Basicelectronics Thirdedition PDF

Basic
E lectronics
Third Edition
Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 1 5/27/2020 12:37:00 PM

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Basic
E lectronics
Theory and Practice
Third Edition
Sean Westcott
Jean Riescher Westcott
MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi

Copyright ©2020 by Mercury Learning and Information LLC. All rights reserved .
This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be reproduced in any
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Publisher: David Pallai

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S. Westcott and J. R. Westcott. Basic Electronics: Theory and Practice. Third Edition.
ISBN: 978-1-68392-528-6
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CONTENTS
Introduction xvii
About the Authors xxi
Part 1: The Fundamentals 1
Chapter 1: The Theory Behind Electricity 3
Atoms and Their Structure 3
Electrons 5
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 8
Conductors 9
Insulators 9
Semiconductors 9
Electron Flow Versus Hole Flow 12
The Least You Need to Know 12
Chapter Review Questions 13
Chapter 2: How Electricity Works 15
Circuits 15
Electromotive Force or Voltage 16
Current 17
Resistance 18
Ohm’s Law 19
Power 19
Joule’s Law 20
Putting It All Together 21

vi • Contents

Lab 2-1: Constructing a Simple Circuit 23
Chapter 3: Currents and Circuits 25
Direct Current 25
Alternating Current 26
The War of Currents 26
Waveforms 27
Sine Wave 29
Other Waveforms 31
Phase 32
Using Waves to Measure AC Voltage 33
Direct Current Waveforms 34
More About Circuits 35
Circuit Diagrams 35
Short Circuits 37
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 38
Serial and Parallel Circuits 38
Learning the Language of Electronics 39
Part 2: Your Workspace and Tools 43
Chapter 4: Tools of the Trade 45
Essential Hand Tools 45
Essential Instruments 47
Lab 4-1: Taking a DC Voltage Reading 52
Lab 4-2: Taking an AC Voltage Reading 53
Lab 4-3: Measuring Resistance 54
Lab 4-4: Measuring Current 55
Electronics Specialty Items 56
Essential Safety Items 60

Contents • vii
Chapter 5: Shop Setup and Safety 63

A Clean, Well-Lit Workshop 63
Claim Your Space 64
Your Workbench 64
Adequate Power 64
Lighting 64
Ventilation 65
Storage 65
Safety Equipment 65
Good Work Habits Are Good Safety Habits 66
Come Ready to Work 66
Dress for the Job 66
Be Neat and Work Deliberately 66
Know How Electricity Flows 67
First Aid for Electrical Shock 68
Part 3: Electronic Components 71
Chapter 6: Switches 73
Switch Symbols 73
Mechanical Switches 74
Poles and Throws 74
Lab 6-1: SPDT Switch 76
Push-button Switches 77
Knife Switches 78
Bi-metal Switches 78
Mercury Switches 78
Other Mechanical Switches 79
DIP Switches 79
Electromagnetic Switches or Relays 80

viii • Contents
Chapter 7: Resistors 83
The Mighty Resistor 83
Fixed-Value Resistors 84
Resistor Color Codes and Power Ratings 84
Reading the Code 85
Power Ratings 86
Surface Mount Resistors 87
Single in Line Resistors 87
Variable Resistors 87
Kirchhoff ’s Laws 88
Calculating Resistance 89
Lab 7-1: Using Ohm’s & Kirchhoff ’s Laws to
Determine the Proper Resistor 91
Resistors in Series Circuits 92
Lab 7-2: Resistors in a Series Circuit 92
Resistors in Parallel Circuits 93
Lab 7-3: Resistors in a Parallel Circuit 94
Voltage Division Circuits 95
Lab 7-4: Voltage Division Using Fixed Value Resistors 96
Lab 7-5: Voltage Division Using a Variable Resistor 97
Chapter 8: Capacitors 101
How a Capacitor Works 101
Farads 103
Relative Permittivity 103
Capacitor Ratings 104
Nominal Value and Tolerance 105
Temperature Coefficients 106
Breakdown Voltage or DC Working Voltage 106
Polarized Capacitor Types 106

Contents • ix
Electrolytic Capacitors 107

Tantalum Capacitors 107
Non-polarized Capacitor Types 107
Variable Capacitors 108
Capacitors in a Circuit 109
Transient Time of Capacitors in a DC RC Circuit 109
Lab 8-1: Charging Capacitance 110
Chapter 9: Diodes 113
How Diodes Work 114
Types of Semiconductor Diodes 116
Common Silicon Diodes 116
Zener Diodes 116
Schottky Diodes 117
Power Rectifiers 118
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 119
Photodiodes 120
Handling Diodes 120
Chapter 10: Transistors 123
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 124
How Amplifiers Work 125
BJTs Under Varying Voltages 126
Gain 127
Darlington Pairs 127
Field Effect Transistors 127
Lab 10-1: Using a Transistor to Amplify Current 129

x • Contents
Chapter 11: Power Sources and Power Supplies 133

Batteries 134
How Batteries Produce Energy 134
Primary vs. Secondary Batteries 135
Voltages in Batteries 136
Lab 11-1: Making a Potato Battery 136
Batteries in Series and in Parallel 137
Amp-hours 138
AC-to-DC Power Supplies 138
Transformers 139
Variable DC Power Supplies 141
Uninterruptible Power Supplies 141
Switched-Mode Power Supplies 141
Part 4: Getting to Work 145
Chapter 12: Soldering 147
Solder 148
Lead-free Solder 149
Flux 149
Soldering Iron and Tips 150
Heat Sink 152
Circuit Boards 152
Printed Circuit Boards 153
Prepping for Soldering 154
Place the Items on the Board 154
Prepare Your Soldering Iron 155
Soldering Technique 156
Desoldering 157

Contents • xi
Chapter 13: Constructing A Power Supply 159

Power Supply Kit and Construction 159
Safety First 162
Powering On 162
Getting Acquainted with Your Power Supply 163
Creating a Positive DC Wave 164
Seeing Caps and Voltage Regulators in Action 165
Using Your Variable DC Power Supply 166
Part 5: Going Digital 171
Chapter 14: Digital Theory 173
The Idea Behind Digital Concepts 173
Analog vs. Digital 174
Truth Tables 175
Binary Numbers 179
Application to Electronics 180
Logic Gates 180
Lab 14-1: AND Gate 181
Lab 14-2: OR Gate 182
A Revolution Requiring Attention to Detail 183
Chapter 15: Integrated Circuits 185
Analog ICs 185
Digital ICs 186
Flip-flops 188
555 and 556 Timers 189
Counters 191
Encoders and Decoders 191
Mixed Signal ICs 193
Lab 15-1: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 1 193

xii • Contents
Lab 15-2: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 2 196

Lab 15-3: Guitar Amplifier 198
Chapter 16: Memory 205
Digital vs. Analog Memory Storage 206
Parity Bits and Other Error Detection 206
Hexadecimal 207
Data and Address 208
The Von Neumann Computer Model 209
Memory Registers 210
Writing and Reading 210
Volatile and Nonvolatile Memory 211
Storage Media 211
Chapter 17: Microcontrollers 215
What Are Microcontrollers? 215
Microcontroller Components 217
Inputs/Outputs 217
Programming Microcontrollers 218
Microcontrollers for Hobbyists 219
Open Source Hardware 220
The Arduino Microcontroller Platform 220
The Netduino Microcontroller Platform 221
Part 6: Electronics in Practice 223
Chapter 18: Motors and Controllers 225
Brushed DC Motors 226
Brushless DC Motors 227

Contents • xiii
Stepper Motors 227

Servo Motors 228
Controllers 229
Pulse Width Modulation 229
H-bridge 230
Chapter 19: Sensors 233
What Is a Sensor? 233
Electronic Sensors 234
Accelerometers 235
Digital Compasses or Magnetometers 236
Light and Color Sensors 236
Microphones 237
Alcohol and Other Environmental Gas Sensors 237
GPS Sensors 238
Chapter 20: Electronic Communication 241
The Basics of Electronic Communication 241
The Electromagnetic Spectrum, Revisited 242
Radio Waves 244
Microwaves 244
Infrared 245
Visible Light 245
Ultraviolet, X-Rays, and Gamma Rays 245
Encoding and Decoding a Signal 245
Amplitude Modulation 246
Frequency Modulation 246
Phase Modulation 247
Rasterization 248
Lab 20-1: Building an FM Stereo Transmitter 248

xiv • Contents
The Least You Should Know 250

Part 7: Constructing a Robot and Using Raspberry Pi 251
Chapter 21A: Arduino: Building Your Robot 253
Shopping for Your Robot 253
Get the Software You Need 255
Connecting Your Arduino and Getting to Work 255
Chapter 21B: Netduino: Building Your Robot 259
Shopping for Your Robot 259
Get the Software You Need 261
Connecting Your Netduino and Getting to Work 262
Downloading to the Netduino Microcontroller 266
Chapter 22A: Arduino: Getting Your Robot Moving 269
Get Your Motor on Board 269
Assembling the Motor Driver Shield 269
Power It Up 270
Programming Your Robot to Start and Stop 270
Identifying the I/O Pins 273
Assembling the Robot Platform 273
Chapter 22B: Netduino: Getting Your Robot Moving 275
Get Your Motor on Board 275
Assembling the Motor Driver Shield 275
Power It Up 276
Programming Your Robot to Start and Stop 278
Identifying the I/O Pins 279
Adding Speed Control 280
Assembling the Robot Platform 282
Chapter 23A: Arduino: Adding Sensors to Your Robot 283
Adding Collision Control 283
The Ultrasonic Range Finder 284
Lab 23: Sensing Distance 284

Contents • xv
Adding the Sensor to Your Robot 286

Adding a Power Switch 286
Planning and Writing the Code 287
Arduino Code 288
Letting Your Robot Roam 289
Chapter 23B: Netduino: Adding Sensors to Your Robot 291
Adding Collision Control 291
The Ultrasonic Range Finder 292
Lab 23-1: Sensing Distance 293
Adding the Sensor to Your Robot 294
Adding a Power Switch 295
Planning and Writing the Code 295
Letting Your Robot Roam 297
Chapter 24: Using Raspberry Pi in Your Electronics Projects 299
Setting up Your Raspberry Pi with an OS 300
Adding Inputs and Outputs (I/O) to Your Pi 302
Using the Python Command Shell 305
Programming with Python on the Pi 306
Programming a Button in Python 307
Controlling an LED with the Button 309
Going Forth 311
Chapter 25: Cybersecurity and the Internet of
Things (IoT) for Electronics Projects 313
The Security Challenge 313
Controlling the Risk 314
Resources for Securing Your Device 315
Security Is All of Our Responsibility 316
Appendix A: Glossary319
Appendix B: Timeline of Electronics329

xvi • Contents
Appendix C: Mathematics for Electronics335

Appendix D: Careers in Electronics341
Appendix E: Resources347
Appendix F: Answers for Odd-Numbered Questions355
Appendix G: Lab Videos, Animations, and
Supplementary V ideo Directory361
Index 363

