, geology, mathematics, medical science, oceanography, physics,
and statistics. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1, which suggests that all fields of scientific knowledge are relevant to
understanding the causes, consequences, and resolution of environmental problems.
Figure 1.1. Environmental science has an interdisciplinary character. All scientific disciplines are relevant to the
identification and resolution of environmental issues. However, the work requires an interdisciplinary approach that
engages many disciplines in a coordinated manner. This integration is suggested by the overlaps among the
disciplinary fields.

Of all of the academic disciplines, ecology is the most relevant to environmental science, and in fact the terms are
often confused. Ecology may be defined simply as the study of the relationships of organisms with their environment.
1.1 Sustainability
 A guiding principle of environmental science
 Living within our planet’s means
- The Earth can sustain humans AND other organisms for the future
- Leaving our descendents with a rich, full world
- Developing solutions that work in the long term
- Requires keeping fully functioning ecological systems
 We are increasing our burden on the planet each year.
- Population growth, affluence, consumption
We are increasing our burden on the planet
 Human population growth amplifies all environmental problems
- The growth rate has slowed, but we still add over 200,000 people to the planet each day
 Our consumption of resources has risen even faster
- Life has become more pleasant for us so far. - However, rising consumption increases the demands we make on
our environment.
 The rise in affluence has not been equal. The gap between rich and poor has doubled in the past 40 years

1.2 Environmental Issues

Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the environment. Various environment
protection programs are being practised at the individual, organizational and government levels with the aim of establishing
a balance between man and environment.
Some of the current environmental issues that require urgent attention are:
1. Air, Water and Land Pollution
- Pollution is not only limited to water, soil, and noise but has extended to light, visual, point, and non-point sources.
Human beings and their actions are majorly responsible for causing all types of pollution. Water pollution is
essentially caused by oil spills, urban runoff, and ocean dumping. Air pollution arises from the burning of fossil fuels,
hydraulic fracturing, and gases emitted by vehicles. Water and soil pollution are majorly caused by industrial waste.
2. Climate Change – Climate Crisis

- Climate change today is less of a natural process. It is rapidly occurring due to the ill effects of human actions
responsible for disturbing and harmful out comings such as global warming, greenhouse effect, urban heat, coal
industry, etc. Climate change is not only changing the overall weather scenario but has larger and harmful effects.
Some of these include the melting of polar-regions, the occurrence of new diseases, and permanent inhibition in the
growth of certain plants essential for human survival.
3. Global Warming
- Global warming is another environmental issue which is an increase in the earth’s temperature due to the
effect of greenhouse gases called carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor and other gases. These gases possess
heat trapping capacity that is needed to create a greenhouse effect so that this planet remains warm for people to
survive. Without these gases, this planet would turn to be cold for life to exist. During the past several decades, the
accumulation of greenhouse gases has grown rapidly, which means more heat gets trapped in the atmosphere and
few of these gases escapes back into space. These gases heat up the earth’s surface and this result in global
warming.
- According to the NOAA, the average earth’s temperature has increased by 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees
Celsius) over the past century. Global warming is a serious public health and environmental concern. Global
warming can have long-lasting effects which can result in the melting of glaciers, climate change, droughts,
diseases, and an increase in hurricanes frequency.
4. Deforestation & Logging

- With the population growing at a rapid pace, the demand for food, shelter, and cloth has almost tripled in
the last few decades. To overcome growing demand, a direct action that we have come to recognize as
“Deforestation” occurs.
Deforestation means, clearing of forests or green cover for means of agriculture, industrial or urban use. It
involves the permanent end of forest cover to make that land available for residential, commercial or industrial
purposes. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), an estimated 18 million acres
(7.3 million hectares) of forest are lost each year. The long term effects of deforestation can be severely devastating
and alarming as they may cause floods, soil erosion, an increase in global warming, climate imbalance, wildlife
extinction, and other serious environmental issues.
5. Overpopulation
- This is a never-ending human tragedy that is responsible for causing all types of environmental issues.
Water pollution, resources crisis, gender imbalance, pollution, land pollution, urban sprawling, deforestation, over
production are some common examples of dangerous effects cause by overpopulation.

Despite efforts taken by the government in terms of family planning in many countries, overpopulation is difficult to
control at the international level. This has become more like a subjective concern and no method seems to be
100% efficient to resolve the problem of overpopulation.
6. Industrial and Household Waste

- At present, tons of garbage are produced by each household each year. Items that can be recycled are
sent to the local recycling unit while other items become a part of the landfills or sent to third world countries. Due to
an increase in demand for food, shelter, and house, more goods are produced. This resulted in the creation of more
waste that needs to be disposed of.
Most waste is buried underground in landfill sites. The presence of huge landfill sites across the city poses
serious environmental concerns. It affects human health, degrades soil quality, affects wildlife, causes air pollution,
and results in climate change.
7. Oil Spill
- The oil spill is another form of pollution that involves the spilling of liquid petroleum in the ocean due to
human activity that affects especially the marine ecosystem. Who doesn’t know the famous 2010 BP oil spill? The
effects of this oil spill can still be seen after several years. There are several oil spill incidents that have happened in
the last 10 years and yet we are not taking the steps to avoid these accidents in the future.
To see other oil spill accidents, have a look at this documentary https://www.conserve-energy-
future.com/biggest-worst-oil-spill-world-history.php
8. Natural Resource Depletion

- Countries around the globe have been digging into the earth’s crust in search of petroleum products that
they can use or sell to other countries to fulfill their thrust for energy. As you already know, these energy sources
are limited and exploitation of these sources beyond a certain point will lead to an increase in air pollution and
global warming.
Experts have already predicted these non-renewable sources might vanish in less than 50 years from now
but still, oil companies have been using these sources of energy like they are going to be here for a lifetime.
9. Habitat Loss and Destruction

- Habitat destruction occurs by pollution that causes habitats to be destroyed because it changes the
quality of air, water, and land while becoming a breeding ground for toxins.
Habitat destruction can lead to the extinction of various species , displacement of wildlife, disruption of
underwater systems, change in the composition, and quality of the soil among others. We must raise awareness
and teach others the importance of biodiversity to solve this serious environmental issue.
10. Water Crisis – Water Shortage

- Did you know that only 2.5% of all the water in the world is freshwater ? And that only 1% of accessible
water is trapped in glaciers and snowfields. We only have real access to 0.0007% of the planet’s water, that’s all we
have to feed and fuel over 6.8 billion people. And above all as per WHO, 1 in 3 people globally do not have access
to clean drinking or potable water. A water crisis is also known as water shortage, water scarcity, and water stress.
Water crisis happens primarily due to water pollution, loss of groundwater, climate change and can lead to
a lack of sanitation, hygiene, livestock and agricultural problems, an increase in deaths, diseases, wars, and
malnutrition.
11. Loss of Biodiversity

- The earth’s biodiversity is in grave danger. In the present era, human beings are the most dangerous
cause of the destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. Habitat loss and destruction which is caused by deforestation,
overpopulation, pollution, and global warming is a major cause of biodiversity loss.

As earth’s population increases, changes in the environment accelerate, leading ultimately to disasters. It is high time for
human beings to take the ‘right’ action towards saving the earth from major environmental issues. If ignored today, these ill
effects are sure to curb human existence in the near future.
Solutions to Environmental Issues

Following are some of the most common solutions to the environmental issue:
 Replace disposal items with reusable items.
 The use of paper should be avoided.
 Conserve water and electricity.
 Support environmental friendly practices.
 Recycle the waste to conserve natural resources.
Environmental science is a highly interdisciplinary field that is concerned with issues associated with the rapidly
increasing human population, the use and diminishing stocks of natural resources, damage caused by pollution and
disturbance, and effects on biodiversity and the biosphere. These are extremely important issues, but they involve complex
and poorly understood systems. They also engage conflicts between direct human interests and those of other species and
the natural world.
Ultimately, the design and implementation of an ecologically sustainable human economy will require a widespread
adoption of new world views and cultural attitudes that are based on environmental and ecological ethics, which include
consideration for the needs of future generations of people as well as other species and natural ecosystems. This will be the
best way of dealing with the so-called “environmental crisis,” a modern phenomenon that is associated with rapid population
growth, resource depletion, and environmental damage. This crisis is caused by the combined effects of population
increase and an intensification of per-capita environmental damage.
Finally, it must be understood that that the study of environmental issues is not just about the dismal task of
understanding awful problems. Rather, a major part of the subject is to find ways to repair many of the damages that have
been caused, and to prevent others that might yet occur. These are helpful and hopeful actions, and they represent
necessary progress toward an ecologically sustainable economy.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

References
• https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/environmentalscience/chapter/chapter-1/
• https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/current-environmental-issues.php
• https://pt.slideshare.net/wtidwell/introduction-to-environmental-science
• https://pt.slideshare.net/wtidwell/introduction-to-environmental-science
• https://byjus.com/biology/environmental-issues-solutions/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB0JA7jsqMw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB0JA7jsqMw

ACTIVITY 1.1
SUSTAINABILITY DAILY PRACTICE
NAME DATE
YEAR & SECTION SCORE:
Direction: Are they any other personal actions you have taken on behalf of the environment that makes a contribution to
environmental sustainability? What was it? Did you maintain it, modify it, or add to it? Why or why not?
Rubrics:
a. Content: : 40%
b. Original Thinking : 30%
c. Grammar : 20%

ACTIVITY 1.2
ESSAY WRITING
NAME DATE
Direction: Identify two environmental issues in the world that you might remember. What can we do to find solutions?
Rubrics:
a. Content: : 40%
b. Original Thinking : 30%
c. Grammar : 20%

Lesson 2
TOPIC: SCIENCE, MATTER AND ENERGY
DURATION: 2 WEEKS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Classify the difference between science, energy and matter
 Show an experiment using scientific method
 Identify different forms and energy and understand what happen when it undergoes change
TO DO LIST
Reading

o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytX-0nxZUCk

COURSE CONTENT
I. SCIENCE
What Is Science?
You are eating soup and you see your reflection in the spoon. It is upside down. You wonder, “Why is my reflection
upside down in a spoon, but not in a mirror?” Asking questions like this one is the first step in doing science.
Science is a process of collecting information about the world. Much of the time, the first step in collecting
information is asking a question. You may not realize it, but you use science every day. When you use the brakes on your
bicycle to slow down, you use your knowledge of science. You learned how hard you should apply the brakes by making
observations. Making observations, asking questions, and trying to find the answer is what science is all about.
What Is Physical Science?

