CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The beam-column joint is a crucial zone in reinforced concrete frame. The mode of failure of
beam column joint is generally a shear failure which is brittle in nature. To overcome this
failure of beam-column joint, shear strength of beam-column joint should be increased. Hence
a high performance concrete: Reactive Powder Concrete can be used to increase the overall
strength of beam-column joint. The research conducted focusses on characterisation of RPC
and study its suitability for enhanced performance of the beam column joints in RC frame.
Hence review of the literature is carried out related to the mechanical properties of RPC. Also
literature is reviewed pertaining to studies carried out to study the effect of curing conditions
on concrete and mix design procedures using soft computing for concrete. The research studies
on beam column joint using analytical as well as experimental approach are reviewed to
understand the applicability of RPC in the beam column joint area.

2.2 HIGH-PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The composition of RPC is related to parameters like homogeneity of the concrete and packing
density and these parameters are the base for making RPC a special concrete. Parameters
related to curing of concrete like the application of pre-set pressure and heat-curing are optional
ones related to achievement of the improved performance of concrete.

Basic deviation of RPC from conventional concrete adopted by Pieere Richard and Marcel
Cheyrezy (1995) is exclusion of coarse aggregates which are replaced by fine quartz sand
thereby improving the homogeneity and mechanical properties of the paste. The
aggregate/matrix ratio is lowered giving RPC homogeneous nature to enhance its physical
properties eliminating modulus variance between the quartz and the surrounding paste. This
allows for mechanical properties to be transferred through the two mediums and there is no
abrupt change in the mechanical stress field from matrix to aggregates. Optimization of the
granular mixture is achieved through packing models adopting ‘Densified small particle’ (DSP)
compact granular matrix concretes developed by F. De Larrad and T. Sedran (1994). Pieere
Richard and Marcel Cheyrezy (1995) have suggested the particle size range from 150 µm to
600 µm so as to prevent intervention with the largest cement particles (80-100 µm). The quality
of the granular mixture, mixing and vibration efficiency are directly related to the density for

13
an optimum water content (A. Cwirzen et al., 2008). Wong and Kwan (2005) presented a three-
tier system design wherein packing density concept is adopted by adjusting the grading of the
whole range of solid particles. Olivier Bonneaua et al. (2000) worked on the characterization
of the RPC with respect to packing density model and percolation index of RPC. A linear
relationship between the logarithm of conductivity ln(σ) and the degree of hydration α, has
been found as ln (σ) =Av - Bv x α, where Av depends on the nature and the dosage of the different
mineral and organic components, and Bv is an invariant related to the granular packing.
Guangcheng Long et al. (2002) studied the density and rheological parameters of secondary
and tertiary compound paste systems containing ultrafine powders such as PFA, pulverized
GGBFS and SF with reference to relative density index and it was found that silica fume is
most effective in improving the relative densities of secondary paste systems.

Microstructure enhancement by heat-curing and preset pressure was adopted by Pieere Richard
and Marcel Cheyrezy (1995). It was reported that heat-treating at 90°C with ambient pressure
significantly accelerates the pozzolanic action of silica fume thereby enhancing the
microstructure of the formed hydrates (amorphous) whereas when heated at higher temperature
between 250ºC to 400ºC, (only applicable to fibered RPC), lead to the formation of hydrates
crystalline in nature. Marcel Cheyrezy et al. (1995) also adopted granulometry, heat treatment
and setting pressure (l atm, 310 atm, 625 atm) to RPC. Porosimetric studies demonstrated the
very low porosity of RPC (9 %) and nil for pressed RPC. Confining pressure during the setting
phase eliminated part of the porosity due chemical shrinkage and thereby the relative density
increased by 6 % resulting in increasing compressive strength. Metin Ipek et al. (2012) studied
RPC for various mixing ratio, content of fiber and pre-setting pressure (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25
MPa). Application of pre-setting pressure nearly doubled compressive strength. J. Dugat et al.
(1996) applied pre-setting pressure of 60 MPa to RPC800 along with heat treatment cure (90
ºC and 250 ºC). This resulted in achieving the compressive strength of about 500 MPa with
Young’s modulus of 36 –74 GPa.

2.3. INFLUENCE OF CONSTITUENTS AND CURING CONDITIONS

Various studies were carried out for assessing the performance parameters of RPC. There were
changes made in the basic ingredients that were used by Pieere Richard and Marcel Cheyrezy
(1995). Different curing regimes and methods were tried. These studies are classified based on
the composition of constituents and curing methods adopted and are presented in the further
section.

14
2.3.1 Influence of Constituents

S. Collepardi et al. (1997) studied a modified RPC compared with original RPC basic
composition mix. The fine sand as well as part of the cementitious binder, was replaced by a
graded natural aggregate (maximum size - 8 mm). Contrasting observations were made that if
w/c ratio was not changed thereby maintaining the quality of the cement matrix, then the
addition of the graded aggregate did not reduce the compressive strength. When considered for
a given workability level, then replacement of the entire fine sand and part of the cementitious
binder (cement and silica fume) with the graded aggregate demanded higher w/c ratio, leading
to decrease in the compressive strength. Marios N. Soutsos et al. (2006) adopted ternary blends
(pulverised fly ash, GGBFS in combination with silica fume).

Enhanced tensile strength and ductility with flexural strengths between 30 and 60 MPa and
fracture energies above 10000 Jm-2 have been reported. Yin-Wen Chan and Shu-Hsien Chu
(2004) found that the silica fume affects the steel fiber-matrix interfacial properties. Debonding
and as well as pull-out processes in the pull-out test is affected. Silica fume in RPC matrix may
cause an early debonding. Debonding is followed by pull-out process of the steel fibers. The
interfacial bond strength during pull-out has been toughened to different extents for the matrix
with various percentage of silica fume. The interfacial bond strength is maximum at pull-out
process in the specimens with 20 %- 30 % of silica fume content. However, at 40 % silica
content, the interfacial bond strength-toughening effect decreases. The optimum silica fume
content can be between 20 % and 30 % for interfacial bond strength.

The steel fibers in the mix (1.5 - 3 % by volume) enhance ductility. There is an increase in
flexural strength from 28 to 100 MPa and fracture energies to 40,000 Jm-2 depending on amount
of fibers added along with type of curing (Pieere Richard and Marcel Cheyrezy, 1995).

2.3.2 Influence of Curing Conditions

Masami Uzawa et al. (2005) developed a new cementitious composite material using reactive
powder by simple curing process instead of adopting pressure techniques and desired strength
within a range from 50 MPa to 230 MPa could be obtained by changing the steam-curing time
and temperature. Ming-Gin Lee et al. (2005) evaluated samples with basic composition for
compressive strength, relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, bond strength using slant shear
test, pull out test for fibers. NDT tests before and after accelerated ageing were performed.

Zhang Yunsheng et al. (2008) prepared green RPC (C200 GRPC) with compressive strength
of 200 MPa. The mechanical properties of the C200 GRPC made of materials consisting of 40

15
% Portland cement, 25 % ultra-fine slag, 25 % ultra-fine fly ash and 10 % silica fume, 4 %
steel fibers (RPC volume fraction) are higher than the others. The compressive strength of 200
MPa, flexural strength of 60 MPa, and fracture energy 30,000 Jm-2 and fiber–matrix interfacial
bonding strength of 14 MPa were achieved. A. Cwirzen et al. (2008) studied the basic
mechanical properties along with durability aspect and interfacial bond strength (with
conventional hardened concrete) of the ultra-high-strength (UHS) mortars and concretes. The
compressive strength of 170 to 202 MPa were achieved for the specimens which were heat
cured. Compressive strength between 130 and 150 MPa were achieved for the same specimens
which were not heat-treated. A. Zenati et al. (2009) studied RPC by incorporating local mineral
additions; dunes sand and slag. The amorphous structure of ground slag makes it reactive at
early ages (T < 14 days). At the same time, the low silica content effects the long-term (T > 14
days) pozzolanic reactivity. The ground dunes sand which is in crystalline form when added
with 10 % of amorphous ground slag, becomes reactive at long-term. The rheological studies
shows the significant influence of the proportion of super plasticizer. Optimized constant
proportion of plasticizer is about 1.8 % though the flow is high at this proportion. Mechanical
properties of RPC incorporating class-C fly ash (FA) and GGBFS were examined subjected to
different curing conditions viz. standard, steam curing and autoclave by Halit Yazici et al.
(2009). Test results indicate that, effect of steam and autoclave curing was to increase in its
compressive strength as compared to the standard curing. Conversely, it was observed that the
flexural strength and toughness decreased with steam and autoclave curing. The toughness of
RPC increased with the addition of mineral admixtures such as GGBFS and/or FA. T.P. Chang
et al. (2009) also conducted tests on RPC specimens under the steam-curing at 85ºC with 95 %
RH with similar results. Halit Yazici et al. (2010) investigated the mechanical properties by
replacing cement with high volumes of GGBFS. The percentage replacement was 20, 40, and
60 %. For different mixes quartz, sintered bauxite and granite were used. The effect of high
volume of GGBFS was that the compressive strength of RPC obtained was over 250 MPa with
autoclave curing. The compressive strength of 400 MPa was obtained with application of an
external pressure of 30 MPa.