INTRODUCTION
T
he study of electronics can be a little overwhelming when you start
out. But without assuming that you remember everything from your
general science classes, we take you through it all step by step so that
you will gain confidence in your understanding of the material. This doesn’t
mean that we give you an oversimplified version of electronics, but it does
mean that we cover the topics in a more digestible style. We believe that by
making the effort to wrap your head around some of the more difficult top-
ics, you will find it easier to progress into further study of electronic theory
or hands-on experimentation.
We believe that a new revolution is under way. Electronics has always
had a thriving hobbyist population, especially in the 1960s and the 1970s.
There were magazines, corner electronics stores; and clubs where enthusi
asts could meet and share their creations. It had its subcultures from ama
teur radio enthusiasts to model rocket builders. In the 1980s, this culture
grew to include people building personal computers before such companies
such as IBM and Apple began to mass produce them.
The hobbyist field changed as electronics advanced. The increasing
sophistication and miniaturization of electronic components and the prod
ucts built with them made hobbyist-built electronics pale in comparison to
their flashier, mass-produced competition. But those same advances are now
putting the design and production back into the hobbyists’ hands. Perhaps
egged on by battling robots out of university engineering departments, a new
generation of electronics buffs is tinkering with technology. With affordable
microcontrollers and a wide range of products and information available
online, the hobbyist can design and build machines that recharge the ideas
of homebrew and do-it-yourself. We can all become Makers.

xviii • Introduction
HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

Part 1: The Fundamentals covers electronics basics from the atoms up.
You learn about currents, AC and DC voltage, and find out how they all work
together to power our world.
Part 2: Your Workspace and Tools introduces the tools of the trade, from
the low-tech soldering iron that makes your connections to the high-tech
digital multimeter, and offers advice for setting up a shop and working with
electricity safely.
Part 3: Electronic Components gives you the nitty-gritty on circuits, ca-
pacitors, diodes, transistors, and power supplies. These components are the
workhorses of electronics, keeping things powered, amped up, and running
smoothly.
Part 4: Getting to Work keeps you busy soldering parts together and
creating your own power supply. Once you have these skills under your belt,
you’re ready to start building—and inventing—your own electronic devices.
Part 5: Going Digital teaches you to think like a computer. You learn
how integrated circuits put digital signals to work and how to use memory to
store the instructions that run your gadgets.
Part 6: Electronics in Practice covers motors and controllers, sensors and
electronic communication.
Part 7: Constructing a Robot (covering both Arduino and Netduino)
helps you use everything you learned from the previous parts to create your
own robot—one that can move on its own and sense its environment. What
will you build next?
Chapter 25: Cybersecurity and the Internet is a short chapter highlight-
ing your devices and your role in protecting the Internet of Things.
The Appendices provide you with a glossary, a timeline of electronics, a
review of mathematics, careers in electronics, electronics resources, answers
to the odd-numbered exercises, and the directory of video labs included on
the companion files.
EXTRAS
Throughout the book, you will find the following sidebars offering addi
tional insights:
Definitions.
Sometimes it helps to have things stated just a little more directly. In
these sidebars, we save you from having to grab a dictionary.

Introduction • xix
Titans of Electronics.
Not just a parade of historical figures—here we invite you to put yourself
in their shoes. These sidebars offer a closer look at the folks who looked at
things a little differently and changed the world with their ideas.
High Voltage!
When handled safely, electricity can be safe. But the consequences of
not respecting its potential for harm are serious. The more you understand
how electricity moves, the better you can prepare and work safely with it.
Wattage to the Wise.
Here you will find straightforward advice—sometimes practical, some
times more philosophical.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the people who helped us bring this book to
publication, Jen Blaney, Kelly Lee, and David Pallai.
We would also like to thank our colleagues and especially our family for
supporting us as we worked through many beautiful weekends. The readers
and contributors to the Netduino forums provided excellent advice. Special
thanks are extended to Bob Godzwon and John O’Brien of Extech Instru-
ments who provided valuable help as technical reviewers of a previous ver-
sion of this text.
Most importantly, we thank the instructors who have used previous edi-
tions of this book and the readers who have reached out with corrections.
We are thankful for your appreciation for the place this book attempts to fill,
an introduction to concepts that doesn’t require a lot of previous knowledge
of electronics, but that can get you to the hands-on work of making your own
projects and further study. Your feedback is important and appreciated.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Sean Westcott has always loved taking things apart and tinkering with
electronics, especially radios, TVs, film cameras, and anything to do with
music. He has built his own effects pedals, helped build his friends’ home
studio, and apprenticed his way into a gig doing live sound reinforcement in
and around Washington, DC. After high school, he studied electronics and
moved from the world of bench technician and quality control to computer
network technician when the world was changing over from analog to digital
technology. He has had a satisfying career supporting computer users and
networks since the Internet began changing the workplace and now protect-
ing them working in cybersecurity. He loves what he does and loves sharing
his knowledge with others.
Jean Riescher Westcott has been more the book geek, but is no strang-
er to technology. She spent a summer course learning BASIC programming
in a mainframe/terminal environment during high school and fulfilled part
of her math requirement in her undergraduate study by taking a class on the
history of computers. She moved to a career in books after studying law at
American University. Her passion for books, reading, and science led to her
first computer book buyer position at an independent bookstore chain in the
District of Columbia; she now works in publishing.
Sean and Jean co-wrote Digitally Daunted: The Consumer’s Guide to
Taking Control of the Technology in Your Life (Capital Books, 2008), The
Complete Idiot’s Guide to Electronics 101 (Alpha, 2011) and two earlier edi-
tions of Basic Electronics for Mercury Learning. Jean has co-authored Video
Game Addiction (Mercury Learning, 2018) and Industrial Automation and
Robotics (Mercury Learning, 2016).

1
PART
THE FUNDAMENTALS
E
lectronics involves controlling the invisible. Most of the time, you
see the effect of electricity but not the actual movement of electric
current. This part pulls back the curtain on that hidden world to give
you a peek at how electricity works at the atomic level.
It all starts with tiny, charged particles called electrons. You’ll learn how
and why electrons move in the natural world and how people have har-
nessed their power using circuits.
No overview of electronic theory would be complete without an ex-
planation of how current (the flow of electrons, also known as electricity),
voltage (the “push” that is caused by the attraction of positive to negative),
and resistance (the “push back” of insulators) work. You will find out what
power really means and the ways that all of these forces interact.
Basic Electronics_CH01.indd 1 5/27/2020 12:38:03 PM

CHAPTER
1
THE THEORY BEHIND
ELECTRICITY
In This Chapter
●● Understanding atomic structure
●● Harnessing the laws of attraction and repulsion
●● Controlling the flow of electrons
●● Identifying an element’s conductivity and resistance
E
lectronics is the study of devices that can control the flow of elec-
tricity. You can build devices that detect, measure, power, control,
count, store, and transmit electricity—and much more. But in order
to do all of these things, you first need to know what electricity is and how
it flows.
To get to the essence of electricity, you must delve into some of the
most basic concepts in physics: atoms and their structure.
Atoms and Their Structure

An atom consists of a cloud of negatively charged electrons surround-
ing a dense nucleus that contains positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons. The relationship between an atom’s charged particles—
its protons and its electrons—is the key to electricity (much more on this
in the following sections of this chapter). Atoms are basic units of matter.

4 • Basic Electronics, Third Edition
Matter refers to any physical substance; in other words, matter is any-

thing that has mass (measurable stuff) and volume (measurable occupation
of space).
Ever wonder about the difference between an electric-powered

device and an electronic device? It comes down to a matter of
language and general usage. Most of us think of things with basic
controls only—such as a lamp, iron, or fan—as electric appliances.
Devices with more complex control are viewed as electronic devices.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
In this book, we first consider most basic controls, such as switch-
es and fuses, and then look into how other electronic components
use electricity to perform more sophisticated functions.
A chemical element is pure matter consisting of only one type of atom.

Every element is composed of an atom with a particular atomic structure
that defines it; for instance, the element carbon is composed exclusively of
carbon atoms. Elements are ranked by their atomic number on the periodic
table of chemical elements. The atomic number indicates the number of
protons in each atom.
The standard model of an atom has an equal number of protons, neu-
trons, and electrons, but this isn’t always the case. The number of neutrons
FIGURE 1.1 A helium atom.

The Theory Behind Electricity • 5
FIGURE 1.2 The periodic table of elements.
can vary, and each variation is a different isotope of that element. We call
the combined number of protons and neutrons nucleons. For example,
carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon. It has six protons and eight neutrons. It
is still carbon, but the variation in the number of neutrons affects some of
its properties.
The periodic table of chemical elements, often sim ply called the
periodic table, lists the 118 known elements and basic information—atomic
DEFINITION
number, relative atomic mass (also known as atomic weight), symbol, and
other information, depending on the table—about each element.
Electrons
The atomic number of an element indicates the number of protons. For
an electrically neutral or stable atom, the number of protons and electrons
are equal, which means that once you know the atomic number of an ele-
ment you know the number of electrons it has. Electrons travel around the
nucleus of the atom in an area known as a shell. Shells are layered outward
from the nucleus. Each shell can hold up to a maximum number of elec-
trons. The innermost shell can hold 2 electrons, the second shell can hold 8,
the third shell can hold 18, and the fourth can hold 32.
The following table shows the electron arrangements for some com-
mon elements:

Number of Electrons in Various Elements

Atomic Number Element Name Electrons per Shell
1 Hydrogen (H) 1
2 Helium (He) 2
6 Carbon (C) 2,4
7 Nitrogen (N) 2,5
8 Oxygen (O) 2,6
9 Fluorine (F) 2,7
10 Neon (Ne) 2,8
11 Sodium (Na) 2,8,1
12 Magnesium (Mg) 2,8,2
13 Aluminum (Al) 2,8,3
14 Silicon (Si) 2,8,4
15 Phosphorus (P) 2,8,5
16 Sulfur (S) 2,8,6
17 Chlorine (Cl) 2,8,7
19 Potassium (K) 2,8,8,1
20 Calcium (Ca) 2,8,8,2
24 Chromium (Cr) 2,8,13,1
26 Iron (Fe) 2,8,14,2
28 Nickel (Ni) 2,8,16,2
29 Copper (Cu) 2,8,18,1
30 Zinc (Zn) 2,8,18.2
33 Arsenic (As) 2,8,18,5
36 Krypton (Kr) 2,8,18,8
47 Silver (Ag) 2,8,18,18,1
50 Tin (Sn) 2,8,18,18,4
53 Iodine (I) 2,8,18,18,7
79 Gold (Au) 2,8,18,32,18,1
80 Mercury (Hg) 2,8,18,32,18,2
82 Lead (Pb) 2,8,18,32,18,4
92 Uranium (U) 2,8,18,32,18,8,2