Science is divided into many branches, or parts. Three major branches of science are Earth science, life science,
and physical science. Physical science is the study of matter and energy.
Matter is the “stuff” that everything is made of. Your shoes, your pencil, and the air you breathe are made of matter.
Energy is the ability to do work.
Matter and energy are related because all matter has energy. Sometimes, you can see or feel energy, such as light
or heat. Sometimes, you can tell that an object has energy because it is moving. All matter contains energy, even if you
cannot see or feel the energy. For example, food contains energy. When you eat the food, you get energy from the food.
You can use the energy to do all of your daily activities.

The baseball has energy even before the boy throws it, because it is matter ,and all matter has energy.
1.1 Scientific Methods
What Are Scientific Methods?

Two scientists wanted to find a better way to move ships through the water. They thought that studying the way
penguins swim might give them some ideas about how to improve ships. In this section, you will learn how these scientists
used scientific methods to answer their questions.
Scientific methods are the ways in which scientists answer questions and solve problems. As scientists look for
answers, they often use the same steps. However, there is more than one way to use the steps. Look at the figure below.
This figure shows six steps that are part of most scientific methods. Scientists may use all of the steps or just a few steps
during an investigation. They may repeat some of the steps or do the steps in a different order.
Why Do Scientists Ask Questions?

Asking questions helps scientists focus on the reason for an investigation. Questions arise at every step of
scientific methods. However, the question that becomes the focus of an investigation often comes from observation.
Observation is the process of using your senses to collect information.
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLE:
Two engineers, James Czarnowski and Michael Triantafyllou, wanted to improve the way ships moved through the
water. An engineer is a scientist who builds things using scientific knowledge. Czarnowski and Triantafyllou used scientific
methods to improve how ships move. The two engineers studied how the propellers on ships work. They found that ships
use a lot of fuel to push themselves through the water. They asked the question, “How can we make ships move faster with
less fuel?” That is, they wanted to improve the efficiency of ships. A ship that is efficient does not use as much fuel as other
ships to travel the same distance. The engineers looked to nature to find a way to make ships more efficient. They observed
sea animals to learn how some of them swim faster than others.
The engineers observed that penguins are very efficient swimmers. Penguins have stiff bodies, just like ships.
However, they are able to push themselves through the water with ease.
Now, the scientists had a new question. They wanted to know, “How can we make a ship that moves through the
water more easily?”
Penguins use their wings as flippers to “fly” underwater. As their wings are pulled inward, they push against the water. This movement pushes the penguins forward.
How Do Scientists Form a Hypothesis?

Once a scientist has made observations and asked a question, he or she is ready to predict an answer. This is
called forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis (plural, hypotheses) is a possible explanation for, or guess at, an answer to a
question.
A POSSIBLE ANSWER FROM NATURE
The ship engineers had observed the slow movements of ships and the fast swimming of penguins. Their
observations led them to form a hypothesis. They guessed, “A propulsion system that imitates the way a penguin swims is
more efficient than a system that uses propellers.”
ANOTHER WAY TO WORD PREDICTIONS
Scientists often state their predictions as if-then statements. For example, the engineers’ prediction might have
been: “If we use flippers instead of a propeller to move a boat, then it will be more efficient.” An if-then statement makes it
easier to determine whether your prediction is true.

The table below gives some examples of if-then statements.
“If” statement “Then” statement
If car A uses less gasoline than . . . then car A is more efficient than
car B during the same trip . . . car B.
If more force is needed to stop . . . then force is needed to stop a

an object with a large mass than large truck than a compact car.
an object with a small mass . . .
If a grape and an orange fall at . . . then, when dropped from the

the same rate . . . same height, they will hit the ground
at time
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is
important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a
time while keeping all other conditions the same.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Experimental Procedure
- https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/writing-experimental-procedures
 Materials List
-https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/writing-materials-list
 Conducting an Experiment
-https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/conducting-an-experiment
How Do Scientists Analyze Results?

After scientists collect data, they must analyze it. To analyze data means to interpret what the data mean. One way
to analyze data is to organize them into tables and graphs. Tables and graphs make the patterns in the data easier to see.
It’s always a good idea to perform your experiment several times. Repeated tests can tell you whether your data are
accurate. If you get similar results every time, then you can be more sure that the results are accurate. If the results support
your hypothesis, you know that your hypothesis is probably correct.
What Are Conclusions?

At the end of the investigation, you must draw a conclusion. You do this by looking at your analysis. The results tell
you whether your hypothesis was correct. If it was, then you can say that your results support your hypothesis. That is your
conclusion.
It’s also possible that you will come to a different conclusion. You may decide that your results do not support your
hypothesis. If so, you can change the procedure, gather more information, or ask new questions. Whether your hypothesis
is supported or not, the results are always important.

How Do Scientists Share Results?

Other scientists will want to know your results. Some will want to conduct their own tests based on your results.
There are three ways to communicate the results of your investigation to them. You can use any or all of them.
Method of communicating results Audience

Write a paper for a scientific journal. scientists and others who read the journal
Give a talk scientists and others who attend the talk
Create a Web site anyone interested in the work
Sharing your results allows other scientists to continue your work. Sharing also makes it possible for others to do
your experiments and support your results.

References
• https://study.com/academy/exam/topic/scientific-method-lesson-plans-activities.html
• https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/steps-of-the-scientific-method
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytX-0nxZUCk

ACTIVITY 2.1
LET’S REVIEW
NAME DATE
Direction: Answer each question.
1. What is a hypothesis?
 An educated guess about what you think will happen in an experiment
 The results of a science experiment
 An easy guess about how many candies are in a jar
 A disease spread by insect bites

2. Which question can be answered using the scientific method?
 Which type of fertilizer is best for helping plants grow?
What type of house is the best type?
 Which color is the best?
 When should people wear red clothing?

3. What is evidence?
 Something that scientists measure to help prove that they are right.
 Something scientists love but can never find.
 Something scientists try to avoid collecting.
 Something scientists make and then sell for money.
4. Sheng has completed her research. It is being read by other experts in her field before it is published in a journal.
Sheng’s research is being ________.
 rewritten
 replicated

 manipulated
 peer-reviewed
 tested
5 .Which of the following is NOT one of the six key steps of the scientific method?
 Theory
 Experiment
 Hypothesis
 Observation

II. MATTER
What Is Matter?
You are made of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. A toaster, a glass of water, and the
air around you are all made of matter.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties of Matter: Physical Properties
We use one or more of our senses to identify an object. The properties we are sensing are the physical properties
of the object. A physical property of matter can be detected and measured without making a new substance. If a new
substance is made, a chemical property was measured.
There are many physical properties that can help you identify an object. Some physical properties are color, odor,
texture, and shape. How could you identify a fruit as an apple? You would probably first look at its color and shape. Its odor
and certainly its taste may confirm that the fruit is an apple. Other physical properties of an object include its strength,
flexibility, ability to conduct electricity, and magnetism. Some important examples of the physical properties of matter can be
seen in the table below.
Physical Property Description

Thermal conductivity How heat moves through a substance
Ductility The ability of substance to be pulled into wire
State The physical form of matter (solid, liquid, or gas)
Malleability The ability of a substance to be rolled into a shape
Solubility The ability of a substance to dissolve
Density How compact a substance is
Compressibility The ability to be squeezed or pressed together
What Is a Physical Change?

Any change that affects the physical properties of a substance is a physical change. Imagine that a piece of silver is
pounded into a heart-shaped charm. This is a physical change because only the shape of the silver has changed. The piece
of silver is still silver. Take a look at the figure below to see some other examples of physical changes.
Examples of Physical Change
When a substance changes from a solid to a liquid, it changes state. The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and
gas. Any change to a different state of matter is a physical change. See the figure below.

Freezing water to make ice is a physical change. Heating water in a teapot makes steam. This is also a physical
change. Sugar seems to disappear or dissolve in water. However, if the water evaporates, the sugar reappears. Therefore,
dissolving is a physical change.
A change from a solid to a liquid is a physical change.