Size effect of RPC were studied by AN Ming-zhe et al. (2008) and coefficients were determine.
The feasibility of the law of the size effect was deliberated. It was indicated that RPC without
fiber behaves in the manner same as conventional or HSC. The ratio of compressive strength
of a specimen of 100 mm to that of a specimen of 70.7 mm is 0.98. The size effect on
compressive strength is more dominating in RPC containing fiber.

16
2.4 STUDIES ON BOND STRENGTH

Few studies on bond strength have been reported which assess RPC as a repair material. Ming-
Gin Lee et al. (2007) carried 1000 freeze-thaw cycles on high-strength mortar (HSM) and RPC.
HSM showed a reduction in compressive strength by 17 %, steel pull out strength by 24 %,
dynamic modulus by 25 % and slant shear strength by 21 % as against the corresponding values
of only 6, 7, 5, and 10 %, respectively for RPC. The typical values of dynamic modulus based
on resonant frequencies after 300 and 600 cycles of freezing and thawing for NSC were 75 and
55 %, as against for RPC the corresponding values are 96 and 92 %, respectively. It is also
reported that bonding with RPC with just 10 mm thickness enhances the compressive and
flexural strengths by about 200 and 150 % more as compared to that of NSC. The resistance
against abrasion of RPC is nearly 8 times greater than that of normal concrete and it is 4 times
greater than that of HSM.

T.P. Chang et al. (2009) conducted tests on cylindrical specimens. The specimens were
retrofitted by wrapping the specimens with 10 and 15 mm thick layer of RPC. The specimens
were cured in water at 25ºC and as well as steam-curing at 85ºC and 95 % RH was carried out.
Doing this, indices of durability of concrete have substantially increased. N. Cauberg et al.
(2008) applied RPC as overlays by constructing a composite member with UHPC overlay and
a repair mortar, with overlays of 15 and 30 mm. After two months, none of the fiber reinforced
overlays of 30 mm showed cracking or debonding.

Earlier bond studies were carried on different types of concrete especially to access the
capability of the material as repair material. Review of various methods used for these bond
studies is presented next in this section.

The different techniques for bond strength measurement were compared by Simon Austin et
al. (1999). The methods compared were the test methods which produce shear. This even
included the tensile slant-shear test. The roughness of the surface and variance of modulus
between the repair material and the substrate are demonstrated by experimental and theoretic
values. The theoretical concepts behind using slant shear test has been explained using the
concept of Mohr’s circle. The slant angle has been varied and compared with the 30 degrees
given in various standards. The roughness of the repaired surface is also varied and the slant-
shear strength increased with surface roughness. Gengying Li (2003) studied the early age and
long-term bond strengths of new concrete to old concrete carried using pull-off tests. The
microstructure of the interfacial transition zone and the propagation of cracks and other fracture

17
properties such as toughness were studied. The early age and long-term bond strengths of new
concrete to old concrete were explored experimentally highlighting the influence of new
concretes and binders. The new concretes included OPC concrete, high volume fly ash concrete
and expansive cement concrete. Pure cement paste, fly ash mortar, expansive binders were
included as binders. As compared to ordinary Portland cement concrete, fly ash concrete
specimens showed lower short-term bond strength which in turn was even lower than that with
expansive concrete. Specimens with fly ash binders showed the lowest bond strength at the age
of 7 days, whereas specimens with fly ash showed the highest long-term bond strength. In the
specimens which were repaired with expansive concrete or expansive binder, loss in strength
was witnessed after 3 years.

A Momayeza et al. (2004) studied the influence of different test methods on interfacial bond
strength. The concrete substrate and repair material which were modified cementitious
materials were studied subjected to four differ test methods. Two type of surface roughness
were introduced. The methods for comparison were slant shear, pull-off, splitting prism and a
new method proposed called as Bi-Surface shear test. The bond strengths given by these tests
were varied to great extent, some giving eight times greater value than the others. Hence the
bond tests must be selected such that they depicts the actual state of stress to which the member
will be exposed to in actual conditions. The bond strength obtained via slant shear, Bi-Surface
shear, splitting, and pull-off test respectively shows declining trend. Bond strength increases
with silica fume content for all test methods. Higher the roughness of surface higher is the bond
strength. The bond strength increases from 9 % for pull-off to 25 % for slant shear tests. The
pull-off and splitting tests give bond strengths of about 40 % as compared to the bond strength
given by a monolithic specimen. Bi-Surface and slant shear tests gives 80 % bond strength as
compared to the monolithic specimen. The pull-off and splitting tests predicted 67 % bond
strengths of a monolithic sample whereas Bi-Surface and slant shear tests predicted 93 % bond
strength of the monolithic specimens.

Similar tests were conducted by Eduardo N.B.S. Julio et al. (2004) to evaluate the bond strength
between two concrete layers. Here the roughness of the concrete substrate surface is considered
as the key parameter. Twenty-five slant shear specimens and twenty-five pull-off specimens
were tested. The substrate surface roughness was varied by using different methods like
chipping with a light jackhammer, wire-brushing and blasting with sand. Also, some specimens
were kept as they were when removed from steel formwork. To assess the bond strength in
tension pull-off tests was performed. Whereas slant shear tests to measure the bond strength in

18
shear were conducted on all specimens. Pedro M D Santos et al. (2006) tried to explore the
possibility of measuring the roughness of the substrate surface and relate it with corresponding
interfacing bond strength. Digital image processing was used to estimate the roughness of the
concrete substrate. The quantification of roughness was later linked with the bond strength,
obtained by shear as well as tensile tests namely slant shear and pull-off tests.

Everaldo Bonaldo et al. (2005) also presented the work on studying bond strength between
concrete substrate and repairing material in the form of steel fibre reinforced concrete. This
was done using pull-off testing on the similar concept. Bisurface shear test was adopted by
Dinis S. Santos et al. (2012) to evaluate the effect of the surface roughness preparation and
bonding agent on the bond strength of the concrete to concrete interface. This was performed
by placing hardened concrete against hardened concrete parts as well as placing fresh concrete
against hardened concrete parts.

The bond characteristics of steel fibers in RPC were studied by Yin-Wen Chan and Shu-Hsien
Chu (2004) with reference to the effect of silica fume on the characteristic bond strength as
well as pull-out energy for silica fume contents ranging from 0-40 % in the mix were measured.
Fiber pull-out tests were conducted and it was concluded that inclusion of silica fume enhances
the fiber–matrix interfacial bond properties significantly. The fiber pull-out energy especially
is enhanced significantly. The optimum silica fume content is found to be between 20-30 % for
the bond characteristics within the scope of the conditions of the experimental program. At the
optimum dosage of 30 %, the pull-out energy and bond strength was increased nearly by
100 % and 14 % respectively.

