15HE38E- Condition Monitoring of High Voltage Power Apparatus

Unit II – POWER TRANSFORMER CONDITION MONITORING

Transformer faults and monitoring techniques – Monitoring for on-load tap changer – Insulation
monitoring – Sweep frequency response test for condition monitoring – Recent trend/research on
Power transformer condition monitoring

Condition monitoring definition:

A predictive method making use of the fact that most equipment will have a useful life
before maintenance is required. It embraces the life mechanism of individual parts of or the
whole equipment, the application and development of special purpose equipment, the means of
acquiring the data and the analysis of that data to predict the trends.

Transformer faults and monitoring techniques:

The main components that ensure the normal operating of a transformer are the windings,
core, main tank, cooler, oil, and On Load Tap Changer (OLTC). According to failure statistics,
OLTC failure and winding failure are the top two failures occurring in both station transformers
and generator transformers. The key parameters that have to be monitored are the fault of OLTC,
ageing of the oil/paper insulation (in both windings and the main transformer), and the load and
operating condition. There are two main reasons for installing monitoring Equipment on
transformers. First by monitoring important functions of transformer developing faults can be
detected before they lead to a catastrophic failure. Secondly it can allow for a change from
periodic to condition based maintenance.

Transformers, being one of the important components of a power system, are those on which
most effort on condition monitoring research has been directed as there would be better
information on the exact age as well as loading data which are vital to a meaningful reliability
study. In general, transformer condition monitoring techniques can be grouped into 6 headings as
illustrated in
 Load readings
 Diagnostic tests on insulation
 Partial discharge
 Thermal imaging – connections bushings
 Mechanical strength
 Winding displacement

Tap changers are the only internal part of the transformer that is subject to maintenance.
The diverter and selector mechanism must be checked to ensure that no slackness or stress
fractures are occurring, and the contacts must be checked for satisfactory performance.
Furthermore the oil quality is checked. This is especially important for the oil from the diverter
chamber. In order to remove the newer design in tank tap-changers for maintenance, a crane is
required. This means that for some sites where access is constrained and the configuration is
such that individual isolation of transformers is not possible tap changer maintenance is limited
to rnodule outages.
Monitoring for on-load tap changer:

OLTC failures are dominated by faults of mechanical nature (springs, bearings, shafts,
drive mechanisms), followed by electrical faults such as coking of contact, burning of transition
resistors and insulation problems. Components of a OLTC monitoring system are torque
measurement and assessment of the motor drive, switching supervision, temperature
measurement of the diverter switch oil, and a contact wear model in combination with
measurement of load current.

For modern high speed resistance tap changers, operation is in typically 5 cycles and arc
interruption within 1 cycle. Clearly, the mechanism plays a vital role. Mechanism timing tests
are possible, but these would only be done after a major overhaul, and then be done by the
manufacturer. This would traditionally involve a range of sophisticated equipment. In Australia.
the Queensland Electricity Company developed and manufactured a Portable Open Circuit
Indicator for Tap changers.

The device will detect an open circuit due to faulty or misaligned contacts in a star point
connected tap changer. It uses a range of reference delay settings from 1 ms to 500ms as a means
of determining any open circuit. It is describes the use of optical fibre techniques to measure the
position of components in the selector mechanism, and the duration of current pulses in the
diverter mechanism. The system is controlled by some programmed decision-making software;
and one prototype system has already worked 'in anger' correctly and avoided a catastrophic
failure of a 400kV transformer tap changer. Research is taking place on methods of acoustic
monitoring as well as vibration response analysis of tap changer mechanisms.

The monitoring and protection of tap changers is an area of plant that would appear to
have been neglected whilst overall system protection and monitoring is on the increase. This is
peculiar when one considers that the majority of transformer failures are directly or indirectly
caused by tap changer failure. This in itself is not surprising when one: considers that a tap
changer contains the only moving components associated with a transformer.