All changes of state are physical changes This aluminum can has gone through the physical change of being crushed. The identity of the can has not
changed.
.
CHANGES OF STATE

REVERSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL CHANGES

The figure above shows arrows with two heads. This means that each change can be reversed. For example, a
solid can change into a liquid, then back into a solid.
Physical changes are often easy to undo. Suppose that some solid gold is melted and then poured into a
bearshaped mold. When it cools, the gold solidifies, and a bear-shaped charm is formed. These are physical changes
because only the state and shape of the gold has changed. The gold charm is still gold
MATTER AND PHYSICAL CHANGES

Physical changes do not change the identity of matter. All of the examples that you have read about are examples
of a physical change. Physical changes can often be easily reversed, and the identity of the substance itself never changes.
Properties of Matter: Chemical Properties
What Are the Chemical Properties of Matter?
Physical properties are not the only properties that describe matter. Chemical properties describe matter based on
its ability to change into new matter. One chemical property of matter is reactivity. Reactivity is the ability of a substance to
change into a new substance.
One kind of reactivity is flammability. Flammability is the ability of a substance to burn. For example, wood burns
easily. It has the chemical property of flammability. You may have seen wood burning in a fireplace, or in a campfire.
When wood is burned, it becomes several different substances, such as ash and smoke. See the figure below. The
properties of these new substances are different than the original properties of the wood. Ash and smoke cannot burn. This
is because they have the chemical property of non-flammability.
Wood burning in a fire Ashes after the wood has burned
Rusting is another chemical property. Iron is the only substance that can rust. When iron combines with oxygen, it
forms a new substance called iron oxide, or rust.

Iron nail with no rust Iron nail with rust
COMPARING PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

How can you tell the difference between a physical property and a chemical property? A physical property does not
change the identity of a substance. Do you remember the silver and gold charms from the last section? The silver was
pounded and the gold was melted to make the charms. After each charm was made, the silver charm was still silver and the
gold charm was still gold.
The chemical properties of a substance can’t be seen unless you change the identity of the substance. For
example, you may not know a liquid is flammable until you try to light it. If it burns, it has the chemical property of
flammability. However, the burned liquid has changed into new substances.
A substance always has chemical properties. A piece of wood is flammable even when it is not burning. Iron can
form rust even though it has not rusted.
What Is a Chemical Change?
When substances change into new substances that have different properties, a chemical change has happened.
Chemical changes and chemical properties are not the same. The chemical properties of a substance describe which
chemical change can happen to the substance. For example, flammability is a chemical property. Burning is the chemical
change that shows this property.
A chemical change causes a substance to change into a new substance. You can learn about a substance’s
chemical properties by observing what chemical changes happen to that substance.
Chemical changes occur more often than you might think. For example, a chemical change happens every time you
use a battery. Chemical changes also take place within your body when the food you eat is digested. The figure below
describes other chemical changes.

Soured milk smells bad because bacteria

have formed smelly new substances in it. The Statue of Liberty is made of copper, which is orange-brown. But this copper
is green because of its interactions with moist air. These interactions
are chemical changes that form copper compounds. Over
time, the compounds turn the statue green.
WHAT HAPPENS DURING A CHEMICAL CHANGE?

A fun way to see what happens during a chemical change is to bake a cake. A cake recipe combines different
substances. Eggs, cake mix, oil, and water are mixed to form a batter. When the batter is baked, you end up with a
substance that is very different from the original batter.
The heat of the oven and the mixture of ingredients cause a chemical change. The result is a cake. The cake has
properties that are different than the properties of the raw ingredients alone.
Cake mix batter becomes a cake.
SIGNS OF CHEMICAL CHANGES

A change in color, odor, or texture may show that a chemical change has happened. A chemical change often will
produce or absorb heat.
An increase in temperature happens when a chemical change liberates or releases heat. Wood burning is a good
example of a chemical change that gives off heat.
Some chemical changes cause a substance to absorb or gain heat. Sugar is broken down into carbon and water by
heating.
MATTER AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

When matter has a chemical change, the identity of the matter changes. Chemical changes can only be reversed
by other chemical changes. For example, water can be made by heating a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Water can also
be broken up into hydrogen and oxygen when an electric current is passed through it. The electric current supplies the
energy needed to pull the hydrogen away from the oxygen.

Physical Versus Chemical Changes

Sometimes it is hard to decide whether a physical change or a chemical change has happened to an object.
Consider when something new formed as a result of the change.
Physical changes do not change the composition of an object. The composition of an object is the type of matter
that makes up the object. For example, water is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Whether water is a
solid, liquid, or gas, its composition is the same.
Chemical changes change the composition of matter. For example, through a process called electrolysis, water is
broken down into hydrogen and oxygen gases. The products of the electrolysis of water are very different from water.
In the figure below, baking soda is ground into a powder. This is a physical change. When vinegar is poured into
the baking powder, gas bubbles are produced. This is a chemical change.
Change in Texture Grinding baking soda into a fine,

powdery substance is a physical change. Reactivity with Vinegar Gas bubbles are produced when vinegar is poured into
baking soda.
REVERSING CHANGES
Most physical changes can be easily reversed, like freezing, melting, and boiling. Remember that the type or
composition of matter does not change. This is very different from a chemical change. During a chemical change the type or
composition of matter does change. Many chemical changes cannot be easily reversed. Ash cannot be turned back into
wood. The explosion of a firework cannot be reversed.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Let’s see
NAME DATE
1. How is a chemical property different than a chemical change?

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is reactivity not a physical property?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What can be absorbed or released as the result of a chemical reaction?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Fill in the type of change in the table below.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type of Change Description of Change

Rusting

Boiling
Freezing
Burning
5. What are four things that indicate that a chemical change may have taken place?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
States of Matter: Three States of Matter

What Are the Three States of Matter?
Have you ever had a steaming hot bowl of soup and an ice cold drink for lunch? The three most common states of
matter are found in this lunch. The soup and the drink are made of water. However, the water exists in three different forms.
The soup and the drink are liquids. The ice is a solid. The steam from the soup is a gas.
The substance is the same whether it is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. The substance is just in a different form, or state.
The states of matter are the physical forms of a substance. The three well-known states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
Matter is made up of very tiny particles. These particles are called atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules act
differently in each state of matter. We cannot see atoms and molecules, but they are always moving. How fast they move
depends on the state they are in. The figure below describes the three states of matter and how particles act in each state.
Models of a Solid, a Liquid, and a Gas
 Particles of a solid have a strong attraction between them. The particles are closely locked in position and only
vibrate.
 Particles of a liquid are more loosely connected than those of a solid and can move past one another.
 Particles of a gas move fast enough that they overcome the attractions between them. The particles move
independently and collide frequently.
1.1 Solid

What Are the Properties of Solids?

Any solid material, such as a penny, a rock, or a marble, has a specific shape and volume. For example, if you
place a solid marble into a bottle, the marble’s shape and volume stay the same. It keeps its original shape and volume
no matter where it is placed. A solid is the state of matter that has a specific shape and volume. The particles of a solid
are very close to each other. They have a strong attraction for each other. Therefore, the particles of a solid are locked
into place. However, they do make small movements called vibrations. Remember, the particles of any substance are
always in motion.
1.2 Liquid
What Are the Properties of Liquids?
Ice cubes and liquid water are made of the same material, but they are physically very different. In solids, such as
ice cubes, particles are closely locked together and vibrate in place. In liquids, such as liquid water, particles are able to
move more freely.
A liquid is a substance that has a specific volume, but doesn’t have a particular shape. For example, a liter of milk
takes the shape of its container. The same liter of milk will take the shape of a bowl it is poured into. The shape of the
milk changes. The volume of the milk stays the same. This is seen in the figure below with the juice. In a liquid, the
particles move fast enough to overcome their attraction to each other. As a result, they can move or slide past each
other, even though they always stay close together. In liquids, we know that the particles can move past each other
because liquids can change shape.
THE UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Liquids have special properties that the other states of matter do not have. One special property of liquids is surface
tension. Surface tension is a force that acts on the particles at the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension,
causing it to form spherical or oval-shaped drops. You may have seen beads of water on an object. Each liquid has a
different amount of surface tension. Gasoline has a low surface tension and forms flat drops.
Another special property of liquids is viscosity. Viscosity is a liquid’s resistance to flow. Liquids that are “sticky”
usually have a high viscosity. The particles in these liquids have a strong attraction for each other. For example, honey
flows more slowly than water. So the viscosity of honey is greater than that of water.
1.3 Gas
What Are the Properties of Gases?
The properties of a gas are different from the properties of other states of matter. A gas has no specific shape or
volume. All gases take on the shape of the container they are put in. This is because their particles have little attraction
for each other. A gas that you might know about is helium. Helium is the gas that is used to fill birthday balloons. When
the helium is in the tank, the particles are close to each other. As the helium particles fill a balloon, they spread out. So
the amount of space between the helium particles in the balloon increases.
States of Matter: Changes of State
How Are Changes of State and Energy Related?

It can be tricky to eat a frozen juice bar outside on a hot day. In just minutes, the juice bar begins to melt. As it
melts, the juice bar changes its state from a solid to a liquid. A change of state happens when matter changes from one
physical form to another. A change of state is always a physical change. Remember that in a physical change, the
substance does not change into a new substance.
Energy must be added or removed in order for a substance to change its physical state. It is important to remember
that the particles of every substance move differently. This movement of particles depends on the state of the substance
(solid, liquid, or gas).

For example, the particles in frozen water or ice (a solid) only vibrate. The particles in liquid water move faster and
have more energy than particles in ice. To change ice into liquid water, energy must be added. To change liquid water into
ice, energy must be removed.
The figure below shows changes of state that water can undergo.
1.1 What Is Melting?

When energy is added to a solid, it can melt. Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. For example, an
ice cube in a glass of lemonade melts as it absorbs heat from the lemonade. significance somehow quantifies the degree
that the inferred conclusion is true.