Based on the theory of plasticity, Ariel D. Espeche and Javier Leon (2011) presented a method
for the approximating the failure envelopes for the interfacial bond behaviour between old and
new concrete. Carol-type failure envelope was proposed using Brazilian test based on the
simple splitting tension test. In context of evaluating the bond mechanism, using theory of
plasticity, a new failure criterion for interfacial plane between old-new concrete was proposed
to model a Mohr–Coulomb type material. The splitting tensile test (Brazilian test) was strongly
recommended to estimate the behaviour of a repair cementitious-based failure which could be
used as an indicator for guarantying a durable and strong cementitious interface. The ‘bond-
adhesive’ and ‘bond-cohesive’ mechanism were ultimately associated to the porosity, micro-
structure of the transition zone of the overlay in the repaired concrete. Interfacial tensile
strength was determined.

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2.5 STUDIES ON WORKABILITY

RPC is a special concrete with special ingredients. The influence of silica fume, w/c ratio,
super- plasticizer on concrete needs to be studied before conducting workability studies on
RPC. Very few studies have been reported on properties of RPC in fresh state. Some studies
on the workability not just restricting to RPC, but effect of mineral admixtures, and other
ingredients have been briefly reported here.

As discussed earlier, A Zenati et al. (2009) carried out studies on RPC incorporating dunes
sand and slag, finely ground. The effect of these on rheological properties are discussed here.
The results showed, as the dosages of the super plasticizer increases, the consistency of the
mixtures decreases. The flow times are found to be very high even at a proportion of 1.8 % of
super plasticizer. Considering the economic factor into account, a constant dosage of 1.8 % of
super plasticiser is fixed while mixing water quantity is increased. The siliceous additions
(ground dunes sand and slag) make it possible to reduce the amount of the super plasticizer as
well as it replaces a part of cement as a binder material. Bing Chen and Juanyu Liu (2008) also
conducted studies to investigate the effects of mineral admixtures on a light weight workable
high-strength concrete (HSLC). The admixtures used were fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and
blast furnace slag (BS). While FA greatly improved the workability of the mix, excessive
bleeding deteriorated the homogeneity of the mix. When BS was combined with FA, then an
optimum HSLC with considerable workability as well as strength was achieved. Conversely,
it was noted that addition of SF resulted in the reduction of the workability of the HSLC. The
degree of reduction increased with the increase of the SF. Also, there was slump loss in the
concrete at the time of leaving the mixer. Never the less, addition of SF increased the
compressive strength of the concrete significantly.

To study the relative efficiency of plasticizing chemical admixtures, B. J. Magee and M. G.

Alexander (2001) proposed a simple test method using a hydrometer. The hydrometer measures
the relative capability of various admixtures in dispersing the particles of binder materials
including Portland cement (PC) and silica fume. The test could measure clearly the abilities of
different plasticisers in different PC/SF combinations viz. containing no admixture, using
normal-range water-reducing admixtures, and using high-range water reducing admixtures.
The measurement by hydrometer was validated by conducting actual workability studies.
Mohamed Helical et al. (2006) also carried tests to study the effect of the polycarboxylate super
plasticizer (PCS) on the rheology, physical and chemical properties, electrical conductivity and
mechanical properties of concrete containing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and silica fume

20
(SF). Silica fume accelerated cement hydration, while super plasticizer retarded early cement
hydration, depending on the type of super plasticizer, its mode of use and the dosages. It was
found that inclusion of condensed silica fume in the form of fine powdered material increased
requirement of water for a desired workability. The high surface area of SF is responsible for
the increase in water demand. The w/c ratio had to be increased from 0.24 to 0.275 to
accommodate the increase in SF. The water required for the standard consistency was reduced
due to the addition of PCS. It was observed that this water reduction was higher in specimens
which contained silica fume as compared to that of the plain OPC paste. The reasoning for this
reduction in water required is due to the fact that addition of PCS not only disperses the cement
particles but also the SF particles.

Jacek Gol Caszewski and Janusz Szwabowski (2004) reported test results of a study of
rheological properties due to addition of a chemically different super plasticizers in standard
mortars. The yield value and plastic viscosity of mortars were rheological parameters that were
studied. The effect of the performance of super plasticizers was explored considering the
factors like chemical origin of super plasticizers, super plasticizer dosage, w/c ratio, type of
cement, the physical and chemical properties of the cement and temperature. The results
showed that by testing the yield value and plastic viscosity of mortars with rotational
viscometer, it was possible rate the performance of super plasticizers precisely. Based on the
results obtained, the composition of mortars and concrete were able to be optimize for the
desired workability.

For every high performance concrete workability studies need to be carried out to understand
the dosage of super plasticizer for desired workability.

2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRESS – STRAIN BEHAVIOUR

For characterization of any concrete, the modulus of elasticity is the next important material
characteristic after its compressive strength. The stress-strain characteristics of RPC need to be
studied in context of its use in any structural member. The elastic modulus is an important
parameter in reinforced concrete design and analysis. While conducting compression test to
obtain the stress-strain characteristics is relatively easy, a few researches have tried to conduct
tensile test on concrete to obtain the modulus of elasticity.

This section presents the studies related to stress-strain characteristics of concrete, the different
methodology adopted and effect of constituents, curing conditions on modulus of elasticity.
Wenzhong Zheng et al. (2012) performed an experimental programme for obtaining

21
compressive stress–strain relationships for RPC containing various steel fibers in it. The
concrete were exposed to temperatures from 20–900 °C. Prism specimens with the size of 70.7
mm x 70.7 mm x 228 mm were used for the uniaxial compression test. There were 10 groups
of samples prepared which corresponded to ten temperatures respectively as 20 °C, 120 °C,
200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C and 900 °C. The steel fiber content
in terms of volume percentage was kept 1 %, 2 % and 3 %. With the increase in the
temperatures, the compressive strength and Young’s modulus of RPC increase at first, then
decrease with the increasing temperature. It is found that the decrease in the elastic modulus is
faster than the decrease in the compressive strength. The peak strain and ultimate strain reach
the highest values respectively at 600 °C and 700 °C. Later they increase with an exponential
trend before the peak points, and trend of decrease is linear after the peak points. When the
temperature is beyond 600 °C, the weakened effect of steel fibers leads to the decline of RPC
toughness, thereby the peak strain decreases linearly with the increasing temperature. The
constitutive equations for the stress–strain behaviour are proposed for the heated as well as
unheated samples. These equations provide a necessary theoretical reference for concrete
industry for necessary applications. Y.S. Tai (2009, 2010) as well as Yonghua Wang et al.
(2008) conducted an experimental research on RPC for its dynamic mechanical properties.
Split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) testing (D. L. Gorte et al., 2001) was adopted and various
fractions of fiber were used in RPC which were subjected to different strain rate. The results
showed the clear rate-dependent mechanical behaviour for RPC. Two types of pulse shapers of
varied thicknesses were considered to decrease the high-frequency-oscillation influence and
achieve a fairly constant strain rate. The contribution of effects of the hydrostatic stress and
strain rate for calculating the apparent dynamic strength enhancement were differentiated.