Despite the relatively low cost of a tap changer compared to the transformer as a whole,
its failure can be responsible for the destruction of the complete unit. Maintenance of tap
changers is also a major expenditure, both in time and materials. On many occasions tap
changers are inspected only to find that they are in excellent condition and require no
maintenance. On the other hand, expensive consumable items such as contacts are often replaced
well before their wear limits “just to be on the safe side” Historically, the only method used by
tap changer manufacturers was the fitting of a temperature probe to monitor the temperature of
the diverter switch oil. This proved hopelessly inadequate as usually the tapchanger had gone up
in smoke before the probe registered any significant rise in temperature. More recently the fitting
of surge relays to both the selector and diverter switch compartments has become common, but
whilst these generally are excellent devices, they respond relatively slowly to a fault, and in the
case of the diverter switch unless carefully set up, can be prone to spurious operation due to the
normal operation of the diverter switch.
OLTC Diverter switching protection scheme:
This scheme utilizes a current transformer (CT) mounted in the diverter switch
compartment of an on load tap changer to monitor current passing through the transitional
resistors of the tap changer during operation. The output from the CT is fed to a timed relay
which operates if the duration of the current flow exceeds a preset limit. The type of CT
used has been developed particularly for this application. It has two separate primary
conductors, one for each of the two resistors in each phase of a flag cycle tap changer, and is
encapsulated in cast resin in order to render it non-hygroscopic. This also increases the CT’s
insulation level.

A schematic representation of one phase of a flag cycle tap changer is shown in Dia 1
and a typical sequence of operation in Dia 2. The positioning of the CT is shown in Dia 3 .
We can see from this that the CT will be energized whenever current passes through either or
both of the resisters during operation of the tap changer. The number of CT s required in a
diverter switch will vary depending on the design of the switch itself. Generally, a three
phase switch will require three CT‘s, although this is not always the case, as some smaller
three phase switches will require only one.

The output of these CT’s is used to energies a current transducer, and this in turn
operates a time delayed relay There is net current transducer for each CT, but the output
from all of the transducers are paralleled together to operate one time delayed relay The time
delay used for the tripping relay is nominally 500 mS as normal operating time for a tap
changer is approximately 60 - 90mS, this gives a generous safety margin in order to prevent
any spurious tripping.

Diverter switch monitoring system:

As a development of our existing Tap changer diverter switch CT protection scheme, we are
in the process of extending its scope so that we will be able to offer a system capable of
monitoring the condition of the complete diverter switch including the state of the switches
arcing contacts. This would almost eliminate the need for regular inspection intervals,
instead relying on the monitoring system to indicate when maintenance is required. The
system utilizes the same CT's as those fitted to the switch for our CT protection scheme and
can be run in parallel with it, in fact if a switch is already fitted with CT protection, then it is
not even necessary to switch the transformer out.
The system works by monitoring the resistance of the diverter switch arcing contacts.
This is possible due to the placement of the CT within the diverter switch
 However, as the contact resistance increases and/or the switch mechanism wears, then
the current flowing through the transitional contacts, and the CT, will increase. This is
compared to the load current flowing through the tap changer as a whole. When this ratio
reaches a threshold value the monitoring instrument operates a relay bringing up an alarm,
indicating that the switch requires attention. This is obviously of use for indicating worn
contacts, but can also be an indicator of a worn or out of adjustment switch, again requiring
maintenance.
The system can be fitted in approximately 2 to 3 days and is ideally fitted at the same
time as the switch is maintained and new arcing contacts are fitted. Additionally the
monitoring relay can be retro-fitted to tap changers already fitted with our existing diverter
switch protection system, as it is fully compatible with it.

Tap changer selector switch Monitoring System

After development of our tap changer diverter switch monitoring and protection
systems, Tap changer Services decided to proceed with the development of a tap changer
selector switch monitoring system. This decision was brought about after discussions with
Engineers in the Electricity supply and distribution industry revealed that a requirement
existed for a fully integrated tap changer monitoring/protection system, and with the addition
of this system to our already existing ones, we could fulfill this requirement.

