National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics

lectronics laboratory)
laboratory

Resistor values - the resistor colour code

The Resistor
Resistancee is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega Ω.
1 Ωis
is quite small so resistor values are often given in kΩ
k and MΩ.
1 kΩ = 1000Ω 1 MΩ = 1000000
1000000Ω. Colour Number
Black 0
Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Brown 1
Each colour represents a number as show
shown in the table.
Red 2
. Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5

Most resistors have 4 bands: Blue 6

Violet 7
 The first band gives the first digit.
digit
Grey 8
 The second band gives the second digit.
White 9
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 Ω== 270 k Ω.
On circuit diagrams the ““Ω” is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 Ω.. To show these small values
two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver which
means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.

For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7 Ω
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56 Ω

Tolerance
ance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is the
precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 Ω resistor with a
tolerance of ±10% willl have a value within 10% of 390 Ω, between 390 - 39 = 351 Ω and 390 +
39 = 429 Ω (39 is 10% of 390). A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.
National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

Basics about Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical

signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with
the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule with a
1cm grid enables us to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph,
usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the
screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture
is produced. Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one
end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move
rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also
contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right. The electrons are
called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope
its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO. A dual trace oscilloscope can display two
traces on the screen, allowing us to easily compare the input and output of an amplifier for
example. It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care
to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are
set wrongly. There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls.
So, the following instructions may be adapted for this instrument.

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Initially make sure all the buttons are in off position except power button.
4. Set the AC/GND/DC switch to DC.
5. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
6. Keep the variable knob in off position
7. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.*
8. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).*
9. Never allow the CRO to show red colour LED indication; it may lead faulty
reading from the instrument
10. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
11. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
12. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
13. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no
input signal connected.

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

14. Identify the CROs probe signal and ground wire.

15. Ground wire is always in black colour and the signal may be in other
colour(Red/Blue)
16. Connect the signal in CH1 input. If Ch1 input is not working, then only you may
connect to CH2
17. Make sure Ground wire is connected to the ground of your circuit.
18. Finally you may get the waveforms like depending upon your signal

Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of
this graph is determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties
labeled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The
diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape

o Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.

o Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
o Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
o Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in
seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds
(μs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1μs = 0.000001s.
o Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics
lectronics laboratory)
laboratory

o Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical yy-axis

axis and the scale is determined by tthe Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak
peak peak voltage is measured because it can be
read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The
amplitude is half the peak-peak
peak voltage.

Voltage = Vertical boxes shown in the display cm × volts/c

volts/cm

o Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal xx-axis

axis and the scale is determined by
the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second,
frequency
uency = 1/time period.

Time = Horizontal boxes shown in the display cm × time/cm

Example:

4 cm

3 cm

Suppose: if a waveform is shown by the CRO,

Volts/Div is set by 2 volts
Time base is set by 2 ms
Peak to Peak voltage = 4 cm boxes x 2 volts
= 8 volts Peak to Peak
Time Period = 3 cm boxes x 2 ms
= 6 ms
Frequency =1/T
= 1/6-3
=166.66Hz
 National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Half Wave Rectifier:
P

IN 4007
C
230 V, 50 Hz
1 Φ Supply 1 KΩ CRO

N
Step-down Transformer
(12 – 0 – 12V)

Full Wave Rectifier:

Step-down Transformer
(12 – 0 – 12V)
P

D1 D2

230 V, 50 Hz
1 Φ Supply

D3 D4 C

1 KΩ CRO
N

TABULATION:
Input voltage (Vm):________ Time in ms: _________
Without Filter With Filter (small value)_______ μF With Filter( large value)_______ μF
Rectifier T T (ms) Vm T (ms)
Vm (V) Vm (V) VRipple VRipple
(ms) Charging Discharging (V) Charging Discharging
Half Wave
Rectifier
Full Wave
Rectifier
National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

1. HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:

To construct half wave & full wave rectifier circuits using diodes & observe the

input & output wave forms with & without filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE
(NO.S)

1 Diode IN 4001 4

2 Resistor 1 KΩ 1

3 Capacitor 100 μF,33 μF 1

4 Transformer Step-down 230 V / 1

(12 – 0 – 12) V

5 CRO with Probe 1

6 Bread Board 1

7 Connecting wires Required

THEORY:
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
Figure shows a basic half-wave diode rectifier circuit. During the positive half-

cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward-biased for all instantaneous voltages

greater than the diode cut-in voltage Vγ. Current flowing through the diode during

the positive half-cycle produces approximately a half sine wave of voltages across the

load resistor, as shown in the Figure. To simplify our discussions, we will assume that

the diode is ideal and that the peak input voltage is always much larger than the Vγ of

the diode. Hence, we assume that the zero of the rectified voltage coincides with the

zero of the input voltage. On the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is

reverse-biased. Ignoring the reverse leakage current of the diode, the load current

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

MODEL GRAPH:

Vin (V)
Vm

Input Voltage

0
Time (ms)

Vout (V)
Output of Half Wave Rectifier without filter

0
Vout (V) Time (ms)
Vm
Output of Half Wave Rectifier with filter
VRipple

Time (ms)
Vout (V)
Vm Output of Full Wave Rectifier without filter

Vout (V) Time (ms)

Vm
Output of Full Wave Rectifier with filter

0
Time (ms)

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National Engineering College, Kovilpatti (19EE37C Analog Electronics laboratory)

drops to zero, resulting in zero load voltage (output voltage), as shown in Figure.

Thus, the diode circuit has rectified the input ac voltage, converting the ac voltage to a

dc voltage.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:
Figure shows a full-wave bridge rectifier with a load resistor RL and an input

sine wave derived from a transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the input

voltage, diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are reverse

biased. Therefore, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative, as shown in

Figure. During the negative half-cycle, diodes D1 and D4 conduct, and again terminal

A is positive and terminal B is negative. Thus, on either half-cycle, the load voltage

has the same polarity and the load current is in the same direction, no matter which

pair of diodes is conducting. The full-wave rectified signal is shown in Figure, with

the Vo being the output voltage. Since the area under the curve of the full-wave

rectified signal is twice that of the half-wave rectified signal, the average or dc value

of the full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is twice that of the half-wave rectifier.

PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Input waveform’s magnitude and frequency was measured with the help of

CRO.

3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained in the CRO.

4. Output waveform’s magnitude and time period was measured.

5. Graphs were plotted for Half wave and Full wave rectifier outputs.

RESULT:

Thus the output of Half wave and Full wave rectifiers were obtained and the

curves were plotted.

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