Y.S. Tai (2009), carried out compression tests at various loading rates for RPC. The concrete
is sensitive to the rate of loading. The specimens were made with different steel fiber volume
fractions and the strain rate ranged from 101 s-1 to 103 s-1 using displacement control data
system with loading rate 0.05 mm/min. Tai compared his results with those of D. L. Grote et
al. (2001) who conducted a mortar experiment. For RPC, the presence of the steel fibers should
increase the dynamic increase factor at high-strain rates. However, the trend is opposite. The
reason for this may be due to the fact that there is comparatively very large variation in the
static compression strength of the normal concrete and RPC. Regression analysis of all the test
̇
results gives a dynamic increase factor of RPC as R=0.9198 x 0.00062∈

22
As the strain rate increases, the peak stress also increases rapidly. The results establish the fact
that clear rate-dependent mechanical behaviour occurs for RPC. In the experimentation further,
characteristic of energy absorbed for different fiber dosage is also measured. The important
conclusions made was that the static compressive strength of RPC is considerably higher than
that of conventional concrete. A relation is proposed between the dynamic energy absorption
of a sample under high-strain rate and the steel fiber content Also a dynamic increase factor of
RPC at various strain rates is determined from the experimental programme carried out.
Extension of his work was investigation of the stress–strain relation of RPC subjected to static
loading after subjecting it to high temperatures (Y. S. Tai, 2010). The cylinder specimens of
RPC with diameter 50 mm x 100 mm height are inspected at the room temperature and after
exposing them to the temperature of 200–8000C. Investigational results indicate that the
residual compressive strength of RPC after heating from 200–3000C increases more than that
at room temperature, but, considerably decreases when the temperature exceeds 3000C. The
residual peak strain of RPC also primarily increase up to 400–5000C, then decrease gradually
beyond 5000C. It was observed that the elastic modulus diminished with increase in the
temperature. When the temperature is beyond 6000C, the weakened effect of steel fibers leads
to the decline of RPC toughness. However our observation that steel contributing to the RPC
toughness can be validated through other studies conducted by D. L. Grote et al. (2001). Zhidan
Rong and Wei Sun (2012) found similar results when dynamic behaviour of ultra-high
performance composites ‘UHPC’ was investigated. UHPC with 200 MPa compressive strength
was prepared by replacing cement by silica fume, fly ash and slag; and replacing ground fine
quartz sand by natural sand. Dynamic tensile tests using Split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB)
were conducted on UHPC. The fiber volume fraction was varied. Experimental results showed
that dynamic tensile strength of UHPCC improved with an increase of fiber volume fraction
and UHPC is rate sensitive. In addition, the finite element method (LS-DYNA) was employed
to simulate the whole impact process of UHPC. The numerical model results were in decent
agreement with the experimental values.

Zhang Yunsheng et al. (2008) carried dynamic testing to investigate the dynamic tensile
behaviour of the C200 GRPC through the SHPB. The results demonstrate that an increase in
the strain rate resulted in speedy increase in the peak stress in the dynamic tensile stress time
curves. The combination of steel fibers in concrete diminished the degree of the damage of
GRPC under impact loading. A. Cwirzen et al. (2008) reported the values of the modulus of
elasticity for 6 different mixes with the highest value of 52 GPa measured in the ultra-high

23
strength (UHS) concrete which contained diabase aggregates. The lowest value of 40 GPa was
reported for UHS mortars.

Research work to establish the relation between Young’s modulus and compressive strength
have been carried out on various concretes. Density of concrete is a parameter incorporated
within the relationship. Andrian Pauw (1960) worked on concrete with different aggregates
and found that modulus of elasticity depends on density of concrete. The static modulus of a
large variety of aggregates and concrete strengths were studied, analysed and an empirical
formula applicable to both lightweight and normal weight structural concretes was derived.
The developed empirical relations for E in terms of compressive strength and density was in
form of E= a wbfckc, where w is the density, a, b and c are constants, determined for various
concrete. Fuminori Tomosawa and Takafumi Noguchi (1995) also developed relations between
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of high-strength concrete based on density
parameter introduced in the equation.

M. A. Mansur et al. (1999) conducted experiments using cylindrical and prismatic specimens
to establish the stress-strain relationship of high-strength fiber concrete in compression. The
range of compressive strength of samples examined was from 70-120 MPa. Apart from these
volume fraction of steel fibers and direction of placing the fibers with reference to the direction
of loading were some parameters considered. Experimental results indicate that addition of
fibers enhanced the compressive strength and increased the strain at peak stress. The initial
tangent modulus (Eit) showed the initial response of the specimen under load. Results of normal
and fiber concrete prisms which were cast horizontally showed virtually no influence of fibers
on Eit. But when the specimens were cast vertically, for both prisms, as well as for cylinders,
addition of fibers yielded a smaller Eit. Considering the results with respect to the specimen
shape, test results of fiber concrete prisms and cylinders cast vertically did not show any
noteworthy effect on Eit. In case of cylindrical specimens, the effect of volume fraction (Vf)
was found to be negligible; only; 6 % for a Vf of 1.5 %.

The complete stress-strain curves of fiber concrete which is obtained from cylinders and
horizontally cast prisms was fitted in for analytical expressions to describe the complete
behaviour. For all the groups generated, regression analysis was performed and the following
expressions for the initial tangent modulus was generated. For 100 x 100 x 200 mm prism:
Eit=10,300 fct1/3. Here fct is the compressive strength. Another useful finding made was that
concrete specimens which were cast keeping it vertical had slightly higher compressive

24
strength than those which were cast keeping them in horizontal position. The shape of the
specimen had no significant effect as far as the aspect ratio was maintained the same.

Takafumi Noguchi et al. (2009) introduce a new reliable formula, using about 3000 data sets,
which were acquired from the research work of other investigators using different materials.
The data used was accumulated over the years and was analysed using statistical methods. The
compressive strengths of the considered concretes range from 40-160 MPa. An equation which
takes into account the effects due to the types of coarse aggregates and mineral admixtures was
proposed. In the proposed equation two correction factors k1 and k2 were introduced to
corresponding to type of coarse aggregates and mineral admixtures used.

S. Lavanya Prabha et al. (2010) attempted to determine the compressive stress-strain curves
for RPC from uniaxial compression tests. RPC is inclusive of fibers. The different curing
protocols were adopted consisting of different combinations of normal water curing, hot water
curing and high temperature curing. Compressive strength of 171.3 MPa and elastic modulus
of 44.8 GPa for 2 % of 13 mm fibers has been reported. The optimum value of fiber content
was found to be 3 % for 6 mm and 2 % for 13 mm fibers. The values of toughness indices of
RPC mixes computed ranged from 0.561 to 0.675 and these values did not seem to show any
noteworthy variance with increase in fiber content and even aspect ratio. The toughness index
was calculated as the ratio of the area up to a strain of 0.15 to the area of a perfectly plastic
material (expressed in MPa. Mm/mm) with a yield strength equal to the peak strength and
plastic strain of 0.15. Hence a modified toughness index (MTI) was introduced which was
found by taking the ratio of the area of stress-strain curve to pre-peak area of the curve. The
value of the new toughness index ranged from 2.64-4.65 and these values gave a better picture
of the effect of the fibers as well as the aspect ratio of fibers considering even the mechanics
related to fiber reinforcing action.

2.7 HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Studies on effect of curing regimes on RPC have been discussed in section 1.3. If RPC is to be
used in cast-in-situ conditions, then properties of RPC under normal curing condition need to
be investigated.

Any concrete is developed for its desired compressive strength under the controlled laboratory
conditions. In-situ construction conditions expose the concrete to different environment
conditions. It is necessary to study the effect of the variation in temperature and humidity on
the development of the compressive strength of concrete. No literature was available to study

25
effect of different air curing conditions, as well as the effect of temperature and humidity on
RPC. Similar studies on other concrete though have been reported which have been briefed
here.

Chern Jenn-Chuan et al. (1989) presented results regarding the effects of various temperature
and humidity environments on the compressive strength of concretes. Two types of concrete
were produced; one containing blast furnace slag cement (BFSC) and the other containing only
OPC. Slag was added at three different percentages of 4.5, 35, and 68 against the replacement
of Portland cement there by producing three types of blended cements. The specimens were
cured for 28 days in the following environment with controlled conditions. They were; 35 ºC
at 95 % RH, standard ambient temperature of 23 ºC in lime water and sealed with
polypropylene bag, 100 % RH fog room, and 50 % RH drying room), and lastly at 10 ºC . It
was found that in BFS concrete, the temperature effect on the initial compressive strength gain
is more profound as compared to the OPC concrete. The curing in high temperature accelerates
the compressive strength development. Curing of BFSC cmomoncrete in the low temperature
subdues the initial compressive strength gain. For the 4.5 and 35 percent blended concrete,
higher ultimate compressive strength was achieved as compared to OPC concrete under well-
cured conditions. However, in case of 68 % blended concrete, there seemed an insufficient
supply of reactive materials which produced a lower compressive strength. Under dry
conditions, the compressive strength development ceased due to excessive loss of moisture
which ultimately stopped the hydration process of cement. This was the case of concrete with
high slag content also

Corina-Maria Aldea et al. (2000) studied the effects of different conditions of curing on
properties of slag cement concrete. The curing conditions indulged were; standardised
autoclaving with 175 °C and 0.5 MPa pressure, standardised steam curing at 80 °C and normal
curing for 28 days a 20 °C and 100 % RH. For the study, 0 % slag (control), 25 % slag, 50 %
slag, and 7 5% slag replacement for cement were used and these four concrete mixes with the
same mix proportions with variation in cement replacements were used. It was reported that up
to 50 % slag replacement, there is little effect on the compressive strength. At higher
replacement, there is loss in compressive strength. Steam curing samples reported the least
compressive strength as compared to the other conditions adopted in the study.