Gallium is a metal that can melt in your hand. Even though gallium is a metal,
it would not be very useful as jewelry!
MELTING POINT AND ENERGY

The melting point of the substance is the temperature in which it changes from a solid to a liquid. As the
temperature of the solid becomes greater, its particles move faster. When a certain temperature is reached, the solid will
melt. The melting point of a substance is a physical property of the substance. Melting point depends on the composition of,
or material that makes up, the substance. It can be used to help identify a substance. For example, copper has a melting
point of 420.7°C. Other substances may look like copper, but they will likely have different melting points. For a solid to
melt, particles must absorb energy. The energy makes the particles move faster and have less attraction to each other. This
allows the particles to move past each other. The solid melts and becomes a liquid.
What Are Freezing and Freezing Point?

The freezing point is the temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a solid state. When a liquid
freezes, its particles have less energy and become closely locked in position. Energy is removed from the substance during
freezing.
Freezing is the exact opposite of melting. The freezing point of a substance is exactly the same as the melting
point of the substance. They both happen at the same temperature. For example, liquid water freezes and becomes solid
ice at temperatures below 0°C. Solid ice melts and becomes liquid water at temperatures above 0°C.
What Is the Process of Evaporation?

When you get out of a swimming pool on a windy day, your body sometimes feels cold. Why? The water on your
skin is evaporating. Evaporation is the change of state from the liquid state to the gas state. The reason you feel cold is
because evaporation requires energy. The energy in this case goes from your body into the liquid water. The liquid water
changes state to a gas called water vapor.
This change of state also happens when you sweat. Sweat is mostly water. When sweat appears on your skin, the
water absorbs heat (energy) from your skin. This causes the water to evaporate, and you feel cooler
EVAPORATION AND BOILING

Evaporation can occur at low temperatures. Water can evaporate at temperatures near 0°C, but it will evaporate
very slowly. For water to evaporate quickly in an open container, it must be heated. If the water is heated to a high enough
temperature, it will boil.
Boiling occurs when a liquid evaporates quickly. The particles leave the liquid state and change to vapor (gas)
particles. This change creates a vapor pressure. A liquid boils when the vapor pressure equals the air pressure in the room.
The temperature at which boiling occurs is known as the boiling point of the substance.

Like melting point, boiling point can help identify a substance. For example, the normal boiling point of water is
about 100°C. Many liquids that look like water boil at different temperatures.
The figure below shows water evaporating at room temperature and water boiling.
What Is the Process of Condensation?

On a hot day in the summer, a glass of ice water might look like it is sweating. The water drops on the outside of
the glass have formed because of condensation. Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. The water
vapor in the air (sometimes called humidity) hits the cold glass. The particles of water vapor lose energy and change into
the liquid state.
Condensation happens when a gas is cooled. When the gas cools, the particles lose energy, move slower, and
have a greater attraction for each other. The particles begin to clump together. Condensation and evaporation are the
opposites of each other. When condensation happens, the particles of gas lose energy and move more slowly. For
evaporation to occur, the particles of a liquid must gain energy, and move faster.
The condensation point of a substance is the temperature at which a gas becomes a liquid. Under most conditions,
the condensation point of a substance is the same temperature as the boiling point of the substance. Condensation can
occur when the temperature of a surface is below the condensation point of the gas. For example, water drops form a haze

on a bathroom mirror when you take a shower. The water drops condense from the water vapor in the air. The mirror is at a
temperature well below water vapor’s condensation point, 100°C. Take a close look at the spider web in the figure below.
Notice the beads of water that have formed on it. This happens because water vapor (a gas) has condensed to form liquid
water.
Beads of water form when water vapor in

the air contacts a cool surface, such as this spider web.
What Is the Process of Sublimation?
The electric company in your community sometimes hands out dry ice when a storm knocks out power. Dry ice
keeps groceries cold, but does not melt like ice. Dry ice can change directly from a solid state to a gas state. This process in
known as sublimation.
Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide. Its temperature is −78.5°C or lower. When it sublimes, it pulls energy from
substances around it. This makes substances around it become cold. The energy it pulls weakens the attraction of the
particles in the solid dry ice. When the attraction weakens enough, the solid changes into a gas. It does not melt
into a liquid.
Dry ice is a substance that will change directly from a solid to a gas at atmospheric pressure.

References
 Holt 2019, Physical Science: Interactive book, A Harcourt Educational Company
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbNa-eUtUlw
 https://www.google.com/search?
q=photo+of+statue+of+liberty&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiuxNb0qoPrAhVKXJQKHdUpDyQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PHOTo+of+statue&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgBMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyBggAEAUQHj
IGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeUJm8BViT5QVg6_kFaABwAHgAgAGVAogBuh-
SAQYwLjIyLjKYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=KUQqX-
6LLMq40QTV07ygAg&bih=608&biw=1349&hl=en#imgrc=zxKG1PU5vSwA0M
 https://www.google.com/search?q=PHOTo+of+a+girl+holding+soured+milk&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj-
6_DiqoPrAhVNdJQKHehTARgQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PHOTo+of+a+girl+holding+soured+milk&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1DoIVj4hQFg1okBaAFwAHgBgA
HMGYgBlzqSARIwLjEwLjEuMS42LTEuMS4wLjGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=BEQq
X_7ZGM3o0QTop4XAAQ&bih=608&biw=1349&hl=en#imgrc=KLvwiiQ6clOPWM&imgdii=dz-unXiEbarNjM
q=PHOTO+OF+a+flour+mixing&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwid06yAkIPrAhWMuJQKHff-BmQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PHOTO+OF+a+flour+mixing&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoCCAA6BggAEAUQHjoGCAAQCBAeOgQI
ABAYUPtxWMq4AWD1uwFoAHAAeAKAAd8EiAHvO5IBDDAuOS4xMy4yLjMuMpgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW
1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=8icqX52SG4zx0gT3_ZugBg&bih=608&biw=1349&hl=en#imgrc=jwcNXHG3sSJDzM
q=iron+nail+photos&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwimoPrQoIPrAhUkKqYKHfpqD_wQ_AUoAXoEC
A0QAw&biw=1366&bih=608#imgrc=k1F85mcVVkbf5M
q=ASHES+AFTER+A+WOOD+HAS+BURNED&tbm=isch&chips=q:ashes+after+a+wood+has+burned,online_chips
:firewood&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0w7GFmoPrAhXWEKYKHXmPDbUQ4lYoA3oECAEQGA&biw=1349&bih=
608#imgrc=RHOPnGED0WF6jM
 https://www.google.com/search?q=PHOTO+OF+WOOD+BURNING&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiKrtS-
mIPrAhVYyZQKHZdyCbEQ2-

cCegQIABAA&oq=PHOTO+OF+WOOD+BURNING&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoCCAA6BggAEAUQHjoEC
AAQHjoECAAQGDoHCAAQsQMQQzoFCAAQsQM6CAgAELEDEIMBOgYIABAIEB5QyOATWO2fFWDooxVoAHA
AeAiAAZIdiAGErwGSARIwLjQuMTQuMS4zLjMuNS45LTOYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ7ABAMABAQ&sclient
=img&ei=2DAqX4riJNiS0wSX5aWICw&bih=608&biw=1366#imgrc=1l-2F_DpICGxgM
ACTIVITY 2.3
All about Matter
NAME DATE
I. Answer each question.

1. How do the motions of the particles differ between the states of matter?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What happens to energy during a change of state? Why is it a physical change?

____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the differences between freezing and melting? How are they similar?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. How are evaporation and boiling the same? How do they differ?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is needed for a solid to sublime and what change of state occurs? How does sublimation differ from
condensation?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

III. ENERGY
What Is Energy?
What Is Energy?
A tennis player needs energy to hit a ball with her racket. The ball has energy as it flies through the air. Energy is all
around you, but what is energy?
In science, energy is the ability to do work. Work is done when a force makes an object move in the direction of the
applied force.
There are 9 different forms of energy, but they can all be classified as either Potential Energy or Kinetic Energy:
What Is Potential Energy?
An object does not have to be moving to have energy.
Potential energy is the energy an object has because of its position. This kind of energy is harder to see because we do not
see the energy at work. In the figure below, when the bow is pulled back, it has potential energy. Work has been done on it,
and that work has been turned into potential energy
The bow and the string have energy that is stored as potential energy.
When the man lets go of the string, the potential energy does work on the
arrow.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

When you lift an object, you do work on it. You
move it in an opposite direction from the force of
gravity. As you lift the object, you transfer energy to
the object and give it gravitational potential energy.
The amount of gravitational potential energy of an
object depends on the object’s weight and its
distance from the ground.

CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The gravitational potential energy of an object can be determined by using the following equation:
gravitational potential energy = weight x height
The weight is in newtons (N) and the height is in meters (m). Gravitational potential energy is written in newton
meters (N x m). This is the same as a joule (J).
Let’s do a calculation. What is the gravitational potential energy of a book with a weight of 13 N at a height of 1.5 m
off the ground?
Step 1: gravitational potential energy weight x height
Step 2: gravitational potential energy 13 N x 1.5 m = 19.5 J
The book now has 19.5 J of potential energy
What Is Kinetic Energy?
When the tennis player hits the ball with the racket, energy moves from the racket to the ball. The tennis ball has
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. All moving objects have kinetic energy. Like all other forms of energy,
kinetic energy can be used to do work. The kinetic energy of a hammer does work on a nail. This is seen in the figure below.
What Is Mechanical Energy?