Valence Shell
The outermost shell of an atom is known as the valence shell (or
valence band), and the electrons that inhabit that outer shell are called
valence electrons. The more full the valence shell, the less likely it is
that an atom will lose electrons when a force is applied. The less full
the valence shell, the more likely it is to lose electrons when a force is
applied.
Let’s compare two elements. As you can see from the preceding table,
neon has a full valence shell, meaning that it is unlikely to gain or lose
electrons. Copper, on the other hand, has just 1 electron in its valence
band, which can hold 32 electrons. This lone electron filling the valence
shell is easily attracted away to a nearby atom that has room on its valence
shell.
If a valence shell loses or gains an electron, the atom becomes an ion.
An ion is an atom with a charge. An atom that has more protons than elec-
trons has a positive charge. An atom with more electrons than protons has
a negative charge. Because of the electromagnetic force, negatively charged
electrons will leave their own valence shell to travel to another atom that
has a positive charge.
Electromagnetic force (emf) is that attraction between positive and

negative charges and the repulsion of like charges. It is the basis of the
interaction between the protons and electrons within atoms holding them
DEFINITION
together, and the attraction between atoms that have negative and positive
charges.
Here’s where electricity enters the picture: The movement of electrons
on the valence shell when leaving or joining another atom creates electrical
current, or electricity. The movement of electrons (and therefore electric-
ity) relies on the two basic concepts that result from the electromagnetic
force: 1) opposite charges are attracted to each other; and 2) like charges
repel each other.
In his pioneering work on electricity, Benjamin Franklin de-

scribed something that produced electricity as positive (positive
because it gave current) and the recipient material of that current
as negative (because it was receiving the electrical charge). This is
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
called conventional theory—the early belief that current traveled
from positive to negative.

Today we know now that the opposite is true: Current travels

from negative to positive. This is called electron theory.
Confusingly enough, many diagrams that are used to describe
circuits show the flow of current in conventional notation, with
current flowing from the positive terminal of a battery to the
negative terminal. Others use the more accurate electron nota-
tion. History creates traditions; we sometimes have to learn to go
with the flow!
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Some atoms are more stable (or neutral) than others. Stable atoms have
an equal number of positively charged protons and negatively charged elec-
trons. The attraction between protons with positive charges and electrons
with negative charges holds the atom together unless a force is introduced
to separate them.
Conductivity is the tendency of a material to allow the free flow of
electrons. Resistance is the opposite; it is the tendency of a material to re-
sist the flow of electrons. When we measure conductivity, we refer to it as
resistance. A good conductive material is simply said to have very low re-
sistance. The conductivity of a material is determined by how full or empty
the valence shell of its atoms is.
An atom with a full valence shell is not going to accept extra electrons,
while an atom with a nearly empty valence shell will be able to shed and
receive electrons. This flow of electrons among atoms is electricity. As we
mentioned previously, copper’s nearly empty valence shell allows it to shed
and accept electrons, so it is a good conductor of electricity. Neon, with its
full valence band, is very nonreactive, so it is resistant to the flow of electric-
ity; in other words, it is an insulator.
Knowing both of these qualities is important to understanding elec-
tronics. Electronics relies on our having the ability to control the flow of
electricity. We need to be able to slow it, block it, and even modulate it.
(More on that later!) This requires that we understand which materials
are conductors (highly conductive or low resistance), which are insulators
(poor conductors or strong resistance), and which are semiconductors (in
between low and strong resistance).

Conductors
Elements that are grouped on the left side of the periodic table have
fewer electrons in their valence shell and can serve as good conduc-
tors. That’s because these electrons are loosely bound to their nuclei
(the plural of nucleus) and can easily be separated from their atom and
travel to a positively charged ion. In other words, these elements allow
for electricity—which is simply the flow of electrons—to flow easily.
Examples of common metals that are relatively good conductive materi-
als are silver (Ag), gold (Au), and copper (Cu), all of which contain just
one electron in their valence shell; that lone electron is easily removed
when electricity is flowing. Moving to the right from these metals to the
far right of the periodic table you encounter more stable elements that
are less conductive.
Insulators
Elements that have full or nearly full valence shells either hold on to
their existing electrons or attract electrons so that their valence shell be-
comes full. These elements are insulators that have great resistance and can
slow or block the flow of electricity. They don’t have room on their valence
shell to accept electrons, and their nearly full outer shell holds tightly to the
electrons it already has.
The elements at the far right of the periodic table are called the noble
gases. These are extremely good insulators as they are very nonreactive.
The naturally occurring noble gases are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn).
Semiconductors
The elements in between the metals and the noble gases on the peri-
odic table are generally semiconductors. Some elements commonly used as
semiconductors are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). These elements can
be combined with others to introduce impurities that can conduct electric-
ity. This process is called doping, and when an element is used in this capac-
ity, it is referred to as a dopant.

Consider an atom of silicon, which has four electrons in its valence

shell. When you look at multiple atoms of silicon, as shown in the following
figure, you can see that they arrange themselves quite neatly into what is
called a crystalline structure, meaning the atoms form a repeating pattern
in each direction, with each of its electrons in the valence shell perfectly
paired with its neighboring atom.
Now let’s look at what happens when two very different dopants are
added. Phosphorus (P) has 15 electrons—2 on its inner shell, 8 on its sec-
ond shell, and 5 on its valence shell. When it bonds with silicon, the combi-
nation yields a loosely attached electron. Because that electron can be easily
released, a negative charge can easily flow through the doped semiconduc-
tor. Phosphorus acts as a donor impurity, because when it is added to silicon
it releases or donates electrons. This yields what is called an n-type semi-
conductor, where n means negative.
You can create a p-type semiconductor—p meaning positive—by add-
ing boron (B) to silicon. Boron has five electrons, two on its inner shell
and three on the valence shell. When you combine these two elements,
the bond between the two elements produces a valence shell with seven
electrons. This nearly full valent shell does not want to release electrons.
However, it does have room to accept an electron in the remaining space,
which is referred to as a hole.
FIGURE 1.3 Atoms of silicon in a crystalline structure. Note that the image doesnÕt depict all of the atoms
on the outside rows; silicon has four electrons in its valence shell.

FIGURE 1.4 An n-type semiconductor formed by doping with phosphorus.
FIGURE 1.5 B dopant with three electrons in the valence shell.
Although the atomic qualities of a material are the most impor-

tant in determining its conductivity, other factors need to be
considered when determining an element’s conductivity:
WATTAGE TO THE WISE ■■ The physical characteristics of the material: A thick strip of alumi-
num will conduct more electricity than a thin one. A short wire

shortens the distance needed for the current to travel compared

to a longer wire.
■■ Temperature: Different materials change in their conductivity de-
pending on the temperature. Metals tend to become less conduc-
tive when heated and some become superconductive at extremely
low temperatures.
Electron Flow Versus Hole Flow

When an electron leaves an atom, it creates a gap for the next electron
to jump into. The electrons move in one direction, so the gaps always open
up in the reverse direction.
The movement of the electrons is called electron flow. The opening up
of the gaps is called hole flow.
The flow of electrons is like a flow of marbles through a straw. One
electron moves into the space created by the movement of the previous
electron down the line.
FIGURE 1.6 When electrons move to the empty holes during electron flow, the ÔmovementÕ of the empty
holes is called the hole flow.
The Least You Need to Know

■■ An atom has a nucleus containing positively charged protons and neu-
trally charged neutrons; the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of nega-
tively charged electrons.
■■ A stable atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. When an
atom gains or loses an electron, it becomes an ion—a charged atom.

■■ Electrons travel in shells or bands around the nucleus. The outer shell is
called the valence shell. When electrons move from one atom to anoth-
er, they create an electric current.
■■ Materials are classified as conductors, insulators, or semiconductors
based on their resistance to conductivity. Semiconductors can be doped
to create n-type or p-type semiconductors.
Chapter Review Questions
1. Electrons are -charged particles.

2. The outermost shell (or band) of electrons is called the
shell/ band.
3. A(n) is an atom with a charge.
4. is the tendency of a material to resist the flow of electrons.
5. Beyond the atomic structure of a material, name two things that affect
the conductivity of a material.
6. True/ False: Silver, gold, and copper all have just one electron in their
valence shell, so these metals are generally considered good insulators.
7. N-type semiconductors are doped to allow for the easy movement of a
charge.
8. True/ False: Hole flow is in the same direction as electron flow.
9. The naturally occurring noble gases are: (name at least 3) ,
, and .
10. charges repel, while charges are attracted to each
other.

CHAPTER
2
HOW ELECTRICITY WORKS
In This Chapter
●● Creating paths for electricity to follow
●● Giving electricity a push
●● Measuring voltage, current, and resistance
●● Calculating power using Ohm’s Law and Joule’s Law
N
ow that you know what electricity is at the most fundamental level,
it’s time to find out more about how it flows and how you can take
charge of that flow. Electricity needs a path and a push. Once you
understand how to manipulate the path and the push, you can control the
devices you connect to the path.
Circuits
The path on which electricity flows is called a circuit. Once flow has
been established, electric current can travel endlessly through a conductive
material if the circuit remains as a loop. Chapter 1 compared the flow of
electric current to marbles moving through a looped straw. In this compari-
son, the circuit is the straw, and it can’t carry electricity if there is a break
anywhere along it.
More practically, a circuit is any arrangement that allows for electri-
cal current to flow. An example of a very basic circuit might be a battery

FIGURE 2.1 A circuit is like marbles moving through a looped straw.
c onnected to a lamp. A computer’s motherboard contains several much

more complicated circuits. Electronics is all about analyzing, building, and
creating circuits that use electrical current.
The circuit’s current provides power for a device or devices. The device
that is powered by a circuit is called the load. Wire connects the battery and
the load. In the basic circuit of a lamp and a battery, the lamp is the load.
This basic circuit consists of a power supply (the battery), a load (the lamp),
and the wire.
Electromotive Force or Voltage

How does the flow get started? Electromotive force (you may see it
abbreviated as emf in discussions about electricity and represented by
the symbol V in equations) is the push that gets the electrons jumping
from one atom to another, sending a current of electrical flow along the
way. Electromotive force can originate from many sources, including
the following:
■■ Chemical reactions, as in a battery
■■ Electromagnetic generators
■■ Photovoltaic cells (solar)
■■ Generators that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy

How Electricity Works • 17
■■ Friction
■■ Thermoelectrical sources, which use differences in temperature to cre-
ate electricity
Titans of Electronics
The first practical electrical generator was designed by Michael Fara-
day in 1831. He discovered that if you rotate a conductive metal wire in a
magnetic field, a process called induction (see Chapter 11), you can gener-
ate a current. A generator uses mechanical energy to turn the wire, convert-
ing mechanical energy into electric energy that can cause current to flow
through a circuit.
Some generators are hydroelectric, meaning that they use the flow of
water to turn a turbine. Oil and coal can be burned to cause steam, which
also turns a turbine to generate electricity. Atomic energy uses the heat
released by nuclear fission to create steam to turn a turbine. Even green
energy, such as wind power, relies on a turning turbine to create electricity
through induction.
Voltage (V), named after Italian scientist Allessandro Volta, is the
measurement of emf. It is the measure of the force required to move
electricity between two points on a circuit, known as the potential dif-
ference (p.d.) between those two points. You cannot measure the volt-
age at a single point; it is always a measurement across two points. Like
speed or length, to measure voltage you need to have two points to show
a relationship.
It may seem that we are using a lot of words to represent the same
concept and, frankly, we are. Hopefully, using them all in the same sen-
tence will help clarify relationships: Electromotive force (emf), also known
as voltage (V), is the potential difference between two points in a circuit; it
is symbolized by the letter E (usually presented as ℰ ) and is measured in
volts.
Current
Because current (I) is all electrons moving through a circuit, we mea-
sure it as it moves through a single point. To account for the fact that elec-
trons are incredibly small, a large unit was created to represent a set number

of electrons. A coulomb (pronounced KOO-lum) is equal to approximately

6.25 × 1018 electrons. An ampere (pronounced AM-peer and abbreviated as
amp or simply A) is defined as a coulomb of current that moves through a
point in one second.
French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb is the namesake of the
coulomb.
The ampere is named after French scientist André-Marie Ampère.
Again, let’s put it all these terms together in a single sentence: Current
is the number of electrons that move in a circuit, it is symbolized as I, and
is measured in a unit called an ampere (A).
When you consider how small electrons are, you realize that
looking at the number of electrons in a coulomb is almost beyond
comprehension. Here is how a coulomb’s value (6.25 × 1018) in
individual electrons would look written in standard numbers:
6,250,000,000,000,000,000. This number is obviously unwieldy
and difficult to work with, which is why it is almost always repre-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
sented in scientific notation.
If you use scientific notation to express such a large number, it
makes it much easier to solve equations with incredibly large or
incredibly small numbers. To learn how to express a large number
in scientific notation, refer to Appendix C.
Resistance
Resistance is the oppositional force to emf. It might help to think of re-
sistance as the equivalent of friction slowing down a moving object. As cur-
rent is pushed through a circuit by voltage, it encounters resistance, which
reduces the voltage. This is why we measure voltage across different points
along the circuit. The resistance of the material that makes up the circuit
determines how much the voltage is reduced.
A German provides the name for the unit of measurement this time
around, Georg Simon Ohm.

We measure resistance in relationship to voltage and current. An ohm

is the level of resistance that allows the one volt of emf to move one ampere
across two points on a circuit. The symbol for an ohm is the Greek letter
omega, Ω.
OhmÕs Law
You have now learned the three measurements that are a part of the
most basic formula in the field of electronics: Ohm’s Law. Ohm’s Law states
that the current (I) between two points is directly proportional to the volt-
age (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). As an equation, it is
written I = V/R. If you have any two of the variables, you can solve for the
other. For instance, if you have R and I, you can solve for V using this equa-
tion: V = R × I. Similarly, if you know the values of V and I, you can solve
for R with this equation: R = V/I.
Power
In a direct current circuit, power is the voltage multiplied by current.
The unit of measurement for power is the watt (W), named after the Scottish
scientist James Watt. One volt pushing one amp of current equals one watt.
You may be more familiar with the term kilowatt (kW) as a unit of
power. A kilowatt is 1,000 watts. Your electric bill lists the number of kilo-
watt hours (kW-h)—the amount of power in total when a kilowatt of power
FIGURE 2.2 OhmÕs Law pyramid shows the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance. Note that
if you look at any of the segments of the pyramid, the other two values are shown in their mathematical
relationship.

is delivered constantly over an hour—you use each month. The average

American home uses about 700kW-h a month. To put this in some context,
think of a 50 watt bulb. If you use that bulb for one hour, you have used
50Wh, (watt hours) and if you use it for 20 hours, you will have used 1kW-h
because 50Wh × 20 hours equals 1,000Wh or 1k-Wh.
JouleÕs Law
Ohm’s law shows the relationship between current, voltage, and resis-
tance. If you want to determine power you need to know another foun-
dational law of electricity: Joule’s law. You can use Joule’s law to calculate
the amount of power provided by a circuit. Joule’s First Law gives us the
following equation:
Power = Voltage × Current or P = V x I
FIGURE 2.3 The four values that can be solved for using OhmÕs and JouleÕs law: power, current, voltage, and
resistance. In each quarter of the circle, you can see the variables needed and the relevant equation to solve
for each value.

Joule’s Law is named after James Prescott Joule, a British physicist and
brewer.
You can combine Joule’s Law and Ohm’s Law to solve for voltage, cur-
rent, resistance, and power.
Putting It All Together

To help understand the flow of electricity, imagine a football player
running down a field facing a team of defenders trying to prevent him from
going forward. The football player is a direct current, and the field is a cir-
cuit. The speed the player runs at is the voltage. The defenders on the field
represent the resistance of the circuit.
As the player encounters the resistance of the defenders, his speed
(voltage) decreases. If the resistance is small, the player (the direct current)
can move through easily, but if the resistance is large, his voltage will de-
crease more quickly. To determine the player’s voltage, you can take mea-
surements across the yard line markers to show the effect of the resistance
on him.
The size of the player—his current multiplied by his voltage—deter-
mines the power he delivers. His power will change across the circuit be-
cause the resistance will reduce his voltage. A large current with little re-
sistance will have a lot of power; a small current with greater resistance will
have significantly less power.
The player’s size remains constant, so the current he represents can be
measured anywhere in the circuit. Resistance doesn’t affect the amount of
current. The defenders’ size or resistance can also be measured at any point
because they are stationary.
See the following table for a review of basic electronic measurements.
Electronic Measurements
Quantity Symbol Unit of Measurement Unit Abbreviation
Current I Ampere (amp) A
Voltage E or V Volt V
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Power P Watt W


■■ Voltage equals the electromotive force, which equals the potential differ-
ence (p.d.). It is represented by the letter V and is measured in volts (V).
■■ Current is the measure of the flow of electrons. It is represented by the
letter I and is measured in amps (A).
■■ Resistance is the oppositional force to flow in a circuit. It is represented
by the letter R and is measured in ohms (Ω).
■■ Power is the combination of voltage and current. It is measured in watts
(W).
■■ Ohm’s Law says that V = I × R.
■■ Joule’s First Law says that P = V × I.
1. In a basic circuit where a battery powers a lamp, what is the load?

2. The force that pushes an electron through a circuit is known as
.
3. Name three sources of that force: , , and
.
4. A kW is a unit of .
5. A coulomb represents 6.25 × 1018 of moving through a
circuit at a single point of measurement.
6. True/ False. Resistance is measured at a single point in a circuit.
7. Solve for voltage in a circuit where there is current is 5A and the resis-
tance is .3Ω.
8. Solve for current in a circuit where there is 9V voltage and .5Ω resis-
tance.
9. Solve for power where the circuit has a 5V battery and the current is
3A.
10. Solve for resistance across a circuit where there is 9V and 4A.

Lab 2-1: Constructing a Simple Circuit

In constructing this simple circuit, you can see the components of a
circuit in action.
Materials:
Flashlight bulb (lamp)
9V battery
Jumper wire
Masking tape
Instructions:
Connect the battery with the jumper wires using masking tape as shown
in the diagram. Be sure to connect the wire from the positive terminal to
the bottom of the lamp bulb base. Connect the wire from the negative ter-
minal to the side of the bulb base using tape.
LAB FIGURE 2.1. A simple circuit with a lamp and a battery.

CHAPTER
3
CURRENTS AND CIRCUITS
In This Chapter
●● Introducing direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
●● Analyzing currents by the waveforms they produce
●● Measuring voltage in AC
●● Identifying different types of circuits
E
lectrical current can travel as a direct current (DC) and an alter
nating current (AC). Both types of current are the movement of
electrons, and both can produce power, but they are not inter
changeable. Most basic electronics encountered by hobbyists or students
are powered by direct current (DC). When working with electronics, we are
primarily concerned with direct current, but it is important to be familiar
with the properties of each.
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) is current that travels in one direction only. Bat
teries of all sorts provide DC power. In a DC circuit, the current flows
from the negative terminal of the battery through the circuit to the posi
tive terminal of the battery. DC is also said to have constant polarity,
meaning that it doesn’t change from positive to negative or vice versa; it

remains as either one or the other. This will become important to know
as you learn more about electronics.
Polarity is a positive or negative electrical charge.

DEFINITION
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) has electron flow in both directions, alter
nating between forward and backward. It also has changes in polarity.
Most households receive AC current from their power company. AC
is easier to transmit at large voltages across greater distances to neighbor
hood substations. Transformers are used at these substations to lower the
voltages for levels appropriate for household use. You’ll learn more about
working with AC as a power source later in this book, but knowing the
basics will equip you with all you need to get started working safely.
The War of Currents

The decision to use AC power to bring electricity to American homes
was not made easily. Inventor Thomas Edison believed strongly in DC be
ing the safest technology. Of course, he was significantly invested in DC
infrastructure: if his DC generation and delivery systems had been widely
adopted, he would have become a very rich man.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) is one of America’s greatest inven
tors and scientists. His inventions changed the way we live our lives, from
electricity in the home to mass communication and entertainment. His
early successes with inventions like the quadroplex telegraph (which al
lowed for more than four signals to travel on the same line) allowed him
to finance his great industrial laboratory at Menlo Park, New Jersey. His
legacy includes inventions or improvements in the following technolo
gies: the incandescent light bulb, phonograph, kinetoscope, stock ticker,
film projectors, and delivery of electricity to homes and businesses.
While Edison was refining DC generation, George Westinghouse and
Nikola Tesla were working together on AC generation and transmission.