C.D. Atis et al. (2005) studied the influence of different curing conditions on the compressive
strength of silica fume concrete. Dry and wet curing conditions viz. 20 °C with 65 % RH and
20 °C with 100 % RH were maintained. The samples were produced with variation in silica

26
fume content. The results of these samples cured under the above conditions were compared
with results of OPC concrete. Influence of dry curing condition was found to be more in silica
fume concrete and effect was seen to increase with increase in silica fume ratio rather with
increase in cementitious material. Under the dry conditions, high w/c ratios resulted in higher
porosity and also larger capillary pores. This allows the free-water to evaporate quickly. Dry
curing reduced the compressive strength by 13 % average for both control as well as and silica
fume concrete as compared to compressive strength of concrete containing silica fume obtained
by wet curing. It is known that a pozzolanic material needs a moist environment along with
calcium hydroxide to show its binding property. Due to the hydration of cement, calcium
hydroxide is present due to the reaction of C2S and C3S compounds of Portland cement. Under
dry conditions, the water present in the system begins to evaporate thereby pozzolanic material
is prevented from showing its binding property. Thus curing in the dry conditions influence the
concrete made with pozzolan more than normal concrete with only OPC.

Halit Yazici (2007) studied the effect of curing conditions on compressive strength of ultra-
high-strength concrete with high volume mineral admixtures. The curing conditions were
steam curing and high-pressure steam curing. Both these curing conditions improved the
compressive strength of all specimens as compared to that of standard laboratory curing. The
improvement in the strength was about 25 to 63 % for steam curing and 9 to 61 % for
autoclaving. The hydration process is improved under the steam curing and high-pressure
steam curing.

Mechanical properties of ordinary concrete were determined by Samir N. Shoukry et al. (2009)
under standard conditions in laboratory at air temperatures maintained at 20-22 °C and RH
varying from 40-60 % Tests were conducted for varying temperatures and humidity conditions
to examine the influences on normal concrete. With the increasing temperatures, the
compressive and tensile strengths were found to decrease considerably. This deceasing trend
of strength versus temperature could be fit in a linear fit for the temperature range of 20-80 °C.
Increasing the temperature to about 80 °C resulted in decrease in compressive and tensile
strengths by 38 % and 26 % respectively. According to the report, similar findings have been
reported by Lawson (2000) and Phan and Carino (2003). In their case, 50 % of its compressive
strength is lost as the temperature increases by 100 °C.

The experimental work carried by Kumbhar P. D. and Murnal P. (2011) comprised of mixing
and casting high performance concrete in the humidity range of 20-90 % and at temperatures
30 °C, 35 °C and 40 °C. Study of workability and compressive strength properties of M50

27
grade HPC mixes were carried out. The conditions in the entire room where casting was done
were controlled for specified humidity and temperature ranges. Specimens were plastic
wrapped and kept for 24 hours and later the specimens were transferred for water curing for 28
days. With increase in the temperature, the compressive strength increased. A reverse trend
was observed for humidity.

A. E. Abalaka and O. G. Okoli (2013) determined the mechanical properties of concrete with
the samples cured in water and air for 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 days. The mechanical properties
tested were compressive and split tensile strength, sorptivity and coefficient of water
absorption). Here the specimens were initially water cured for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14, 28 days
and later air cured for the remaining days to complete the period of 28 days. Compressive and
split tensile strength properties of concrete specimens were found at the end of 28 and 90 days.
Water cured specimens showed better mechanical properties than air cured specimens.
Conversely, the maximum compressive strength was found to be recorded for the samples
which were water cured for 4 days and then air cured for remaining 24 days.

Chithra S. and Dhinakaran G. (2014) studied the effect of hot water curing and hot air oven
curing on admixed concrete. Replacement of cement by GGBFS was carried out in 20 %, 30
% and 40 % and specimen were cast and cured under different curing conditions. These
conditions include hot water and hot air oven. The specimens were subjected to different
temperatures of 40°C, 50°C and 60°C for four hours under hot water curing. Later the
specimens are subjected to Compression test and split tensile test. These tests were conducted
on concrete cubes and cylinders respectively. Test results indicated that higher strength was
obtained from few hours of thermal curing before normal curing when compared with
specimens subjected to only normal curing. Effect of thermal curing was more effective on
tensile strength than that of compressive strength of control concrete and GGBFS admixed
concrete. Among two methods of thermal curing, it was found that hot water curing was more
effective than hot air oven curing.

Thus from the previous studies, it is seen that hydration process, rate of evaporation of water
from concrete is affected due to any changes in the environmental conditions, affecting the
development of compressive strength. When concrete is used in situ, controlling temperatures
and humidity levels is not possible. It is necessary to study the influence of humidity and
temperature on the compressive strength gain of RPC if it is to be used in the in-situ conditions.

28
2.8 SOFT COMPUTING TECHNIQUES FOR MIX DESIGN

RPC contains various ingredients with different properties which make it a non-linear material,
therefore, its behaviour is very difficult to predict. There is no standard procedure is available
for mix design of RPC. Based on the studies carried out by various researchers, various
methods to simplify the mix design of HPC have been developed. An attempt has been made
to understand some of the methods so as to apply the best suitable method for the prediction of
compressive strength of RPC. Many approaches are based on neural networks. As reported by
I Cheng Yeh (1998a, 1998b, 1999) in his papers based on Artificial Neural Network (ANN) has
focussed his research in material modeling and mathematical models are generated to describe
the relationship between desired parameters and material behaviour. The author has used a
back-propagation neural network as it is more advantageous and suitable than any other
analytical approach. This is specifically for problems which involve prediction of the output
response of a complex and non-linear system to the given input. Some of the findings and
works of related to mix design and prediction of strength of different types of concrete is
presented here.

I Cheng Yeh (Sep.1998) modeled using ANN, the compressive strength of high performance
concrete. In the model proposed, the compressive strength of concrete is a function of 8 input
parameters which include the per cubic meter of concrete the weights of cement, fly ash, blast
furnace slag, water, super plasticizer, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and age of testing in
days. Experimental data was collected from seventeen different sources and the reliability of
the compressive strength model was checked with the help of this data. The compressive
strength was also found using regression analysis and results were compared. Following
conclusions were made: 1) ANN model for the prediction of compressive strength is more
accurate than a model developed using regression analysis; and 2) Once ANN model is
developed, it is suitable to use the model easily for any numerical experiment to assess the
influence of the proportions of each variation in the constituents on the concrete mix. In another
research paper, I Cheng Yeh (1998b) proposed an innovative neural network architecture,
augment-neuron network. The concrete strength was modelled using seven parameters viz. w/c
ratio, water, cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, maximum grain size, and age of testing.
This network was a modification of the standard back-propagation neural network. Here the
improvements with logarithm neurons and exponent neurons in the input and output layers
were used to improve the network's performance. The model was examined for its efficiency
and accuracy using random available data. The model was trained based on 100 data samples

29
chosen randomly from a data set, and 100 more data sets were used to test it. The results showed
that the logarithm neurons and exponent neurons in the network provided improved network
architecture to enhance the performance of these model for predicting concrete strength
efficiently. In his further work, his earlier work described above was compared with the model
generated for nonlinear optimization problem of HPC mix design (I-Cheng Yeh 1999). The
basic procedure of the methodology adopted was:

1. Modeling: This work using ANN is in continuation with the earlier work presented in
Sep.1998

2. Adding the models of ANN in the software to evaluate specified properties for a given mix

3. Optimizing and allowing a search for the optimum proportion mix design.

The strength and workability were chosen as input parameters. The analytical method used is
that using five constraints viz. required compressive strength, required workability, available
range, rational ratio and absolute volume. I-Cheng Yeh (2006) further explored the scope of
using design of experiments and neural networks to study concrete with fly ash replacements
ranging from 0 to 50 %. The effect of replacement on early age (3 days) and late compressive
strength (56 days) of low and high-strength concrete, was studied using w/c ratios in the range
of 0.3 to 0.7.