Look at the figure below. All the energy in the juggler’s pins is in the form of mechanical energy. Mechanical energy
is the total energy of motion and position of an object. In other words, it is the kinetic energy plus the potential energy of an
object.

MECHANICAL ENERGY IN A JUGGLER’S PIN

The mechanical energy of an object doesn’t change unless energy is transferred to or from another object.
Look again at the figure of the juggler. The juggler moves the pin by doing work on it. He gives the pin kinetic
energy. When he lets go of the pin, the pin’s kinetic energy changes into potential energy. As the pin goes up, it slows
down. When all of the pin’s kinetic energy is turned into potential energy, it stops going up.
When the pin starts to fall, its energy is mostly potential energy. As it falls, the potential energy is changed back
into kinetic energy. At different times, the pin may have more kinetic energy or more potential energy. The total mechanical
energy at any point is always the same
What Are the Other Forms of Energy?

Energy can be in a form other than mechanical energy. The other energy forms are thermal, chemical, electrical,
sound, light, and nuclear energy. All of these energy forms are connected in some way to kinetic energy and potential
energy.
THERMAL ENERGY
Matter is made of particles that are moving. These particles have kinetic energy. Thermal energy is all the kinetic
energy from the movement of the particles in an object.
CHEMICAL ENERGY

Chemical compounds such as sugar, salt, and water store energy. These compounds are made of many atoms that
are held together by chemical bonds. Work is done to join the atoms together to form these bonds. Chemical energy is the
energy stored in the chemical bonds that hold the compounds together. Chemical energy is a type of potential energy
because it depends on the position of the atoms in the compound.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
You use electrical energy every day. Electrical outlets in your home allow you to use this energy. Electrical energy
is the energy of moving particles called electrons. Electrons are the negatively charged particles of atoms.
Electrical energy has both kinetic energy and potential energy. When electrical energy runs through a wire, it uses
its kinetic energy. Electrical energy that is waiting to be used is potential energy. This potential energy is in the wire before
you plug in an electrical appliance.
SOUND ENERGY
Sound energy is the energy from a vibrating object. Vibrations are small movements of particles of an object.When
the guitar player pulls on the guitar string. This gives the string potential energy. When she lets go of the string, the potential
energy turns into kinetic energy. This makes the string vibrate. When the guitar string vibrates, some of its kinetic energy
moves to nearby air particles. These vibrating air particles cause sound energy to travel. When the sound energy reaches
your ear, you hear the sound of the guitar.
LIGHT ENERGY
Light helps you see, but not all light can be seen. We use light in microwaves, but we do not see it. Light energy is
made from vibrations of electrically charged particles. Light energy is like sound energy. They both happen because
particles vibrate. However, light energy doesn’t need particles to travel. This makes it different than sound energy. Light
energy can move through a vacuum, which is an area where there is no matter.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Another kind of energy is stored in the nucleus of an atom. This energy is nuclear energy. This energy is stored as
potential energy. There are two ways nuclear energy can be given off by a nucleus. When two or more small nuclei join
together, they give off energy in a reaction called fusion. The sun’s light and heat come from fusion reactions. The second
way nuclear energy is given off is when a nucleus splits apart. This process is known as fission. Large nuclei, like uranium,
can be broken apart with fission. Fission is used to create electrical energy at nuclear power plants.
What Is an Energy Conversion?

Think of a book sitting on a shelf. The book has gravitational potential energy when it is on the shelf. What happens
if the book falls off the shelf? Its potential energy changes into kinetic energy. This is an example of an energy conversion.
An energy conversion is a change from one form of energy to another. Any form of energy can change into any
other form of energy. One form of energy can sometimes change into more than one other energy form.
KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY CONVERSION
A common energy conversion happens between potential energy and kinetic energy. When the skateboarder in the
figure below moves down the half-pipe, he has a lot of kinetic energy. As he travels up the half-pipe, his kinetic energy
changes into potential energy

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Another example of potential energy changing into kinetic energy is shown in a rubber band. When you stretch a
rubber band, you give it potential energy. This energy is called elastic potential energy. When you let go of the rubber band,
it flies across the room. The stored potential energy in the stretched rubber band is turned into kinetic energy.
How Do Chemical Energy Conversions Happen ?
You may have heard that breakfast is the most important meal of the day. Why is eating breakfast so important?
Chemical energy comes from the food you eat. Your body changes the chemical energy from food into several different
energy forms that it can use. Some of these are:
• mechanical energy, to move your muscles
• thermal energy, to keep your body temperature constant
• electrical energy, to help your brain think
So eating breakfast helps your body do all of your daily activities.

ENERGY CONVERSIONS IN PLANTS

Did you know the chemical energy in the food you eat comes from the sun’s energy? When you eat fruits,
vegetables, or grains, you are taking in chemical energy. Energy from the sun was used to make the chemical energy in the
food. Many animals also eat plants. If you eat meat from these animals, you are also taking in energy that comes from the
sun.
The figure above shows how light energy is used to make new material that has chemical energy. When
photosynthesis happens in plants, light energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy. Photosynthesis is a chemical
reaction in plants that changes light energy into chemical energy. When we eat fruits, vegetables, or grains, we are eating
the chemical energy that is stored in the plants.
The chemical energy from a tree can also be changed into thermal energy. This change happens when you burn a
tree’s wood. If you go back far enough, you would see that the energy from a wood fire comes from the sun.
Why Are Energy Conversions Important?

Energy conversions happen everywhere. Heating our homes and getting energy from food are just a few examples
of how we use energy conversions. Machines also convert and use energy. This can be seen from the figure of the hair
dryer above. Electrical energy by itself won’t dry your hair. The hair dryer changes electrical energy into thermal energy.
This heat helps dry your hair.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSIONS
You use electrical energy all of the time. Some examples of when you use electrical energy are listening to the
radio, making toast, and taking a picture. Electrical energy changes into other kinds of energy easily.
How Do Machines Use Energy?
You have seen how energy can change into different forms. Another way to look at energy is to see how machines
use energy. Remember that a machine can make work easier. It does this by changing the size or direction (or both) of the
force that does the work. The machine converts the energy you put into the machine into work.

There is another way that machines can help you use energy. They can convert energy into a form that you need,
such as a stove using electrical energy to cook food.
An example of how energy is used by a machine is shown in the figure below. The biker puts a force on the pedals.
This transfers kinetic energy from the biker into kinetic energy to move the pedals. This energy moves to other parts of the
bike. The bike lets the biker use less force over a greater distance. This makes his work easier.

ACTIVITY 2.4
Give all your ENERGY!
NAME DATE
Direction: Answer the following questions .

1. How is potential energy different from kinetic energy?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What machines in your home use energy?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of energy is stored in a stretched rubber band?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain energy transformations that occur in a flashlight.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. A book weighs 16 N and is placed on a shelf that is 2.5 m from the ground. What is the gravitational potential energy of
the book? Show your work.

References
 Holt 2019, Physical Science: Interactive book, A Harcourt Educational Company
 https://www.ngemc.com/sites/ngemc/files/ERSY/LP%202.1%20Forms%20of%20Energy%20Introduction.pdf
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TitrRpMUt0I

Lesson 3
TOPIC: ECOSYSTEM
DURATION: 3 WEEKS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Define ecology and ecosystem.
 Identify the major components of ecosystem
 Know what happens to energy and matter in an ecosystem.
 Understand how scientists study the ecosystem.
 Define biodiversity and appreciate its importance.
 Understand how does the earth’s life cycle change over time
 Identify different geological processes and climate change and how it affects evolution
 Know the role of different species in ecosystem and how they interact.
 Know and implement the ways on how to sustain and manage the different ecosystems.
TO DO LIST
Reading

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eaiCY--OgoQ
 https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/41/video-sting-of-climate-change/
 https://pop.inquirer.net/80263/watch-nas-daily-lauds-philippines-efforts-in-sustainable-tourism

COURSE CONTENT
What is the difference between ecosystem and ecology?
Ecosystem is an ecological unit which includes all the organisms living in a particular area and all the abiotic (non-
living) features of the local environment. Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the
interactions between organisms and their natural environment.
Environment involves both living organisms and the non-living physical conditions. These two are inseparable but
inter-related. For food, shelter, growth and development, all life systems interact with the environment.
Environment is a life supporting system. In the subject of ecology, the term ecosystem refers to the environment
of life. It is a self-sustaining, structural and functional unit of biosphere. An ecosystem may be natural or artificial, land-
based or water-based. Artificial systems may include a cropland, a garden, a park or an aquarium.
 The term ecosystem first appeared in a publication by the British ecologist Arthur Tansley, during 1935. An
ecosystem may be of very different size. It may be a whole forest, as well as a small pond.
 Different ecosystems are often separated by geographical barriers, like deserts, mountains or oceans, or
are isolated otherwise, like lakes or rivers.