Currents and Circuits • 27
They believed that AC’s ability to be transmitted over much farther dis
tances made it the clear choice, as fewer generation stations would be
needed.
Edison went on a publicity campaign trying to prove that AC was
dangerous because it used much higher voltages. He arranged to electro
cute stray animals to death and built New York’s electric chair to show the
public the dangers of high voltage. He used the term “Westinghoused”
instead of electrocution—which obviously didn’t catch on.
Some communities did use DC as their current of choice. Edison’s
electric company (later folded into the New York utility Consolidated
Edison, or Con Edison) provided power to areas in New York City and
Westchester County, and other DC systems powered parts of Boston. DC
was phased out slowly starting in the 1960s, and the last of Con Edison’s
DC-powered homes were converted to AC in 2007.
DC still does provide electricity in some situations. Many homes that
go “off the grid” and are self-sufficient store their locally generated power
in DC batteries. Some developing countries use high-voltage DC trans
mission systems, and telecommunications are often powered by DC.
Waveforms
Steady DC produces a constant voltage between two points without any
additional resistance. AC voltage constantly varies among peak positively
charged voltage, no voltage, and peak negatively charged voltage. It does
this in a regular pattern, and the varying voltage can be described by clas
sifying its waveform.
When you look at a waveform, you can identify a few of the parts:
nn Amplitude is the measurement of the distance of any point of the wave
that is above or below the center or mean line.
nn The peak amplitude is the point of the wave that is farthest from the
mean line; it can be positive (above the mean line) or negative (below
the mean line).
nn The cycle of a wave is one complete evolution of its shape.

nn The period is the amount of time it takes to complete one cycle. The
symbol for the period is T and it is measured in seconds (s) or millisec
onds (ms).
nn The frequency is the number of complete cycles in a given amount
of time. The symbol for frequency is f. Frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz); it is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
One Hz is equal to one cycle per second. Most U.S. AC power is
delivered at 60 Hz, meaning 60 cycles between negative and positive
and back to the center line again in one second. Frequency and pe
riod are reciprocal to each other. Their relationship can be expressed
as f = 1/T or T = 1/f.
The best way to “see” AC waveforms is to use an oscilloscope, a profes
sional tool that depicts the waveforms produced by electrical current. It
allows you to quickly see a visualization of the voltage and wave character
istics of the current.
Two examples of specialized oscilloscopes are the electrocardio

graph (EKG) machines, which allow medical personnel to analyze
the waveform of your heartbeat, and fetal monitors, which track
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
uterine contractions during labor. Both devices depict the wave
forms so they can be monitored for abnormalities.
FIGURE 3.1 An oscilloscope depicts waveforms.

Sine Wave
To study waveforms further, let’s look at an AC generator, called an al
ternator. On this type of electrical generator, as the rotating magnetic core
(the rotor) rotates within a stationary wire (the stator), the polarity of the
charge and the direction of the current change.
Peak – amplitude = 1 cycle
Amplitude
Peak + amplitude
In this constant, smooth rotation, the current flows in a continuous
sine wave shape as the voltage fluctuates between a positive and negative
charge.
FIGURE 3.2 An AC generator, called an alternator. At this point there is no current flow.
FIGURE 3.3 As the rotor starts its rotation, a current is generated and the current flows in a negative direction.

FIGURE 3.4 As the rotor returns to a vertical position, there is no current flow.
FIGURE 3.5 As the rotor turns again, current flows in a positive direction.
FIGURE 3.6 A sine wave shape depicting current produced by a rotating alternator shaft.
A sine wave (also called a sinusoidal wave) is the shape that results from
plotting the mathematical equation y = sin(x). The sine wave is the shape
DEFINITION
that occurs most often in ocean waves, sound waves, and light waves.

Other Waveforms
Sine waves are not the only waveforms that occur in electronics. Square,
sawtooth, and triangle waves are some of the most common regular nonsi
nusoidal waveforms. There are also irregular forms of both the sine wave
forms and these other shapes, but for our purposes, we need only identify
the general shape of the waveform.
Square waves are common in digital electronics. A square waveform
depicts a current that sustains a certain voltage, then quickly drops to an
opposite sustained voltage.
FIGURE 3.7 Sine waveforms.
FIGURE 3.8 Square waveforms.
FIGURE 3.9 Sawtooth waveforms.
FIGURE 3.10 Triangle waveforms.

Sawtooth waveforms are used in some cathode ray tube (CRT) applica
tions and in manipulations of vocal harmonics. Sawtooth and triangle wave
forms have gradual increases in voltage, then gradual decreases. These odd
shapes are sometimes used in combination with other waves to manipulate
the properties of the initial wave.
Phase
In electronics, phase is the relationship between two waves. Two overlap
ping waveforms are said to be “in phase.” If two waveforms are of the same
frequency and voltage but don’t overlap, they have a phase shift. If you think of
two runners on a race track starting at the same time from different points, or at
staggered start times, they can be said to be in phase shift. The time difference
or space difference between the runners is the amount of phase shift.
When working with AC, you would apply trigonometric analysis to de
scribe the wave and the amount of phase shift. The sine wave is representative
FIGURE 3.11 Out-of-phase sine waveforms.

of a circle’s rotation. We can look at the points along the timeline of a waveform
as differences in the degrees of rotation. Phase shift can thereby be described
as being x degrees out of phase.
When two waveforms are out of phase, at any single point you can mea
sure the phase difference between the two. The first wave is called the lead
ing wave and the next wave is the lagging wave. The amount of phase shift
can be measured across the time axis.
If two waveforms of the same frequency and voltage have a phase shift
of 180 degrees, they cancel each other out because they have opposite volt
ages at every point in their waveform except for when they meet at the
center or mean line.
Using Waves to Measure AC Voltage

AC is constantly fluctuating, so how do we determine the voltage? One
measure is the peak positive voltage when the positive charged voltage is at
its highest point above the mean line. Another measure is the peak negative
voltage, when the voltage is at the lowest point below the mean line. This
is an important measure because you will want to ensure that any circuits
you design can tolerate the peak voltages. Of course, the peak voltages are
produced in AC only at the top and bottom of the waves, so a circuit that
requires a steady flow of those voltages would require a different measure
ment. Peak voltage is indicated by a subscript P or PK, as in 200VP or 200VPK.
Another useful measure is peak-to-peak voltage. It is the combined am
plitudes from the peak positive to peak negative. It is abbreviated P-P. P-P
voltage values also use a subscript, this time PP, so 200VPP.
How do you go about finding the average voltage? If you average the
values of all the points along the wave, the result is always zero, as there are
always just as many points above the mean line than below it. Obviously,
there is more voltage in the AC flow than zero. However, it is sometimes
useful to know the average of just one half of the cycle: the positive or nega
tive values averaged. We could use calculus to determine the average value
of just each half of the cycle, but some shapes have a known value. For a
sine wave, you can multiply the peak voltage times .636 to get the average
value. This is expressed as VP(.636).
To give a more workable voltage of the AC flow, use the concept of the
root-mean-square (rms) voltage or effective voltage. This is often given as

the DC equivalent. For a sine waveform, the rms can be calculated by mul
tiplying the peak voltage times .707 or VP(.707).
Oscilloscopes, voltmeters, or multimeters (covered in Chapter 4)

are the tools that most practitioners use to get accurate measure
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
ments of the key values of AC or DC.
Direct Current Waveforms

The electronics projects covered in this book use DC. The power source
could be a battery or AC power supply converted to DC through a device
called a rectifier. (An inverter converts DC to AC.)
Remember that DC is a unidirectional flow of electrons as opposed to
the alternating directions of flow in AC. In a circuit with a constant volt
age, the waveform for the DC is a straight line horizontally over time. De
creasing voltage due to resistance or components that increase or decrease
the voltage will make the line vary in amplitude, but it will never change
the direction.
FIGURE 3.12 Waveform of DC with constant voltage.

More About Circuits

Now that you are a little more versed in the differences between DC
and AC and the waveforms that they create, let’s take a closer look at cir
cuits, or the paths through which current travels.
You already know that a circuit in electronics is a continuous loop of
conductive material that allows for the flow of electrons. One of the most
basic circuits is a battery connected to a lamp by a copper wire. The flow
across the circuit is from the negative terminal of the battery through the
lamp (providing the power for the lamp to light) and then to the positive
terminal of the battery.
Circuit Diagrams
In electronics, diagrams are used to describe circuits. These circuit dia
grams depict the components added along the path of the electron flow.
Most circuits contain a voltage source (a battery in our example), a path
(conductive wire), and a load (the component that does the work of the
FIGURE 3.13 Simple circuit diagram showing a battery and lamp.

FIGURE 3.14 Simple circuit diagrams showing the circuit as open and closed.
circuit; in this circuit, the lamp is the load). The circuit diagram depicts
these using simple symbols for each part of circuit.
A closed circuit provides a constant flow of current. If there are any
breaks in the circuit—anything that interrupts current flow—it is an open
circuit, also called a broken circuit. In open circuits, current doesn’t flow at
all, because a break anywhere along the path stops the current flow from
any part of the circuit.
Most circuits have a switch. A simple switch causes a break in the cir
cuit to stop the flow of current. In our example, we could add a switch that
would serve as an on/off switch for the lamp.
When making or reading a circuit diagram, it is important to pay at
tention to the polarity of the voltage source’s terminals. Remember that
the polarity reflects the charge of the terminal, positive (+) or negative (–).
On a typical battery, the terminals are labeled clearly. Your circuit diagram
should be labeled as well.

FIGURE 3.15 The polarity of the voltage sourceÕs terminals is labeled with positive or negative signs.
People originally believed that the flow of electrical current

moved from the positive to the negative terminal because they
thought the positively charged terminal had “excess” electricity.
That is called conventional flow. We now know that current flows
from negative to the positive; this is called electron flow. Some
HIGH VOLTAGE
circuit diagrams depict conventional flow whereas others depict
electron flow. All diagrams in this book represent electron flow,
but be aware that you may encounter diagrams that depict con
ventional flow.
Short Circuits
When current flows through a circuit, it must encounter some resis
tance because otherwise it can create a short circuit. A short circuit occurs
when the current takes an unintentional path or unintended shortcut—it’s
like a train jumping a rail. The preceding example uses current to power
the lamp, providing for a drop in voltage after the current encounters the
resistance provided by the load of the lamp. Without the lamp, the voltage
doesn’t drop along a conductive piece of wire before the current is returned
to the positive terminal. Heat is produced along the wire due to friction,
and the heat can damage the chemicals in the battery or cause heat damage
to the wire along the circuit.
You must be careful to create a circuit that takes into account Ohm’s
law. If your circuit has too much resistance built into it, the power it pro
vides to the load may not be adequate to make it work as intended. If you

don’t provide enough resistance, you might exceed the power that the load
can handle. An overloaded circuit can cause excessive heat and the compo
nents could explode or cause a fire.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Two types of protective devices are available to prevent a short circuit:
fuses and circuit breakers. Both components create an open or broken cir
cuit if too much current flows in the circuit. A fuse is a single-use compo
nent, meaning that it must be replaced if it is used to create a break in the
circuit. A circuit breaker can be reset repeatedly to protect the circuit.
Serial and Parallel Circuits

Circuits can be arranged in series (called serial circuits) or in parallel
(called parallel circuits) and even in a combination of the two types. A series
circuit moves the current through the components sequentially. A parallel
circuit allows the current to flow down two or more paths simultaneously
to do more than one operation. Some circuits are called series-parallel and
consist of portions that are in series and others that are parallel.