In line with our previous design philosophy, we decided to stick with tried and tested
Technology rather than attempt to use new and as yet unproven (at least to us) monitoring
devices, in order to provide both a reliable and economic design In our view, a selector
switch monitoring system has to be able to detect that all the off circuit selector switch (and
change over switch) moving contacts are in their correct positions ie fully on their fixed
contacts before the diverter switch switches the current on to them. Whilst it is not possible
to directly measure the moving contact positions, the closer, mechanically speaking that we
can get to them, the more accurate our system will be After studying various types of selector
switch we decided that the closest that we could realistically get to the moving contacts was
to monitor the position of the various moving contact drive shafts, these generally run the
length of the tap selector tank; and drive all three phases selector/change over moving
contact arms (dia 1). By monitoring the angular position of these shafts we could get an
accurate indication of the position of the moving contacts that were connected to them, and
monitoring the end of each shaft remote firm their drive would show up any backlash in the
insulated couplings between each phase.
We decided to increase the length of each of these shafts using small universal
couplings and a 10" diameter insulated rod in order to bring them out through the end of the
selector tank. Measurements showed that in all cases sufficient insulation values could easily
be achieved. The extended drive shaft passes through a bearing heal housing on the selector
tank side into a shaft position monitoring unit (SPMU) mounted externally on the side of the
selector tank. These consists of a small disc which is fitted to the shaft and have a number of
slots cut into it, depending on the normal angular rotation of the shafts per tap change
operation. A photo micro-sensor is positioned so that when the selector shaft is in its correct
position, then one of the disc's slots is in line with the sensors detector head, and the device
produces an output.

This signal is used to operate a small relay within the SPMU. This provides each unit
with a set of no volt contacts as an output. The outputs from as many SPMUs as are required
(depending on the number of drive shafts in the selector) are then connected up in series to a
remote monitoring relay. This monitors the initiation of a tap change operation via a set of no
volt contacts on the maintaining contactor and will halt it before the tap changer diverter
switch operates unless it receives signals from all the SPMUs that the selector switch is in
the correct position. It will also output an alarm signal.
The SPMU is designed so that only one 24" whole in the selector tank side is required
for mounting each assembly. The two universal couplings per drive share extension allow for
flexible positioning of the SPMUs on the selector tank side in order to avoid valves or
stiffeners on the side of the selector tank. The units are connected to each other, and to the
remote monitoring unit via weatherproof glands and armored multicore cable (see dia 2).
The work required to fit this equipment to a three phase tap changer would be the
drilling of three 24mm holes in the selector tank side to mount three SPMUs, the fitting of
the three sets of insulated shafts and couplings, and the wiring up of the SPMUs to each
other and to the remote monitoring unit. We would estimate that the total installation time for
a three phase tap changer would be two days.

Insulation monitoring

Winding and main insulation is one of the biggest problems that affect the life of
transformer. It can be indicated by temperature, gas-in-oil, partial discharge and moisture
analysis. Hot-spot temperature is always caused by overloading or local overheating. It is
the limiting factor for the load capability of the transformer and has a big effect on
transformer life via thermal aging behavior of insulation. The problem is that it is
difficult to measure because of insulation problems. Using fiber optic temperature sensors
seems the only way to get hot-spot temperature directly. However, it always costs a lot.
The commonly used method is to calculate hot-spot temperature through thermal model
with measurements of oil temperatures and of load current.
Gas in oil analysis is the traditional way to monitor insulation condition. Dissolved
gases in the oil produced by thermal ageing can provide an early indication of an
incipient fault. Gases normally analyzed are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, methane, ethane ethylene, and acetylene. Further analysis of concentrations,
condition, and ratios of component gases can identify the reason for gas formation and
indicate the necessity for further maintenance. Originally only a hydrogen online monitor
was available but new instruments detecting several gases are commercially available
with a total-oil monitor recently launched. All dielectric problems involve partial
discharges in the initial stages of the failure process, so early detection of PD sources in
the insulating system is very important. In transformers, the use of piezo-electric acoustic
emission sensors attached to the transformer tank wall has been the approach most
favored.
The failure of most large high voltage transformers is associated with dielectric
breakdown. Partial discharge detection techniques cover electrical, acoustic, and
chemical methods.
Several on-line systems are available which use acoustic methods with a sensitive
piezoelectric sensor attached to a fibreglass rod. Several rods are immersed in the trans
former oil and such multiple systems have proved to be very effective in locating the
source when used with triangulation technique. (Triangulation is a
powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two
or more sources. In particular, it refers to the application and combination of several
research methods in the study of the same phenomenon.) With fast and low cost digital
data acquisition and measured data processing systems now available it is now feasible to
create a data base of partial discharge patterns for specific fault and fault-free conditions.
These base fingerprints can be used later for pattern recognition and fault diagnostics.
The quality of the oil system can be established by Dissolved Gas-in-Oil Analysis
(DGA) either used alone or supplemented by other diagnostic tools such as Partial
Discharge measurement. It is used to monitor the buildup of &dissolved gases in the oil
produced by thermal ageing which can provide an early indication of an incipient fault.
Samples can be removed for DGA and other tests without de-energising the transformer.