Using regression analysis, the results of the compressive strength tests of various samples were
studied. The polynomial fit was tried to represent the measured compressive strength data with
seven parameters influencing the function at a specific age. A RMS error of 3.96 MPa with
R²=0.890 for the training data and 8.82 MPa with R²=0.791 for testing data was obtained for
the best polynomial fit. This value of RMS error for the training data is low, but for the testing
data is very high and hence needs generalisation. And there can be question about the accuracy
of the predictions. Where using ANN the RMS error was 3.01 MPa with R²=0.940 for training
data and 4.32 MPa with R²=0.929 for testing data. Thus ANN model predicted the compressive
strength more accurately than the regression analysis.

Jong-In Kim e al. (2004) applied neural network-based method to predict the compressive
strength of concrete given the concrete mix proportions. 98 data sets consisting of mix
proportions related to two ready-mixed concrete companies were obtained for training and
testing patterns of a neural network. Nine parameters for company B and ten parameters for
company A were used for modelling. These included the compressive strength, w/c ratio,
proportion of fine aggregate, water content, cement content, fine aggregate content, coarse

30
aggregate content, admixtures and slump. Data concerned with all these parameters was used
for the training and learning of the neural networks. The first parameter i.e. compressive
strength is the output and all other parameters are the input. The neural network model
developed to predict the compressive strength of concrete converged very well.

Mohd. Zain et al. (2005) developed a prototype expert system called HPCMIX that provides
mix design for a high performance concrete (HPC) and also provides the recommendations for
the adjustment of the mix. The knowledge required to develop the expert system was acquired
from various references as well human sources. Hybrid knowledge representation technique
was used to develop the system. The system can select the proportions of water, cement,
supplementary cementitious materials, aggregates and super-plasticizer. It also can consider
the influence of air content as well as water contributed by super-plasticizer and moisture
content of aggregates. When tested using a sample project, the expert system suggestions for
mix proportions as well as recommendations for adjustment of mix were compared
satisfactorily with those given by the actual experts.

The expert system developed is thus capable of selecting proportions of different constituents
mentioned above considering the effects of air content as well as water contributed by super-
plasticizer and moisture content of aggregates. The system is found to be very practical,
effective and efficient for the proportioning any HPC mix. Further its ability to give
recommendations about the output and input data makes the system more applicable and more
efficient for is application in industry.

M.F.M. Zain et al. (2008) further using the HPCMIX developed in 2004 developed modified
model based on statistical tools. It is used to determine the responses, evaluate the predicted
models, and estimate the compressive strength along with the slump. HPC mix proportions can
be designed using this system with the specific constraints defined in terms of compressive
strength and slump. This system is also capable of suggesting the proportions of the
constituents such as water, cement, supplementary cementitious materials, aggregates and
super-plasticizer. Due weightage is given to consider the influence of the air content as well as
water contributed by super-plasticizer and moisture content of aggregates. Tao Ji et al. (2006)
proposed a design algorithm based on artificial neural network for concrete mix proportioning.
In the algorithm developed, the signals generated from each input are multiplied by suitable
weights and the processed output signal travel through the layers of network via neurons using
the transfer function. The transfer function is responsible for modulating the weighted sum of
the inputs. This is done in such a way that as the input gets greater, the output should approach

31
to unity and when input becomes smaller, the output approaches to zero. The model is based
on five parameters viz. w/c ratio, equivalent w/c ratio, average thickness of pastes, fly ash–
binder ratio and volume fraction of fine aggregates were introduced. It was verified that the
five parameters and the mix proportion of concrete can be transformed each other when model
is applied.

Rajiv Gupta et al. (2006) developed a neural expert system which is a knowledge based expert
systems. It is based on a number of factors like mix design, curing conditions adopted including
the shape and size of specimens. Prediction of compressive strength based on the above
mentioned factors is possible and also the system recommends suitable curing technique,
period of curing period, suitable admixtures, etc. which would help to achieve the desired
compressive strength efficiently. This is based on the compressive strength and relevant data
fed to the neural network. The system also matches the predicted compressive strength to the
experimental values obtained the laboratory. The system is trained to carry out iterations till
the error is maintained within 10 %. If necessary some data points can be eliminated to achieve
the limited error.

For generating the expert system, 9 factors have been considered, viz. shape and size of
samples, c/s area, weight of samples, grade of concrete, and experimental compressive strength
determined at 7, 28, 183, and 365 days, various curing techniques, period of curing, normal
maximum temperature and RH along with velocity of wind corresponding to that region.

Mohammad Iqbal Khan (2012) investigated compressive and tensile strength, gas permeability
and chloride penetration. Various concrete mixes consisting of composite cementitious
materials replacing the cement partially were prepared adopting different water-binder ratios.
Combinations of pulverised fly ash (PFA) and SF were also used as partial replacement. The
addition of 8-12 % SF as replacement to cement gave optimized compressive strengths,
permeability and chloride ion penetration values. All the experimental data generated using the
above mentioned methodology was applied to ANN for estimating of compressive strength,
tensile strength, gas permeability and chloride ion penetration. The input parameters were the
contents of ingredients per cubic meter of the concrete and they were x1 = Cement, x2 = PFA;
x3 = SF; x4 = water; x5 = super plasticizer; x6 = fine aggregates; x7 = coarse aggregates and it
also included x8 = age of testing (days). The estimated values obtained using ANN have a good
correlation between values achieved experimentally.

Thus ANN can be an effective tool for predicting the compressive strength.

32
2.9 STUDIES ON BEAM – COLUMN JOINT

In the final section of this chapter, some of the studies carried out by researchers on behaviour
of beam-column joint (BCJ) has been summarized. It includes the discussion on the type of
joint selected, type of loading applied, methodology adopted for experimentation, parameters
considered for the evaluation of structural behaviour, methods for analysis, and various
findings.
Ahmed Ghobarah and A. Said (2002) worked on the reinforced concrete beam-column joints,
developing a suitable rehabilitation schemes for strengthening them. Advanced composite
materials in the form of wrapping the joints were utilised.
The reasons behind the weakness of the joint and failure of the joints was presented. Main
reasons to mention are the inappropriate and insufficient transverse reinforcement in the joint,
and weak column-strong beam. The joint shear failures occurred during some earthquakes were
studied. The 1999 Kocaeli (Turkey) and Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquakes show the evidence of
a brittle shear failure in the joint that caused the complete failure with a collapse of many
structures. Joint shear failures may result in non-ductile performance of RC frames designed
to take even moments
Considering these observations, non-ductile detailed joints were designed only to resist the
static load. During the experimentation, the control samples failed in shear at the joint as they
were applied upon to cyclic loading at the beam tip. Later the joints were strengthened using
different wraps of fibers and were rehabilitated and resulted in delayed shear failure.
Mustafa Gencoglu and Ilhan Eren (2002) carried out experimental program to study the ductile
behaviour of beam-column joints. As specified in the different codes, transverse reinforcement
with close spacing is required in the joint. However, this reinforcement provided in the joints
creates congestion and creates difficulties, also due to a lack of skilled labour to provide these
reinforcement. In such conditions, it is seen that the reinforcements are not properly laid and
lead to failure of joints. To demonstrate the importance of these reinforcement in joint area,
two specimens were cast. Also, it was proposed that use of SFRC in the joints may improve
the behaviour of the joints and reduce the difficulties pose by closely packed reinforcement.
Hence two more specimen using SFRC were cast.
These four specimens were subjected reversed cyclic loading and were tested using loading
frame. The parameters for evaluating were the strength, energy absorption and damage caused
in the joint. In the experimental setup, the full-scale model was placed in the loading frame.
The column was kept in horizontal position, thereby making beam vertical. This was done for