FIGURE 3.16 Examples of a series circuit, parallel circuit, and a series-parallel circuit. Resistors are labeled
R1, R2, and R3.
Learning the Language of Electronics

If you have ever studied a foreign language, you know that the vocabu
lary, the grammar, and the ways of putting it all together can seem over
whelming at first. Up until this point, you have been learning the basic
vocabulary and how it all relates. Don’t worry if you can’t remember every
bit. Even professionals keep handbooks and references at their workbench.
In the upcoming chapters, you will be doing more hands-on work,
putting the theory you’ve learned into practice. This process will help you
make sense of all these new terms and concepts. Meanwhile, feel free to
refer back to this “cheat sheet” showing the major quantities and abbrevia
tions you’ve learned so far.

Electronics Cheat Sheet

Quantity Abbreviation Unit Abbreviation for the Unit
Charge Q Coulomb C
Current I Ampere A
Frequency f Hertz Hz
Peak voltage VP Volts peak VP
Peak-to-peak voltage VPP Volts peak-to-peak VPP
Period T Second s
Power P Watt W
Resistance R Ohm Ω
RMS voltage VRMS VoltsRMS VRMS
Time t Second s
Voltage V or E Volt V

nn AC fluctuates in direction of the current flow and voltage. The changes
in direction and voltage can be described with a waveform.
nn Measuring voltage in AC requires analyzing the characteristics of that
waveform.
nn Current flows in a closed circuit; it is interrupted in an open circuit,
which results when there is a break anywhere along the path.
nn Circuits are represented in a circuit diagram, which uses symbols to
represent all the components in the circuit.
nn A short circuit results if there is too much current flowing through a
circuit. Fuses and circuit breakers can stop the flow to avoid damage to
the components along the circuit.
nn A circuit can be series (with sequential flow of current), parallel (the
current is diverted onto separate paths to power components simultane
ously), or a hybrid of series and parallel portions of a circuit.

1. Direct current (DC) has ________ polarity.

2. True/ False. AC is the only type of current delivered for household
electricity worldwide.
3. The ________ of a wave is one complete evolution of its shape.
4. Name three types of waveforms: ________, ________, and ________.
5. If two waveforms are of the same frequency and voltage but don’t over
lap, they have a ________ shift.
6. True/ False. Root-mean-square voltage values for AC are used to give a
DC equivalent.
7. A ________ circuit provides a constant flow of the circuit. An open
circuit has ________ flow of current.
8. Too little resistance can cause a ________ circuit, which can create an
unintended path for the flow of current.
9. A set of circuits in ________ moves current through components
sequentially.
10. A set of circuits in ________ moves current through components
simultaneously.

2
PART
YOUR WORKSPACE
AND TOOLS
N
ow that you understand the basic theory of how electrons move, it’s
time to get your equipment in order. You need tools to measure,
connect, observe, and protect. Some of these are familiar—screw-
drivers, pliers, and other hand tools—while others are specialized. Some of
these specialized tools are downright ancient (solder and flux), and others,
like the digital multimeter (DMM), you’ll find you can’t live without.
Where should all those tools go? In a clean, well-lighted space, of
course! This part discusses various options for setting up your workspace,
whether at school or work or inside your home. You will also learn why good
work habits are good safety habits. The effort you put into working deliber-
ately will produce better results.
Because electricity can be very dangerous if handled incorrectly, this
part stresses the importance of respecting its power by always using proper
safety procedures. And should an accident happen, you’ll learn what to do
to minimize the damage.

CHAPTER
4
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
In This Chapter
●● Getting a handle on the tools you’ll need
●● Using specialty measuring instruments
●● Acquiring essential soldering equipment
●● Putting safety first
W
hether you’re a home hobbyist or planning to pursue a career in
electronics, you’ll need some tools to get started. This chapter
introduces you to the essential tools and instruments plus some
specialty items for soldering and safety.
Keep in mind when shopping for tools that it’s often a better value to
spend more money on a higher-quality product than to try to save a few
bucks on a low-quality version that probably won’t last as long.
Essential Hand Tools

Good hand tools will last a lifetime. Spend a little extra to get the best
quality instruments you can afford. Here are the tools you’ll need to get
started:
A lamp with a magnifying glass. Good lighting with a magnifying

glass is essential for working with small components and circuits.

Wire cutters. Don’t skimp on these: Look for a comfortable and solid
grip and high-quality blades that will stay sharp. We suggest buying a
variety of sizes so that you always have the right size for the job. A good
type to look for is a stand-off shear, as this type is less likely to deform
the wire or nearby surfaces and leaves behind a consistent length of wire
when cutting the leads (the wire portion). Some wire cutters have a lead
catcher, a slot that catches wire trimmings so they don’t fall onto your
project.
Wire strippers. This tool cuts and removes the insulation on coated wire
while keeping the wire itself intact. Look for a good-quality handle and
blade. Most users will want a simple small wire stripper and a better-quality
automatic wire stripper with holes for multiple gauges of wire.
Wire gauge is a wire’s thickness, and determines the amount of current
(amperage) a wire can carry. It is measured at the wire’s diameter and
DEFINITION
doesn’t include the insulating covering.
Copper wire is the most common conductor used in electronics.

It performs well in most situations and is relatively inexpensive
and easy to work with. It is sold as a solid wire or stranded, with
multiple smaller wires twisted together, which makes it more
WATTAGE TO THE WISE flexible than solid wire. Both types of wire are usually insulated
with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or neoprene.
FIGURE 4.1 Wire cutters.

Tools of the Trade • 47
Screwdrivers. You’ll need an assortment of small screwdrivers with

Phillips heads (#00, #0, and #1 are good sizes to have) and flat heads (a
few in the range of .9 to 3mm). We recommend that you choose non-
magnetized tools, to avoid damaging specialized computer components
that use magnetic storage or creating a current by the interaction with
other conductive materials. Eventually you will want to get a small set of
specialty screwdrivers that includes hex heads, but to start off, standard
Phillips and flat head screwdrivers should be sufficient.
Pliers. Get an assortment of small pliers, including needle-nose and
long-nose pliers. Again, look for good-quality handles and blades.
Tweezers. Tweezers enable you to grasp the smallest of electronic
parts. Again, eventually you’ll probably want different sizes, but start
with a longish pair (4–6 inches) with a fine tip.
A small rotary tool (Dremel-type). This handheld power tool is es-
sential for drilling small holes; make sure it has attachments for cutting
and sanding.
Drill press stand. This key enables you to make precise holes.
Essential Instruments
Scientific calculator. It is useful to have a stand-alone calculator you

can keep at your bench. It doesn’t need to be a graphing calculator,
which should help keep costs in line. If you haven’t had a lot of experi-
ence using a scientific calculator, do take the time to read the manual.
FIGURE 4.2 Pliers in different shapes and varying sharpness.

FIGURE 4.3 A good pair of tweezers with a fine tip.
FIGURE 4.4 A Dremel rotary tool. (Photo courtesy of Dremel)
An oscilloscope or logic probe. As noted in Chapter 3, an oscillo-

scope instrument displays the actual voltages over time as a two-dimen-
sional wave form. A logic probe is a small, handheld tool that measures
these states in a digital current. A serious shop or lab will include a
good-quality oscilloscope, as it shows more detail and information. How-
ever, such an instrument is quite expensive, ranging upward of $400. If
you are just starting in electronics and all you need to test for is a one or
a zero in a digital circuit, a logic probe may be a more practical choice
for you.

FIGURE 4.5 A scientific calculator.
An analog scope shows the real-time information of the circuit signal

and displays it on the screen as it is happening. A digital oscilloscope or digi-
tal storage oscilloscope samples the circuit over and over again and recon-
structs the signal on the screen. This enables you to see an event that may
happen only once and you can display the event even after it has happened.
If you do decide to buy an oscilloscope, make sure it has adequate
bandwidth for the frequencies you will need to measure. A good rule of
thumb is to look for a bandwidth of at least five times the maximum signal
you expect to be working with, but as the bandwidth increases to these
amounts, the prices are quite high (possibly thousands of dollars). For most
hobbyist uses, the minimum you should consider purchasing is a dual-trace,
100 megahertz (Mhz) oscilloscope.
You may find used oscilloscopes for very low prices, but make
sure there is some warranty that the scope is in good working
order and properly calibrated.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE

FIGURE 4.6 An oscilloscope.
A digital multimeter (DMM). This is the one tool you will use the
most. A multimeter allows you to measure voltage, current, and resis-
tance (as well as many other readings) in DC and AC circuits with an
easy-to-read digital display.
DMMs range in price from under $20 to thousands of dollars. As with
most tools and instruments recommended in this chapter, buying a
well-reviewed, handheld, midprice multimeter will probably be a better
value than buying the cheapest instrument on the market, as this tool is
going to be your workhorse.
Maximum input voltage (max volts) is the highest voltage your meter
can safely read. If you try to use your meter to read a higher voltage,
you will damage it and most likely injure yourself. On the meter
we use for the projects in this book, the max volts AC and DC is
HIGH VOLTAGE 600rms, so we will not take a voltage reading on anything that is
higher than 600V AC or DC.
For all the projects and labs in this book, we use the Extech EX210. We
like this model because it also includes an infrared thermometer, which is
useful for detecting hot spots.

FIGURE 4.7 A digital multimeter.
Here’s what the abbreviations on a DMM stand for:

nn Vac: volts of AC
nn Vdc: volts of DC
nn Ω: resistance in ohms
nn A: whole amps
nn mA: milliamps
nn μA: microamps (μA)

When using a tool for the first time, or when you get frustrated
about a problem that keeps popping up, it really pays to read the
friendly manual.
With certain tools, especially expensive ones or in situations where
safety is at stake, at least read the rudimentary manuals that are
included or go online to locate the resources associated with your
new purchase.
HIGH VOLTAGE
Reading an instrument’s manual when dealing when electricity can
prevent accidents well beyond a simple buzz from a battery. It can
save your life.
Using your DMM properly is key to your success with electronics. Let’s
get some hands-on practice with some labs.
Lab 4-1: Taking a DC Voltage Reading

One of the common uses for a DMM is to measure voltage from a
power supply or battery. In this lab, you practice checking the voltage on a
AA battery.
Materials:
AA battery
DMM
Instructions:
1. On your meter, put the black probe lead in the jack labeled “COM.”
2. Put the red probe lead in the jack labeled “V.”
3. Move the settings dial to Vdc.
4. Touch the black lead to the – or negative side of the battery and touch
the red lead to the + or positive side of the battery.
5. Check the reading. It should be around 1.5V.