 As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. As a result, the whole earth
can be seen as a single ecosystem, or a lake can be divided into several ecosystems, depending on the
used scale.
 The ecosystem is an open system. It receives energy from an outside source (the sun), as input, fixes and
utilities the energy and ultimately dissipates the heat into space as output.
 An ecosystem has a physical environment, or factors, biological components and interactions between
them. Any ecosystem is characterized by a set of abiotic and biotic factors, and functions.
 The organisms in an ecosystem are usually well balanced with each other and with their environment.
 Introduction of new environmental factors or new species can have disastrous results, eventually leading to
the collapse of an ecosystem and the death of many of its native species.
 The abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and capacity for recovery of a
natural ecosystem.
 Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical area in which they live.
 The habitat of an organism may include many different areas. For Example, a mouse can be seen in a field,
garden or even in a house.
 Animals that migrate will have different habitats during different seasons. Some birds that live in a place
during summer spend the winter in some other place.
Macro and Microecosystems:

The dimension and spread of an ecosystem may vary. Depending upon their existance and dimension,
ecosystems are classified as Macroecosystems and Microecosystems. Dimensionally larger systems such as a
forest or a lake are called as macroecosystems.
Life scientists and environmental biologists who are interested to evaluate the functional mechanisms of an
ecosystem, may create an experimental setup in the field or in the laboratory. Such setup are considered to be
microecosystems.
upon their matrix of research, it may be a terrestrial microecosystem, or an aquatic microecosystem.
TWO PARTS OF ECOSYSTEM

The living (biotic) components like plants and animals; and the nonliving (abiotic) components like water, air,
nutrients and solar energy.
These two parts of the ecosystem do not stand in isolation, rather they continuously interact with one another. In
fact they are so closely linked to each other that experts, by looking at the type and condition of the abiotic environment of
an ecosystem can identify the kind of life that one is likely to find in an ecosystem, and vice versa.
Before we understand what these interactions are like, let us analyze the two:
Living (biotic) components
Living organisms (biotic components) in an ecosystem can be classified as either producers or consumers,
depending on how they get their food.
 Producers (autotrophs, i.e. self-feeders ) can make the organic nutrients they need, using simple inorganic
compounds in their environment: for instance, the green plants on land and the small algae in aquatic
ecosystems produce their food by the process of photosynthesis.

 Consumers (heterotrophs, i.e. otherfeeders) are those organisms, which directly or indirectly depend on
food provided by producers. Consumers, depending on their food habits, can be further classified into four
types.
The PRIMARY CONSUMERS are solely feed on plants.

 Herbivores,e.g. deer, rabbits, cattle, etc., are plant eaters and they feed directly on producers. In a
food chain, they are referred to as the primary consumers.
The SECONDARY CONSUMERS feed on some primary consumers.
 Carnivores are meat eaters and they feed on herbivores (primary consumers). They are thus
known as secondary consumers. They are animal eaters, e.g. lions, tigers.
 Omnivores eat both plants and animals, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches and humans.
The TERTIARY CONSUMERS are the predators of predators. They are mostly larger animals.
 Decomposers digest the complex organic molecules in dead organic matter (detritus) into simpler
inorganic compounds. They absorb the soluble nutrients as their food. Some examples are
bacteria, fungi, and mites. Some invertebrate animals like protozoa and earthworms use these
dead organic matter for their food. They are called as secondary decomposers.
 TRANSFORMERS are certain types of bacteria. They attack on materials excreted by other living
organisms (even dead plants and animals). They transform the above into either organic or
inorganic substances. These substances are suitable for the nutrition of green plants.
Transformers help in recycling the nutrients which came as waste already.
What is important to note is that each ecosystem will have certain representative organisms playing each of the above
mentioned roles.
Non-living (abiotic) components

Non-living (or abiotic) components of an ecosystem include all the physical and chemical factors that influence
living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks etc. Thus, it is an assemblage of organic and inorganic substances present in an
ecosystem. The various climatic factors that affect the ecosystem functioning are also a part of this. The non-living
components are essential for the living world. Without sunlight, water, air and minerals, life cannot exist.
They are of three categories of non-living (abiotic) components:
1. Climatic and physical factors -air, water, soil and sunlight; rainfall, temperature, humidity, soil texture and geomorphic
conditions.
2. Inorganic substances - There are various nutrient elements and compounds, such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorous, carbon-di-oxide, water, etc. These are involved the cycling of materials in the ecosystems.
3. Organic compounds - These are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic substances, etc. They largely form the living body
and link the abiotic compounds with the biotic factors.
The abiotic factors determine the type of organisms that can successfully live in a particular area. Some of the
major non-living factors of an ecosystem are:
 Sunlight - is necessary for photosynthesis; it influences organisms and their environment; it has a
profound effect on the growth and development of life.

 Water - is the elixir of life; all living things require water for their survival, but some can live with
lesser amounts
 Temperature - all living things have a range of temperatures in which they can survive; beyond
those limits it will be difficult for them to live.
 Oxygen - many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for cellular respiration, a process used
to obtain energy from food; others are actually killed by the presence of oxygen (certain bacteria)
 Soil - the type of soil, pH, amount of water it holds, available nutrients, etc determine what type of
organism can successfully live in or on the soil; for example, cacti live in sand, cattails in soil
saturated with water.
 Air
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
A system is an organization that functions in a particular method. The functions of an ecosystem include
 Flow of energy through the medium of living organisms and their activities
 Food chains
 Biodiversity and biomass
 Circulation and transformation of elements and nutrients
 Development and evolution and
 Control.
Energy is also consumed by the autotrophs at cellular level for the reactions related to
 growth
 development
 maintenance
 reproduction
THE INTERNAL PROCESS
Photosynthesis (Ps) and respiration (Rp) are the two major processes involved in the production and transformation of
energy. The rate of photosynthesis increases by an increase of temperature. Many other factors influence the process of
photosynthesis.
However, it is involved
 in the intake of radiant energy and C02 and
 release of oxygen. Respiration is involved in the uptake of oxygen and release of CO2 and energy.
In the absence of light, Ps is arrested but Rp continues. In the presence of light Ps and Rp work together. The total
synthesis of organic matter resulting from the exposure of light can give the Gross Primary Production.
The amount of organic matter stored after expenditure (in terms of respiration) is called as the Net Primary
Production. Hence, Primary Production is the amount of organic carbon and Primary Productivity is the rate of production.
The net primary productivity is also called as apparent photosynthesis or net assimilation. The grain, straw, stalks, roots,
etc. harvested from a paddy field (after a growing. season) comprise the net primary production.
It is well known that animals are not capable of synthesizing their food. So, they have to rely upon other plants and animals
for their food.
There are two biological processes involved in animal life.
 Metabolism

 Growth.
They require energy which is obtained from the ingestion of food. The food, which is in excess of the metabolic
needs, is used to produce animal tissue. This process is known as secondary production. It is estimated by measuring the
increase in weight or size of the animals over a period of time.
So, secondary productivity is the amount of new organic matter stored by the consumers or the heterotrophs. It is a
function of the amount of primary production in an ecosystem. The total quantity of organic matter present at any given time
in an ecosystem, is called as the biomass.
Life in Ecosystems need a continuous supply of energy for survival. Almost all the energy available to us on earth
comes from the sun. The radiation gives heat and light. The uneven heat develops the wind to blow. The radiation
evaporates water into the air and the evaporated molecules arc returned back as rain.
Plants are fundamental to all life on earth. Because, plants have the ability to trap solar energy falling over them
and use this energy to build living tissues. This process is called photosynthesis.
During this process, the inorganic energy - poor molecules (C02 and water) are converted into organic -rich food
molecules (sugars). In this way, plants do not need to depend on other organisms. Hence, they are treated as self
nourishers or autotrophs. Animals cannot use the sun in this way. So, they are dependent, directly (or) indirectly, on plants
for food. Hence, animals are treated as other nourishers or heterotrophs.
The energy used during photosynthesis by plants is not lost. Sugar is a product of photosynthesis. This sugar contains
stored chemical energy and can be burnt to produce heat. Now, in this process, C02 and water are released as by-products.
Sugar combines with oxygen inside the living cells and produce some output, under a slow rate. This process is called as
respiration. It releases the 'energy in the form of complex molecules for use in maintaining the cell functions.
Plants are engaged in both photosynthesis and respiration. Animals cannot make their own food. They must eat
other organisms to obtain the energy rich molecules for survival. Therefore, they are the major consumers.
Animals are technically called as heterotrophs (other - nourishing ).
ENERGY IN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

The ultimate source of energy for all ecological systems is the sun. The energy that enters the earth’s atmosphere
as heat and light is balanced by the energy that is absorbed by the biosphere, plus the amount that leaves the earth’s
surface as invisible heat radiation (first law of thermodynamics). When solar energy strikes the earth, it tends to be
degraded into heat energy.
Only a very small part (about 10 per cent) of this energy gets absorbed by the green plants, and is subsequently
transformed into food energy. The food energy then flows through a series of organisms in ecosystems. All organisms, dead
or alive, are potential sources of food for other organisms. A grasshopper eats the grass, a frog eats the grasshopper, and a
snake eats the frog and is in turn eaten by a peacock. When these creatures die they are all consumed by decomposers
(bacteria, fungi, etc.).
FOOD CHAINS
In an ecosystem, the sequential chain of eating and being eaten is called a food chain. It is this process which
determines how energy moves from one organism to another within the system. In a food chain, energy (organic form) is
transferred from one organism to another. Ideally, this transfer or flow of energy from the sun to green plants to herbivores
to carnivores should be 100per cent efficient. But in reality this does not happen, because at each link ina food chain, 80 to
90 per cent of the energy transferred is lost as heat (second law of thermodynamics). It is because of this loss that fewer
individualsare found at each successive level of the food chain (e.g. fewer carnivores than herbivores). This also limits the

number of levels in a food chain. All organisms are part of a food chain, and may be part of more than one. Food chains
usually consist of producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and decomposers. Every
organism in an ecosystem can be assigned a feeding level, referred to as the trophic level. A trophic level consists of those
organisms in food chains that are the same number of steps away from the original source of energy. Green plants would
be grouped in the first trophic level (producers), herbivores in the second trophic level (primary consumers), and carnivores
in the third (secondary consumers) and so on.
Types of Food Chains