Sweep frequency response analysis for Transformer

This is very reliable and sensitive method or tool for condition monitoring of the
physical condition of transformer windings. The winding of transformer may be
subjected to mechanical stresses during transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient
switching impulses and lightening impulses etc. These mechanical stresses may cause
displacement of transformer windings from their position and may also cause
deformation of these windings. Windings collapse in extreme cases, such physical defects
eventually lead to insulation failure or dielectric faults in the windings. Sweep
Frequency Response Analysis Test or in short SFRA Test can detect efficiently,
displacement of transformer core, deformation and displacement of winding, faulty core
grounds, collapse of partial winding, broken or loosen clamp connections, short circuited
turns, open winding conditions etc.

Principle of SFRA Test

The principle of SFRA is quite simple. As all the electrical equipments theoretically
have some resistance, inductance and some capacitance values hence each of them can be
considered as a complex RLC circuit. The term 'theoretically' means some equipment
may have very low or zero resistance compared to their inductance and capacitance
values again, some equipments may have very low or zero inductance compared to their
resistance and capacitance and again some equipments may have very low or zero
capacitance compared to their resistance and inductance but theoretically all of them can
be considered as RLC circuit although may be R = 0, or L = 0 or C = 0. But in most cases
the resistance, inductance and capacitance of an equipment have non zero values. Hence
most of the electrical equipments can be considered as RLC circuit hence they response
to the sweep frequencies and produce an unique signature. As in a transformer each
winding turn is separated from other by paper insulation which acts as dielectric and
windings themselves have inductance and resistance, a transformer can be considered as
a complicated distributed network of resistance, inductance, and capacitance or in other
words a transformer is a complicated RLC circuit.

Because of that each winding of a transformer exhibits a particular frequency response.

In Sweep Frequency Response Analysis a sinusoidal voltage Vi is applied to one end of a
winding and output voltage Vo is measured at the other end of the winding. Other
windings are kept open. As the winding is itself a distributed RLC circuit it will behave
like RLC filter and gives different output voltages at different frequencies. That means if
we go on increasing the frequency of the input signal without changing its voltage level
we will get different output voltages at different frequencies depending upon the RLC
nature of the winding. If we plot these output voltages against the corresponding
frequencies we will get a particular pattern for a particular winding. But after
transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses and lightening
impulses etc, if we do same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and superimpose
the present signature with the earlier patterns and observe some deviation between these
two graphs, we can assess that there is mechanical displacement and deformation
occurred in the winding.
 In addition to that, SFRA test also helps us to compare between physical
conditions of the same winding of different phases at the same tap position. It also
compares different transformers of the same design. Analysis Low frequency response
1. Winding behaves as a simple RL circuit formed by series inductance and
resistance of the winding (At low frequencies capacitance acts as almost open circuit).
2. At low frequencies winding inductance is determined by the magnetic circuit of
the transformer core. High frequency response.
3. At high frequencies winding behaves as RLC circuits.
4. Winding exhibits many resonant points.
5. Frequency response is more sensitive to winding movement.

Recent trend/research on Power transformer condition monitoring

Some important work on power transformer condition monitoring, recently published in several major
journals, is summarized in Table II, and it can be seen that the following four are main research areas.

1) Implementation of online monitoring system with accumulated successful experiences. Computer-based

techniques are used for data processing, storage, and visualization. Several published CM systems are summarized
in Table III.

2) Development of intelligent diagnostic system using fuzzy logic, expert system and neural networks. Although
most of the up to date work is based on dissolved gas analysis (DGA) and for diagnosis of DGA result, AI
techniques have the potential to be used for the whole diagnostic system with several types of sensor signals.

The reference showed the use of neural networks in estimation and classification modes, based on vibration
monitoring with assistance of current and thermal data.

3) Further research on partial discharge detection and location on running transformers. Elimination of electrical
interference, calibration and location are the issues on the way of developing online PD monitoring.

4) Vibration monitoring for winding looseness and OLTC failure. Online monitoring system for OLTC is still under
developing.