LAB FIGURE 4.1 Reading DC voltage on a DMM.
Lab 4-2: Taking an AC Voltage Reading

You can use your DMM to measure voltage from a live wall outlet,
which enables you troubleshoot problems with home wiring.
Materials:
Access to a live wall outlet
DMM
Instructions:
1. On your meter, put the black probe lead in the jack labeled “COM.”
2. Put the red probe lead in the jack labeled “V.”
3. Move the settings dial to Vac.
Very important: Make sure that your lines are not crossed or touching
each other in any way!

LAB FIGURE 4.2 Reading AC voltage on a DMM.
4. Place a probe in one slot of a wall outlet and then place the other probe
in the other slot. Again, make sure the probes are not touching each
other.
5. Check the reading. It should register a reading of around 120V.
Lab 4-3: Measuring Resistance

A resistor is an electrical component that reduces the voltage in a cir-
cuit. In this lab you use your DMM to measure resistance.
Materials:
DMM
1 100Ω resistor
Instructions:
1. Put the red lead in the V Ω jack.
2. Put the black lead in the COM jack.
3. Move the settings dial to Ω.
4. Use a resistor with a color code of BLACK BROWN BLACK and touch
the probes one to each side. The meter should register a reading of
100Ω.

LAB FIGURE 4.3 Using your DMM to measure resistance.
Lab 4-4: Measuring Current

You can use a DMM to measure the amount of current flowing in a cir-
cuit. Current is measured in amps (A) or in smaller units such as milliamps
(mA) or microamps (μA).
Materials:
Nine volt battery
Lamp (bulb) from a flashlight
Two short pieces of wire
Masking tape
DMM
Instructions:
1. Tape one end of a piece of wire to the side of the lamp and the other end
to the + terminal of the battery.
2. Tape one end of the other piece of wire to the bottom of the lamp, then
tape the other end to the red probe.
3. Put the red lead in the 10A jack.
4. Put the black lead in the COM jack.

LAB FIGURE 4.4 Using your DMM to measure current.
5. Move the settings dial to 10A.

6. Press the MODE button so the display shows DC.
7. Touch the black probe to the - side of the battery. The lamp should
come on and you should have a reading of around 0.070A.
Maximum input amps is the highest current you can test for on your
DMM. Most meters have a setting for reading low-value currents
in μ or m and a setting for higher current or A. The Extech EX210
DMM, for example, has a jack for μA and mA with a maximum of
200 milliamps (mA) and a jack for a maximum of 10A. When taking
HIGH VOLTAGE
current measurements, always make sure you are using the right set-
tings. You may also need to choose AC or DC; on the EX210, this is
done with the MODE button.
Electronics Specialty Items
Breadboard. A breadboard is used in place of a circuit board for testing

a circuit. The key value in a breadboard is its reusability. You can place
components without having to solder them, and you can easily remove
them to build something new. Get as big a breadboard as you can, and
make sure you can attach power leads to it.
Solder. Solder is a soft metal compound that is melted to join compo-
nents within a circuit. Do not use plumber’s solder; look for solder with

FIGURE 4.8 A breadboard.
a rosin core, 60/40 type (a mixture of 60 percent tin and 40 percent lead)
or one of the lead-free solders that are designed for electronics solder-
ing. It is sold coiled on a spool.
Soldering iron. A soldering iron is the tool used to melt solder to form
joints. It has a plastic handle and a metal tip that heats up. You will want
a soldering iron that has a variable power control with a maximum watt-
age of 40. Anything higher can damage the parts or the board.
For the projects in this book, we use a Weller WLC 100. This is a good
starter iron, but it does have some drawbacks—the iron itself is not ground-
ed and you can control only the power and not the temperature—but for
this book and most uses, it is more than up to the task.
Solder sucker and solder wick. A solder sucker is used to suck up ex-
cess solder from your projects. A solder wick does the same sort of thing
but is more precise. You typically use the sucker first to get the bulk of
excess solder off and then use the wick to remove what’s left.
Flux and flux bottle. Liquid flux is a chemical cleaning agent used to
prepare your board for soldering. A flux bottle has a needle that allows
for precise application of the flux.

FIGURE 4.9 Soldering iron.
FIGURE 4.10 From left to right, a solder sucker, flux bottle, and solder wick.

Heat sink. A heat sink protects components from heat damage while
they are being soldered in place. Get one with an insulated handle, as it
will get hot.
Circuit board holder. This is a stand with a set of vice grips for holding
a circuit board so you can access both sides of the board.
Jumper wires. These are short pieces of wire with the ends stripped
for use in breadboard projects. To make your own jumper wires, strip
about 1⁄2 inch off both ends of varying lengths of different colored wire.
Clip leads. These are pieces of wire with alligator clips on each end
that are used to make connections on a temporary basis.
FIGURE 4.11 A heat sink with an insulated handle.
FIGURE 4.12 Clip leads.

Variable DC power supply. This device provides different voltages

for project use, enabling you to test and construct different circuits with-
out needing different configurations of batteries and battery holders.
You will learn to make one in Chapter 13.
Function generator. This is used for injecting different wave forms
and frequencies into a circuit. You can precisely control the frequency,
which can help when testing and prototyping.
Essential Safety Items
Ground (antistatic) strap and ground (antistatic) mat. These help

to prevent electrocution by safely grounding you as you work with elec-
tronics. They prevent static discharge.
Protective eyewear. You’ll need either sturdy glasses or shop glasses.
This will protect you from snips of wire that might snap off while cutting
or stripping wire and other shop dangers.
Fire extinguisher. Choose a fire extinguisher rated for Class C fires,
which are electrical fires. A CO2 (carbon dioxide) extinguisher is prefer-
able because it doesn’t leave a harmful residue.

nn Screwdrivers, tweezers, wire cutters and strippers, pliers, and tweezers
are all essentials when working on circuits.
nn Certain instruments are essential, a scientific calculator and a digital
multimeter among them. To operate your equipment safely, you must
read the manual to know your tool’s limits and proper use.
nn Electronics specialty tools include a breadboard and soldering equip-
ment.
nn Make safety equipment—including protective eyewear and a fire
extinguisher—a priority in your shop.

1. Wire is a measure of a wire’s thickness.

2. Name three handtools that are essential in an electronics workshop:
, , .
3. An oscilloscope displays the actual voltages over time as a two-dimen-
sional .
4. When using your DMM to measure the DC Voltage of a AA battery,
the result should be about V.
5. A is a reusable board that allows you to construct a circuit
without soldering.
6. True/ False. Plumber’s solder is an inexpensive alternative to 60/40
solder with a rosin core for electronics projects.
7. A 60/40 type solder is a mixture of 60 percent and 40 percent
.
8. Liquid flux is a chemical used to prepare your
board for soldering.
9. A is used for injecting different wave forms and
frequencies into a circuit.
10. Name three essential safety items for any electronics workshop:
, , .

CHAPTER
5
SHOP SETUP AND SAFETY
In This Chapter
●● Creating a well-lit, organized, and well-equipped shop
●● Being prepared and having good work habits
●● Avoiding electrical dangers
●● Dealing with emergencies
N
o matter where your electronics shop is located—in your basement
or garage, at school, or in a professional shop—you must make safe-
ty your highest priority.
If you’re working in a professional shop or school, it already has safety
rules in place, many dictated by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or your country’s work-
place safety regulator. The guidelines discussed in this book are general in
nature and not at all comprehensive.
Ask your supervisor for any safety manuals and acquaint yourself with
the rules before starting work.
A Clean, Well-Lit Workshop

The most important safety steps you can make take place before you
even begin any projects. As you set up your shop, do so with safety in mind.

This involves ensuring you have adequate space, good lighting and ventila-
tion, and well-organized tools.
Claim Your Space

Whether your workshop is in a stand-alone building or a portion of a
garage or basement, make sure you have enough room to store your equip-
ment and work neatly. Ideally, you should be able to close off your work-
space, but if you can’t, you must be able to somehow prevent unsupervised
children or pets from accessing the space. You don’t want to have your ex-
pensive and potentially dangerous equipment crushed by a stray basketball
or used as chew toys.
Your Workbench
Your workbench should be large enough to hold your instruments and
still leave enough work space. The desk or benchtop should be made of
a nonconductive material such as wood or hardboard, a synthetic surface
that is a good all-purpose material. Any materials labeled as ESD (electro-
static discharge) are good, as they dissipate electrostatic charge. Avoid steel
benches, as they conduct electricity.
Adequate Power
Specialty workbenches usually have built-in power outlets. If you don’t
want to spend the money on a specialty bench, be sure to situate your unit
near adequate power sources. Try to use a circuit of your home that you
don’t have to share with appliances that draw a lot of current like heaters,
mini-fridges, or freezers.
Lighting
Make sure that you have adequate lighting. Clamp-on lamps are good
for spot lighting, but also make sure you have good general overhead light-
ing. Overhead fluorescents are easy to install and fairly inexpensive solu-
tions for basement and garage setups.

Shop Setup and Safety • 65
Ventilation
Good ventilation is essential. Soldering can release lead oxide from
the solder and the flux (especially in lead-free solders) can release ir-
ritants. If you don’t have access to a window or door to dilute the fumes,
you might want to consider purchasing a fume extractor. Small home-use
extractors, which cost less than $100, are available from home centers or
online sources.
Storage
Having a good organization system not only makes work easier but also
helps keep you and your equipment safe. Tangled cords can become frayed
or develop shorts from being bent. Grabbing the wrong tool or component
can be disastrous. Improperly stacked equipment can topple over, resulting
in injury or damaged equipment.
When working with a tight budget, don’t shortchange safety. You
can get by without expensive furniture or fancy storage systems, but
never skimp on safety equipment or safety procedures.
HIGH VOLTAGE
Safety Equipment
You must have a good fire extinguisher. Check to make sure it can han-
dle Class C (electrical) fires. A water extinguisher is not going to suppress
an electrical fire; in fact, it can cause a much bigger fire.
All fire extinguishers list which fires they are rated for. Dry chemical
and carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers will both extinguish electrical
fires, but CO2 extinguishers will not leave residue on your components.
Unfortunately, CO2 extinguishers tend to be more expensive. To deter-
mine which is right for you, balance the initial cost against the likelihood
of damage.
Protective eyewear is essential. Glasses or shop goggles protect the
eyes from wire snips that might go flying when you are cutting or strip-
ping wires.