Though all food chains comprise of a series of living organisms which are interdependent on each other for food
and hence energy, they may not always be similar.
In nature there are two major types of food chains:
 The first starts from a base of green plants and goes on to herbivores and
finally to carnivores. This is called the grazing food chain.
 The other starts from a base of dead organic matter, proceeding to a variety of other organisms, including
scavengers, insects and microorganisms, and is called the detritus food chain.
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are linked, as dead organisms from the grazing food chain form the
base for the detritus food chain. This in turn provides nutrients vital to green plants. One could not exist without the other.
A number of food chains interwoven with one another give rise to a structure similar to the delicate web of a spider.
These interlocking patterns formed by several food chains that are linked together are called food webs. Exploring
connections between various components of an ecosystem can be an exciting activity.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the range of life forms on earth. These include millions of plants, animals
and microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate ecosystems of which they are a part.
Biodiversity is usually described in terms of three levels:
 Genetic biodiversity: It is the diversity of basic units of hereditary information (genes) within a species, which are
passed down the generation. For examplethe different varieties of rice (basmati, deharaduni, jeerasir, etc.)
belonging tothe one single Oryza sp.
 Species biodiversity: As we have already discussed, each species is distinct from every other species. Some
examples of such diversity include horses being distinct from donkeys and as are cats from dogs. This is the most
commonly referred level of biodiversity.
 Ecosystem biodiversity: Ecosystem diversity is the diversity of habitats (a place or site where an organism or a
population of organisms naturally occurs), which include different life forms within. Ecosystem diversity can refer to
two phenomena—diversity of species within an ecosystem as well as the diversity of ecosystems on our planet.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
At least 40 per cent of the world's economy and 80 per cent of the needs of the poor are derived from biological
resources. In addition, the richer the diversity of life, the greater the opportunity for medical discoveries, economic
development, and adaptive responses to such new challenges as climate change. Climate change is already having an

impact on biodiversity, and is projected to become a progressively more significant threat in the coming decades ' Loss of
Arctic sea ice threatens biodiversity across an entire biome and beyond The related pressure of ocean acidification,
resulting from higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, is also already being observed.
Recognizing the Inevitability of Change

Ecosystems are dynamic: they undergo constant change. They do not exist forever in a static equilibrium, or a
pristine state. Changes result from the normal shifts in the life stages and abundance of components that make up the
system and their interactions with each other; from disturbances from outside the system and human actions. Such
changes are inevitable.
Gradual changes within ecosystems are generally associated with what ecologists refer to as "succession". When
plants and animals colonize or settle in an area, each passes through a series of life stages. As they do, the
interrelationships between the various species and their surroundings change over time, for example, their demands for
energy or inorganic nutrients. As an illustration, young forest trees and associated woody plants may provide sufficient
cover (habitat) for particular species of nesting birds but, as the forest grows and underbrush is reduced because of
diminished sunlight, the habitat becomes more open and certain bird species leave. Succession also often leads to changes
in the landscape – for example, lakes and wetlands fill with sediment. General changes brought about by the process of
succession are fairly well recognized in a number of ecosystems like forests, prairies, coral reefs, and wetland marshes
(although this does not imply they are understood in detail). However, since no two ecosystems are the same, the rates and
detailed differences for succession, or change, for each ecosystem must be considered separately. Managers must, for
much of the time, work on the basis of inference, until detailed information is available.
Major disturbances such as floods, storms, forest fires and similar phenomena cause changes to ecosystems.
Often they are considered as external to the normal successional changes that ecosystems undergo. At the same time,
some caution is required. Many contemporary ecologists argue that these so-called outside influences are simply one of the
many processes that characterize an ecosystem. In other words, a lightening strike which results in a forest fire should be
considered as a normal process in the succession of some forests, and storm surges that break down a coral reef system
are a normal part of reef dynamics, and should be accepted as such. For each project it will be necessary to decide on the
extent to which such phenomena are taken into account. An event that is frequent will be more important than one that
seldom happens – for example, every few years or less versus once in 500 years.
Throughout history, people have dramatically changed ecosystems , usually by transforming the patterns of
vegetation and fauna across landscapes. Modern developments, especially through industrialization, pollution, intensive
agriculture, dam construction, and the canalization of river systems have had the most noticeable effects. Major change has
also resulted from the redistribution of species by breaking down biogeographical barriers. One such example is the
widespread tendency to convert former mixed forest to monocultures using exotic rather than indigenous species, such as
planting Australian Eucalyptus in many parts of the world because of its fast growth characteristics, or converting whole
islands to banana, sugar or coconut plantations.
At the global scale it seems likely that the augmentation of the natural greenhouse effect by atmospheric pollution
will bring worldwide climate change and sea level rise. The best models suggest increases in global mean temperature of
1oC to 3oC, with marked regional variation. A 1oC rise in temperature would shift the zone of tolerance of plant species
some 120-150km towards the poles, and 130-140m vertically. It is expected that there will be significant effects on the
Earth’s hydrological cycle and, as a result, weather patterns will change. These changes are certain to have major impacts
on ecosystems. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992, the result will be a
redistribution both in human land use patterns and natural ecological configurations.

With the possible exception of some of the changes brought about by human actions, ecosystem-based managers
will not prevent many of these changes and will have to adapt to them. It is necessary then, to accept that change is
inevitable and that some currently valuable ecosystems will become less valuable for human use, e.g. the silting up of lakes
that support valuable fisheries. However, within the ecosystem-based management approach, there is the possibility to
mitigate against change, to encourage changes that result in some advantage, or to adapt. To a great extent this will
depend upon social choice – for example, by deciding to modify existing uses in order to preserve a core function.
BALANCE IN NATURE
Homeostasis is a state of relative constancy vital to the survival of organisms. In nature, the state of Homeostasis is
found at various levels. We know that our bodies have the regulatory mechanism to keep our body properties (temperature
and function wise) in a balanced state; similarly ecosystems also possess many mechanisms that either resist change or
help them recover from change, which helps to keep natural systems in a state of relative constancy. Numerous biotic and
abiotic factors influence the growth of populations. Some stimulate growth; others deter growth. Ecosystem
homeostasis is the result of the interaction of these factors. In ecosystems, changes in biotic and abiotic conditions lead to a
cascade of effects, but the systems tend to return to normal over time. The ability to resist change is called resilience.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the influence of human beings on the world's
ecosystem ' Escalating human population is a major cause of biodiversity loss ' Most of the biodiversity loss has happened
post Industrial Revolution through human activities.
SPECIES LOSS RATE
The planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund The
Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on
average, about half the size it was 40 years ago' Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the
marine wildlife gone and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone ' Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America.
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
 Alteration and loss of the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas determines not only the loss of the
vegetable species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated to them.
 Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms: species originating from a particular area,
introduced into new natural environments can lead to different forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium.
 Pollution: human activity influences the natural environment producing negative, direct or indirect, effects that alter
the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of the environment and abundance of the species
 Climate change: for example, heating of the Earth's surface affects biodiversity because it endangers all the
species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the Polar species) or the altitude (mountain species).
 Overexploitation of resources: when the activities connected with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing,
farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is excessively intense, the resource itself may become
exhausted, as for example, is the case of sardines, herrings, cod, tuna and many other species that man captures
without leaving enough time for the organisms to reproduce.
INTERACTIONS IN A COMMUNITY
Organisms of different species in a community do not stay in isolation from each other, and hence community ecology is
concerned with the variety of interactions that take place between the various species. When any two organisms have some

activities or requirements in common, they interact with each other. Species are inextricably linked, forming networked
systems. In fact, constant interactions occur within (intra-specific) and between (interspecific) them. Such interactions occur
principally for habitat, food, defense, and reproduction. These interactions include:
 Predation
Predation is the consumption of one individual (prey) by another
(predator). For instance, lion preys on deer, or a kingfisher feeds on fish in a pond.
 Competition:
In most communities, each organism faces competition from one or more organisms for common limited resources.
Competition can again be of two types:
1. Interference. Interference is where one organism hinders another organism’s access to some
resource, say food, water, shelter, etc., irrespective of the fact whether the resource is abundant or
scarce. For instance some coral animals kill other nearby corals by poisoning them.
2. Exploitation. Two competing organisms have equal access to a particular resource, but differ in
how quickly or efficiently they exploit it.In this way one organism gets more of the resource, thereby
hampering the growth, reproduction and survival of the other. This kind of competition is usually
exhibited only when a resource is scarce. For instance grasses thrive better in deserts than other
3. plants because their root systems are more efficient in absorbing more water in a short time than
those of other plant species.
 Mutualism:
It is the type interaction, where both the interacting species are mutually benefited. A common example is the
interaction between flowers and insects, where the flower is benefited by being pollinated and the insect gets the
nectar. In some cases the mutual relationship has become so close that species involved cannot survive without
each other. For example, certain species of fungi and algae live in close association as lichens. The fungus gets its
food from the algae, while the algae get protection. If separated, neither can survive.
 Commensalism:
Commensalism is a cooperative relationship where one partner gains from the arrangement while the other is
neither helped nor harmed, e.g. in dense forests, where sunlight does not reach the ground in sufficient quantity,
orchids grow on other tree species. The orchid is benefited by getting sufficient light, but the tree is neither
benefited nor harmed.
 Parasitism:
Parasitism is a one way relationship where the parasite gains and the host is adversely affected. Parasites are
usually smaller than their hosts. They do not kill or consume the hosts but only derive their nutrition from them, e.g.
ticks attach themselves to dogs and suck the blood. Similarly tapeworms are found in the human intestine.
DID YOU KNOW?