33
the easy application of cyclic loading. The end conditions of the column were simply supported
so that the point of inflection of the columns occurred at the mid-storey. The experimental
results supported the use of steel fiber reinforced concrete in beam-column joints and it can be
conveniently use for reducing the amount of transverse reinforcement. It was also found that
the total energy dissipated in the beam-column joint specimens with SFRC in the critical
regions of beam-column joints increased when reversed cyclic loads was applied. Bakir P.G.
and Boduroglu H. M. (2002) used the database of various beam-column joints tested
experimentally by the previous researchers. All joints were exterior joints and using this data
base a new design equation to estimate the joint shear strength of a monotonically loaded
exterior beam-column joints was proposed. The effect of many variables on the behaviour of
beam-column joints were examined using outcomes of parametric studies of the generated
database.
The design equation incorporated the effect of three important factors viz, beam longitudinal
reinforcement ratio, joint aspect ratio, and stirrups. Three categories of joint were prepared with
low, medium and high amount of stirrup ratios. This approach had not been considered in any
of the previously suggested equations. The proposed design equation estimates the joint shear
strength of exterior beam-column connections within permissible error when compared with
the experimental data available and is improved over the previously suggested equations.

Costas P. Antonopoulos and Thanasis C. Triantafillou (2003) worked on the feasibility of

introducing mechanical anchorages in the joints. An extensive experimental program, to
generate basic understanding of the behaviour exterior reinforced concrete (RC) joints critical
in shear and hence strengthened with FRP and subjected to simulated seismic load was
conducted. Exterior RC joints model with 2/3-scaling and 18 in number were prepared.
Parameters for evaluation consisted of load versus imposed displacement response
characteristics, strength in terms of measured lateral load, the stiffness, and the cumulative
energy dissipation capacity. The results indicated the importance of the mechanical anchorages
in limiting the premature debonding and importance of other parameters like area fraction of
FRP; column axial load etc.

Sung-Chul Chun, Dae-Young Kim (2004) studied beam-column joint to evaluate the strength
of joint using mechanical anchorage over conventional 900 standard hook anchorage. Using a
mechanical anchor offers a potential solution for problems like- steel congestion, fabrication,
construction and concrete placement. Two sets of models of exterior beam-column joints were
tested. In one set, the joint was designed such that the beam would fail in flexure, and the other

34
set was designed for the shear failure of the joint. The specimens of each set have the same
geometry and the same material properties. The cyclic lateral loads were applied to the beam.
The structural performance, such as strength, stiffness, ductility, slip of re-bars, the extent of
joint damage and the energy dissipation were assessed.

Katsunori Kitano et al. (2004) tested a full-scaled beam-column joint model to find out the
ultimate shear strength. Studies were carried out experimentally to understand the stress-
transfer mechanism in SFRC beam-column joints. The test specimens were reduced to about
half of a SFRC structure on the assumption of beam-column joints of a multi span beam in a
middle floor in a multi-story frame. Since shear failure of joint was to be studied, it had to be
ensured that the joint fails prior to any other failure. For achieving this failure, the joint shear
strength was designed smaller than the flexural and shear strength of the beam and column.

Lateral load reversal tests were performed on beam-column joint specimens of SFRC structures
and observations were obtained which concluded that the destruction of the eccentric joint
differed greatly between a beam’s eccentricity side and its opposite side. The reduction of shear
strength for SFRC beam-column joints caused by the eccentricity was smaller than that for RC
beam-column joints. Shear strength was also reduced when the transverse beams were
eccentrically connected to the column. The effective shear strength of the parallel flanges
depended on the reciprocal of the distance from the centre of the web to the parallel flanges
when they were located from outside of the RC beam width. The shear resistances shared by
the RC joint and concrete strength were in a linear relation.

Gaetano Russo and Giuliana Somma (2004) presented the behaviour at failure of exterior
beam-column joints under the servere action of seismic loading. The study pointed out that,
during the cyclic loading, a large diagonal cracking comes together with a joint volumetric
expansion. Three factors contribute to the resistance of this volumetric expansion: the concrete,
the beam longitudinal reinforcement and stirrup. The overall shear strength has been taken as
the sum of these three contributions, each dependent on a multiplying factor which has been
determined from the available experimental data. The obtained expression predicts the shear
strength in a much more accurate and uniform.
Abhijit Mukherjee and Mangesh Joshi (2005) tested and investigated the performance of RC
beam-column joints subjected cyclic loading. The joints were made deficient with respect to
bond of reinforcements but provided with adequate reinforcement in the beam-column joint.
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) in the form of sheets and strips were applied on the joints using
various formations of FRP. Along with the cyclic load applied to the tip of beams, the columns

35
were subjected to a small amount axial force. Controlled displacement method was adopted.
The hysteretic curves of the specimens were obtained and studied for the energy dissipation
capacity. Various FRP configurations were compared using this parameter. Apart from this,
the damaged control specimen was rehabilitated again using FRP and subjected to same kind
of loading again. The performance of this specimen was compared with that of the undamaged
specimens. It was concluded that even the rehabilitated specimen could restore its original
strength by the virtue of the FRP wrapping and there is enhanced performance considering the
parameters like yield load, initial stiffness and energy dissipation capacity.

A. Masi et al. (2008) investigated on the experimental behaviour of beam-column joints

without or with strengthening. This paper contributes towards the evaluation methods for
beam-column joints so as to conduct the seismic evaluation of existing RC buildings. To this
purpose, design and set up of wide experimental programs on beam-column joints relevant to
typical existing RC buildings having different Earthquake Resistant Design (ERD) level,
namely joints designed to resist only to gravity loads and joints relevant to structures designed
according to the recent Italian seismic code is established. Specifically, the experimental tests
are devoted to investigate the failure mode, the strength and ductility performance, and to verify
the damage sequence of full or reduced scale beam-column and base-column joints. These
results are then correlated to the main characteristics of the beam-column joints under
investigation such as ERD level, type of rebar, material properties, and axial load values. The
end conditions for column are taken as fixed. R. Eligehausen et al. (2009) carried both
experimental and analytical studies on RC beam-column joints. An application of micro plane
based Finite Element (FE) approach for 3D modeling of RC beam-column joints under cyclic
loading has been presented and validated with the experimental results. As already established
from many experimental studies, the critical component in RC frame structure is beam-column
joint and poorly designed and detailed joints are responsible for the poor structural response
of old buildings. Tests were conducted on such poorly designed beam-column exterior joints.
These were designed considering only the static gravity loads, but evaluated to measure their
response to seismic loading. Analytical studies based on 3-D modelling considering non-linear
behaviour of concrete as quasi-brittle material is carried out. For modelling, the contribution
of experimental results for calibration of the model is taken. Joint strength, failure mode
mechanisms and strength and stiffness degradation are the parameters studied to establish the
response and judge the performance of the beam-column joint.

36
Cheng-Cheng Chen et al. (2009) carried elaborative full-scale beam-column joint models
subjected to cyclic loading. The behaviour of SRC exterior and corner beam-column joints
designated as Type I and Type II has been studied. Various strength superposition methods
were applied to study the response of joint against the application of these methods, specifically
focussing on shear strength. Some of these methods included changing the anchorage position
of beam longitudinal bars, increasing the depth of I section, using the combination of corner
stirrups along with ‘I’ cross-sections of steel. It was concluded that the strength superposition
methods were able to estimates the SFRC beam-column joint shear strength with considerable
accuracy. These methods had an influence on the joint shear strength and crack pattern. It leads
to a higher shear strength for the beam-column joint and the ‘I’ section was able to provide
enough lateral support to longitudinal steel bars. It also provided enough confinement to the
concrete in the joint. This in fact reduced the necessity of closed hoops. P. Perumal and B.
Thanukumari (2010) also proposed the use of fibers in concrete for increasing the shear
capacity and ductility of beam-column joint. One fourth scaled seven exterior beam-column
joints of M20 grade concrete were examined. Two specimens were designed and detailed with
and without seismic load without using fibers in it, whereas the other five specimens were
geometrically similar to the two specimens cast earlier but they were cast using various
combinations of fiber in form of steel and polypropylene. The fibers were provided only in the
joint region. The evaluation parameters included ultimate strength, ductility, energy dissipation
capacity and joint stiffness. Combinations of 1.5 % of steel fiber and 0.2 % of polypropylene
fiber showed the best results with respect to the energy dissipation capacity and ductility factor.
Similar work on introduction of steel fibers was conducted by Junichiro Niwa et al. (2012) who
attempted to reduce the shear reinforcement as well as longitudinal reinforcement in beam-
column joints of rigid-framed railway bridges by adding steel fibers in the joint. Tests was
conducted on one-sixth scaled specimens six in number. These were designed in accordance
with the design standards for railway bridges in Japan. It was reported that behaviour of
specimens with steel fibers replacing some amount of reinforcement was quite similar to those
specimens provided with normal reinforcement.