Symbiosis refers to the phenomenon of ‘living together’ in close union. Symbiosis is sometimes interpreted to be a
beneficial relationship—where the organisms involved get benefits by living together. However, ecologically, any interaction
where two or more organisms live in close association is referred to as a symbiotic relationship, irrespective of whether the
two are benefited or harmed, or remain unaffected. Thus symbiosis includes mutualistic, commensalistic as well as parasitic
relationships. There are thus three major types of interactions—predation, competition and symbiosis. The last includes
mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERACTIONS

What do interactions between and among species signify in nature? Why should organisms interact with each other? Can
they not remain and thrive in isolation? Do they benefit from the innumerable interactions that take place within a
community? Do these interactions play a role in making communities more efficient and resilient? If yes, how?
Let us look at some examples:
Predation is an efficient way of keeping prey population within the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. Imagine if
there was no predation, the prey population would shoot up and will either degrade the natural habitat or will die back. Not
only will the prey population suffer, but also the environment will get degraded due to overuse. Besides this, predation also
helps in facilitating survival of the fittest among the prey, because usually during a chase, it is the weakest of the lot that
gets caught. Thus predation ensures that a balanced, healthy prey population continues to grow.
Like predation, symbiotic interactions also have a defined role in keeping the natural world in balance. Most
symbiotic interactions, over a period of time, help species evolve and create their niche. Had these symbiotic relationships
not existed in nature, the associated species would have either not survived or would have demanded more resources
within the ecosystem. For example, mutualistic associations not only help in exchange of benefits between two or more
species, but also help in fortifying weaknesses of these species’ adaptive strategies. When soil microorganisms and
invertebrates cooperate (mutualism has been reported between a number of soil fungi and invertebrates like earthworms
and millipedes), their distinct strategies complement one another: Microorganisms have very limited locomotion, which
affects the proximity to environmental resources, but they have very strong digestive power and are capable of digesting
most organic substrates. In contrast, invertebrates have competent locomotion and can thus favourably alter physical
environments, e.g. through burrowing. However, the vast majority of these soil inhabiting invertebrates cannot produce
enzymes to directly digest the cellulose and lignin that comprise a major part of the soil organic resources. Thus a
mutualistic relationship between the two types of organisms helps in complementing each others’ weaknesses / limitations.
Interactions between organisms are the essence of the balance in nature.
Maintaining Biodiversity
Ecosystems consist of plants, animals (including humans) and non-living components (air, water, minerals) and the
processes that link them. The frequency of occurrence of different species within an ecosystem defines its species diversity.
The frequency of occurrence of different ecosystems is a measure of ecosystem diversity. The goods and services provided
by ecosystems all contribute to life on Earth and, in many cases, are vital to its survival, if not the quality of life of its
inhabitants. Loss of ecosystems, their species components and the processes that link them can lead to the loss of the
goods and services that ecosystems provide. A decline in diversity can lead to the loss of valuable biological resources – for
example when forest conversion causes the disappearance of medicinal plants or food sources used by forest-dwelling
communities. A basic principle of ecosystem management is therefore to maintain biodiversity.
The components that characterize diversity in ecosystems are highly varied. For example, animals living in polar
ecosystems are adapted to cold temperatures, high annual variations in temperature and food supplies, and to surviving on
ice flows, while in tropical conditions animals are adapted to higher temperatures with less seasonal variation, and to cycles
of rainy periods and drought. There are many other examples of such variations in adaptation. While the basic ecosystem
processes, for example predator-prey relationships, may be similar the actual components making up different ecosystems
are highly diverse (for example polar bears compared with lions).
While ecosystems vary considerably in their characteristic biodiversity, some patterns are worth mentioning.
Generally, ecosystems in continental situations in the humid tropics contain a greater biomass, have higher productivity,
and contain a greater diversity of species than ecosystems in colder, more arid situations, or regions that have been
exposed to dramatic environmental fluxes such as repeated glaciations. Isolated habitats – like those of remote islands –
are also naturally low in diversity, although they may be rich in endemic species. A species-poor ecosystem can maintain a
wide range of ecosystem functions and exhibit both integrity and resilience. However, if its integrity depends on just a small

number of species, it will be relatively more vulnerable than a system with high diversity. Therefore, irrespective of the level
of species diversity in an ecosystem , it is important to monitor biodiversity since changes can be a sensitive indicator of
damage to the ecosystem.
Efforts in fisheries management during recent decades demonstrate what can happen when ecosystem integrity is
not maintained. In the 1960s, the common approach was to monitor the population size and year class distribution of
species to be harvested. On the basis of this information, calculations were made on maximum sustainable catches. These
were translated into recommendations about fishing effort that should be expended. The aim was to lower fishing effort and
set catch limits when it appeared that exploitation was excessive. At least three important problems arose.
First, the approach was flawed. It concentrated only on catches of the target species and ignored the interaction of
that species with the other components (for example other fish and marine organisms) of the ecosystem of which it was a
part. When target populations were reduced, and the predominant year class ages were lower than usual, it was not only
due to fishing effort but also to the fact that other species were able to replace the reduced populations of target species by
taking over their position in the food web. Competition thus became easier because there were fewer of the target species.
Second, while it was possible to monitor catches of individual, or groups of fishing boats, there was no convenient
mechanism in place to convert this information into catch effort and the combined catches of all fishing fleets. By the time
new catch limits could be set it was too late.
Third, many of the fishing grounds were outside the limit of national or other jurisdictions. As a result, the industry
could ignore the recommendations with impunity and, as explained in section 1.3 for the orange roughy, it was the most
economical approach for the industry to do so.
Attempts are underway to deal with these problems but, in the meantime, many commercial species such as cod,
salmon, king crab, halibut, abalone, sea cucumbers, sharks and swordfish have been drastically reduced in some regions.

References:
 https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/esa/ecosys-01/information/ecosys-01-inf-08-en.pdf
 https://www.education.gov.pg/TISER/documents/pastep/ms-es-e1-ecology-student.pdf
 https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/333courseE/5.pdf
 https://www.slideshare.net/HariVadakkeetil/ecosystem-and-its-components#:~:text=An%20Ecosystem%20includes
%20all%20of,soil%2C%20climate%2C%20atmosphere).&text=4.,things%20that%20shape%20an%20ecosystem.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eaiCY--OgoQ
 https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/41/video-sting-of-climate-change/
 https://pop.inquirer.net/80263/watch-nas-daily-lauds-philippines-efforts-in-sustainable-tourism

ACTIVITY 3.1
Let’s do it!
NAME DATE
I. Direction: State True or False
_____ 1. In a community, members of the different species do not interact with each other
______ 2. Symbiosis is the act of living together in a close association

______ 3. Predation is significant for maintaining the prey population
______ 4. In a mutualistic interaction both the species get harmed
II. Essay Writing
1. Define food chains. Give their types.
2. Food chains are the link between nutrient cycling and energy flow. Explain.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Review
NAME DATE
Direction: Answer the following questions:
1. Describe in detail the structure of an ecosystem.
2. Give an example of how a living component in an ecosystem can affect a non-living one
3. What would happen if there are no decomposers in an ecosystem?

4. What role do decomposers play in nutrient cycling and energy flow?
5. What are food chains? Give an example of food chain from your surroundings.

6. What are the two major type of food chains? Are they linked?

Mathematics, Sciences and Socials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematics, Sciences and Socials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lemery Colleges, Inc.

A. Bonifacio St., Brgy. Bagong Sikat, Lemery, Batangas

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

An Instructional Module and

Course Code: GE104

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 1

L- Love of God and Country

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

LESSON TOPICS PAGE

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 3

FLEXIBLE LEARNING DESIGN WORKSHEET

▪Internalize and uphold

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 4

Mathematics, Sciences and Social Module

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 5

6-8  Discuss the Ecosystem    ▪Voice over

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 6

ecosystem and how

14 SEMI FINAL EXAMINATIONS

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 7

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 8

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 9

Watch Lecture Video

Take Activity 1.1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ITS CONTENT

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 10

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 11

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 12

1.2 Environmental Issues

2. Climate Change – Climate Crisis

4. Deforestation & Logging

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 13

6. Industrial and Household Waste

8. Natural Resource Depletion

9. Habitat Loss and Destruction

10. Water Crisis – Water Shortage

11. Loss of Biodiversity

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 14

Solutions to Environmental Issues

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 15

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 16

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 17

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 18

Watch Lecture Video

Take Activity 2.1

What Is Physical Science?

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 19

1.1 Scientific Methods

What Are Scientific Methods?

Why Do Scientists Ask Questions?

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 20

How Do Scientists Form a Hypothesis?

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 21

The table below gives some examples of if-then statements.

“If” statement “Then” statement

If more force is needed to stop . . . then force is needed to stop a

If a grape and an orange fall at . . . then, when dropped from the

Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

How Do Scientists Analyze Results?

What Are Conclusions?

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ▪ PAGE 22

How Do Scientists Share Results?

Method of communicating results Audience