Bashir Ahmad Muhsen and Hisashi Umemura (2011) suggested a new model for determining
the shear strength of RC interior beam-column joints. The model was based on the
recommendations of the methods adopted in current ACI and AIJ design codes. Amendments
were proposed in calculating effective joint area of the panel and effective concrete strength.
From the previous research studies, a data base of interior beam-column joints was developed.

37
The effects of the lateral reinforcements in joint panel and axial load in columns were
considered for the investigations. Correlations between joint shear strength and both lateral
reinforcement and axial force of column was established and these parameters were considered
as the utmost important in new model proposed. The error in the results given by model
compared with the existing data base were within permissible limit, establishing good
correlation even with the results given using current ACI and AIJ codes.

A. Pimanmasa and P. Chaimahawan (2011) adopted the technique of joint expansion for the
enhancement in the behaviour of beam-column joint. Interior reinforced concrete beam-column
joint was expanded in two dimensions along the length of the beam keeping the width of beam
intact. The expansion was cast-in-situ around the corners of the joint. Monotonic loading was
applied to the interior beam-column specimens with expanded joint zone. The results
demonstrated an enhancement in the shear capacity of the joint. The energy dissipation and
ductility also increased. This could also be thought of as a retrofitting technique to increase the
strength of the joint and thereby avoiding the failure of the joint. Also, the failure takes place
in the beam portion and hence undesirable shear failure is converted to ductile flexural failure
of the beam.
J. S. Kaung and H. F. Wong (2011) studied the effect of horizontal stirrup ratio in joint core to
enhance the behaviour of beam-column joints. Tests of full-scale reinforced concrete exterior
beam-column joints subjected to cyclic loading were carried out. The conditions in
experimental setup simulated those in actual RC frame buildings with non-seismic design
conforming to the BS 8110-1:1997.

The horizontal stirrup ratio in joint core is varied and its effect on the shear strength is studied.
The hysteretic characteristics related to reverse cyclic loading is also determined. It is to be
noted that the joints have been designed for non-seismic loading.

It was concluded that the effective way of improving the beam-column joint seismic behaviour
is by providing the horizontal stirrup and it enhances the joint shear strength. The upper limit
of the horizontal stirrup ratio in joint core for enhancing the shear capacity of exterior beam-
column joints was optimised to 0.4 % and it was concluded that this ratio was sufficient enough
to resist the seismic loads in low-to-moderate earthquakes. In addition to the horizontal
reinforcement, if transverse reinforcement is also provided in the joint, then it may have less
effect on the improvement of the joint shear strength.

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Hassan Jafarian and Khosrow Bargi (2011) presented finite element analysis of ductile concrete
connections for a nonlinear behaviour. The analytical investigation based on the FE models
using the ANSYS software is presented to examine the efficiency of a precast beam-column
concrete connection of a jointed system. The influencing parameters effecting the joint’s
behaviour, the axial load on column, are varied and their effects are studied. A similar analysis
was conducted by S. S. Patil et al. (2013) to assess the corner and exterior beam-column joint.
Assessment parameters were maximum stress, minimum stress, displacement and variation in
stiffness of beam-column joint, ANSYS software (Non-Linear FEM Software) was used and it
is observed that the behaviour of corner beam-column joint is different than the exterior beam-
column joint. Use of ABACUS software to analyse the exterior beam-column joint was carried
out by S.V.Chaudhari and M.A.Chakrabarti (2014). A finite element model was developed
and the results were compared with results of the experimental investigations. The loading
extended till the inelastic range and the load deflection curve characteristics were studied. This
was also compared with a model generated in ANSYS. ANSYS results showed that as the load
increased the joint got stiffer and according to the author the ABAQUS results show a more
realistic load-displacement behaviour of the RCC joint.

Gregoria Kotsovou and Harris Mouzakis (2012) proposed use of inclined bar rather than the
horizontal stirrup for enhancement of the behaviour of joint. For the seismic design of external
beam-column joints, a design method was proposed on the basis of the fact that the load which
is transferred from the beams to the joint is resisted by means of a diagonal strut action. This
action is affected as cited before, by the bond characteristics between concrete and that portion
of the reinforcement of the beam which is extended into the joint. It also depends on the how
the beam reinforcement and the joint reinforcement are anchored together effectively.

The effectiveness of this method on the structural response was approved by conducting tests
on the full-scale models of beam-column joints which were subjected to the cyclic loading. The
authors concluded that the proposed method provides solutions that even satisfy the codal
design requirements and also the finding are reliable when compared to the experimental
results. The effectiveness of the inclined bars to reduce the shear deformation was observed in
spite of the fact that shear reinforcement provided in the model was reduced by 80 %. The
flexural mode of failure in beam with a formation of plastic hinge was observed and there was
no major cracks observed in the joint area. The use of inclined bars was also proposed by
Suhasini M Kulkarni and Yogesh D Patil (2014). The parametric study of a joint with cross
inclined bars at the joint was carried out. The parameters considered were concrete grade, shear

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reinforcement ratio, joint aspect ratio, energy dissipation, yield ratio etc. The capacity of the
structure in its inelastic zone exceeding their design values were considered. In this inelastic
range, the forces developed in the beam-column joint exceeded their design value as they were
subjected to horizontal and vertical shear stresses coming from the adjacent beams and
columns. This continued for the many more no of cycles of a cyclic loading. It was seen that
providing the inclined bars in the joint improved the energy dissipation in both positive and
negative cycles of loading. The results showed that the columns with inclined reinforcing bars
performed considerably better than those with conventional reinforcement.
Yang Zhiyong et al. (2012) replaced the steel reinforcement by carbon fiber reinforcement in
a beam-column joint and analysed it using ANSYS software. The specimens analysed were of
a damaged frame joints under cyclic loading. Results show that the prominent effect of carbon
fiber reinforcement of damaged specimen is that it changed the mode of failure from brittle
shear to combined beam bending and joint shear failure. Damage was reduced and strength
deterioration was also reduced. Stiffness degradation reduced with increase in seismic
behaviour of energy dissipation. Similar kind of work was carried by Umut Akguzel and
Stefano Pampanin (2012) who presented the study of an analytical procedure for the assessing
the performance of existing RC beam-column joints before and after being retrofitted using
FRP composite materials. Here the joint strength degradation curves before and after
retrofitting were obtained and suitably merged to relate with the capacity of the beams and
columns. The failure of beam-column-joint was predicted by concentrating in the area of
moment and axial load of beam and column respectively. From the analysis conducted it was
concluded that if the hierarchy of strength and sequence of failure is looked upon, then the
external bonded FRP reinforcement has a substantial effect on the improvement of the joint
shear capacity. Finally, it was concluded that the shear strength of the joint in virgin state or
retrofitted state depends completely on the compressive strength of concrete and its bonding
characteristics with the reinforcement.

L.F. Maya et al. used ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concretes (UHPFRC) to connect
the precast element. The material is used as a connection and experimental study was carried
to develop the method for such connections of precast elements. UHPFRC has outstanding
properties which were utilised for generating connections between precast elements. The
connection using UHPFRC was designed and tested.

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