Grounding straps and a grounding mat (also called antistatic straps and
mat) help keep you and your equipment from damage by discharging any
static electricity that may build up.
Good Work Habits Are Good Safety Habits

The best way to be safe is to prepare for your project in advance and
to work purposefully. Read your equipment manuals, know the limits of
your components, and remember your electronic theory. Always double- or
triple-check your procedures before adding a component or applying volt-
age. Good work habits are free but invaluable in terms of safety and getting
the job done right.
Come Ready to Work

Make sure you come to your workbench well rested and wide awake. If
you’re so tired that your eyes are desperate to stay open, making sense of a
complicated circuit diagram will be nearly impossible. Stress can also inter-
fere with your ability to think straight. If you’re preoccupied, you’re much
more likely to make mistakes, such as a slip of your soldering iron. When
you come to your workspace, think of it as being like starting up a car. You
shouldn’t drive drunk, sleepy, or distracted. The same is true for working
with electronics. If you are not capable of being completely in control of the
situation, don’t work with electricity.
Dress for the Job

Although you don’t have to change into overalls or a rubber suit, there
are a few wardrobe tips to be aware of when working with electricity. Don’t
wear jewelry in your electronics workshop. Rings, necklaces, watches, and
bracelets are all conductive, and the consequences of adding them to a cir-
cuit inadvertently are no laughing matter. Also, keep your hair back and out
of your face so you can see clearly.
Be Neat and Work Deliberately

Electronics is a science of precision, not a freeform enterprise. Work
deliberately. Keeping a pad of paper with instructions written out clear-

ly can keep you on task. Put things back where they belong when you
are done. Most importantly, be careful about where you set things down.
Don’t pile components, wires, and instruments on top of each other
while you work. You could short out your circuits, start a fire, or damage
your equipment.
Know How Electricity Flows

Current will always flow through the path of least resistance. We
have talked so far about constructing circuits, or paths, for current to flow
through by design. Remember, though, that electrical current is a natural
phenomenon, and charged particles are moving through everything that
surrounds us and in your body itself.
If an electric line is broken during a storm and the wires fall to the
ground, the current will flow through the ground because a circuit will
form between the line and the ground. If you are nearby, you will be a
ready part of the circuit because you provide less resistance than the
relatively non-conductive earth. Unless you have a good insulator in your
rubber soled shoes keeping you out of the circuit, the voltage that flows
through the circuit is likely to cause significant injury and possibly death.
You don’t want to become inadvertently part of a circuit. If you use
your body to connect two terminals of a car battery, you are forming a
circuit; it is unlikely that you will ever want to try that experiment again.
Your body is an electrical system that relies on its own circuits to con-
tract and relax our muscles. Your muscles control the pulmonary system
by the action of the diaphragm contracting and expanding your lungs;
they control the circulatory system by the pumping of your heart. The
nervous system is also an electrical grid sending signals from throughout
your body to your brain for it to analyze and react to.
Imagine this sensitive system being affected by unwanted current.
HIGH VOLTAGE
A large shock can disrupt your muscle function, causing muscle
spasms or the locking up of your muscles (this is called tetanus). It
can also disrupt the rhythms of your breathing or heart rate. The
medical field has used controlled shocks to our systems in medical
situations to reset or restart our heart rhythms with a large shock
of a defibrillator. Law enforcement can use a Taser shock to im-
mobilize an out-of-control suspect.

In addition to keeping in mind the effects of shock from electri-

cal current, remember that your skin and internal organs provide
resistance. When a current encounters resistance, it produces heat.
One of the most obvious results of electric shock is burning. From
a small burn on the skin surface to significant damage to organs, the
heat effect of electrical shock is quite dangerous and produces a lot
of pain.
First Aid for Electrical Shock

If you witness someone suffering from electrical shock severe enough
to cause unconsciousness, cardiac arrest, seizures, burns, palpitations, mus-
cle pains, or contractions, you should immediately call 911 (in the United
States) or your local emergency services. It is important that the person get
professional help right away to prevent further injury or even death.
You can provide the following assistance while you wait for emergency
personnel:
nn First, always look before touching. The person might still be connected
to the circuit. Disconnect the electricity source if possible. Throw the
circuit breaker or use a nonconductive material such as wood or card-
board either to unplug the electrical equipment or move the person
away from the electrical source.
nn If the victim is separated from the electrical source, provide cardiopul-
monary resuscitation (CPR) if you don’t notice any pulse or breathing.
nn If possible, and if you can do it safely without risking electrocution, lay
the person down and elevate his or her legs to reduce the risk of shock.
If you experience a small shock that doesn’t leave a burn, no treatment
is usually necessary. But if there is burning, especially if the current trav-
eled through your body, you should seek care at the emergency room. A
shock that leaves just a small visible burn may do significant internal dam-
age. Large shocks can damage internal organs and should be examined by
a doctor.
Water decreases the resistance of your skin. Never handle electron-
ics with wet hands. Now, we all know not to handle electric appli-
ances in the shower or bath, but think of other ways your hands can
HIGH VOLTAGE get wet. Holding a glass that has water condensed on it will give you

wet hands. Sweaty hands decrease resistance even more, as the salty
water of sweat is more conductive than plain water.

nn A good workspace requires good lighting, ventilation, safety equipment,
and organization.
nn Good work habits are good safety habits. Don’t come to your projects
impaired. Be prepared and work deliberately.
nn Current will travel the path of least resistance. Make sure that you don’t
accidentally use your body to complete a circuit.
nn Electrical shock is serious. Call 911 (or your local emergency services)
immediately in cases of severe shock and seek medical attention for any
shock that results in a visible burn.

1. How does electrical shock affect the body?
2. Why are good work habits good safety habits?
3. Draw a diagram of an ideal workspace in your home. Be sure to high-

light a work area, a source of lighting, a source of ventilation, power,
storage, and key safety equipment.

3
PART
ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS
T
his part gets into some of the workhorse components of electronics:
switches and resistors. Every circuit will rely on them so you need
to understand the various types and how they are represented on
circuit board diagrams.
And once current is flowing to the components of the circuit, you need
to be able to fine-tune the flow. Capacitors and diodes make sure that the
flow is just so, avoiding spikes and drops. Capacitors can also store power to
provide quick bursts when needed.
Since their invention in the 1950s, transistors have been as important to
electronics as the portable scientific calculators they made possible. Tran-
sistors enable you to control the amount of current that flows through a cir-
cuit, diverting it or even reversing it. Their invention and use made possible
modern communication and all of the other great electronics advances of
the twentieth century. Transistors’ ability to manipulate the flow of electric-
ity has enabled electronics to create logic gates that can be used to make
calculations, which is the very basis of modern computers.

CHAPTER
6
SWITCHES
In This Chapter
●● Using a switch to open and close a circuit
●● Making sense of poles and throws
●● Identifying different types of mechanical switches
●● Getting acquainted with relays
A
switch is the most basic component in a circuit. It has the basic
function of interrupting the current flow and creating an open (or
broken) circuit. You are already familiar with some switches, such
as light switches and on/off switches on any of your electric or electronic
devices. Other switches include keys on a keyboard and buttons on a car
stereo.
Switches always control simple open/close operations; they are not used
for fine-tuning varying levels of current in a circuit. Switches also are es-
sential to the many sub-circuits in more complicated devices.
Switch Symbols
On a circuit board, switches are represented as being either open or
closed, as shown in the following illustration.

FIGURE 6.1 The symbol for an open switch in a circuit diagram.
The open/closed states of a switch can be represented by the

binary digits 1 and 0. This simple concept is essential to the cre-
ation of digital electronics. See Appendix C for more information
WATTAGE TO THE WISE about binary numbers.
Mechanical Switches
One of the most basic types of switches is a mechanical switch. The
conductive parts of mechanical switches are called contacts. When in the
closed state, the contacts allow current to flow through the circuit. A me-
chanical force is controlled by an actuator, which brings the contacts to-
gether or apart. The force required to move the actuator is called the actua-
tion force.
There are a wide variety of mechanical switches available, and each of
them is represented by a specific symbol on circuit boards. The following
sections describe some of the more common mechanical switches.
Poles and Throws

Switches can control either a single circuit or multiple circuits. A switch
is described by the number of poles and throws it can make—for example,
single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) or double-pole, double throw (DPDT).
In a switch, a pole is each contact that completes a circuit. For instance, a

typical household light switch controls one circuit. It then is said to have a
single pole. If you flip a switch that turns on a light and a fan simultaneously,
it has two poles.
A throw is one of the several positions that will allow a switch to make
pole connections. Both of the switches just described have only one throw.
The switch that turns on the light is a single-pole, single-throw (SPST). The
DEFINITION

Switches • 75
switch that controls two circuits—one to the light and one to the fan—has
one throw, so it is a double-pole, single-throw (DPST).
Think of poles as the number of things that can be controlled, and the
throws as the actions needed to make the connections. So if you have a
simple on/off switch that controls three circuits, it is a triple-pole, single-
throw (TPST) switch.
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 6.2 The symbols for SPST, SPDT, and DPST switches on a circuit diagram.

Lab 6-1: SPDT Switch

In this lab you’ll construct a simple circuit with a switch and lamps to
help you understand the parts and function of a switch.
Materials:
9V battery
1 SPDT switch
1 breadboard
2 small lamps
Jumper wire
Instructions:
To do this lab, you need to know how to use a breadboard, an essen-
tial piece of electronics equipment that provides a convenient way to make
non-permanent, solderless connections between components.
A breadboard has a top and bottom portion called a power rail. Each
power rail has two rows of connection plugs. Whether you are using a
battery or power supply, you connect your power in these rows. Keep
the positive lead connection on the top left and the negative lead (for a
battery) or GROUND (GND) lead (for a power supply) connection on
the bottom left.
Each individual hole in the breadboard is called a cell, and the various
cells can be connected plugging jumper wires into them.
The two larger rows between the power rails are the work areas where
you will make your circuit connections when you need more than just a
power connection.
Now that you know how to use a breadboard, let’s get started:
1. Connect the jumpers and battery to your breadboard as shown in the

diagram.
2. Flip the switch to the right. One lamp should be on.
3. Flip the switch to the left. The other lamp should be on.

Switches • 77
LAB FIGURE 6.1 Constructing a single-pole, double-throw switch.
Push-button Switches
In a push-button type switch, the mechanical force either makes the
connection between the contacts or breaks it. Push-button switches are
classified as either normally open (n.o.) or normally closed (n.c.). An n.o.
push-button is a push-to-make switch, meaning that when you push the
button it makes the contact, closing the circuit. An n.c. push-button is a
push-to-break switch, meaning that the contact is made until you push the
button, making a break in the circuit.
A similar way to classify switches is as either break before make (BBM),
which is the same as an n.o. switch, or a make before break (MBB) which is
the same as an n.c. push-button switch.

Knife Switches
A knife switch is an SPST switch. It is constructed of a strip of conduc-
tive material with an insulated handle on a hinge. When the hinge is closed,
the circuit is closed as well. When it is opened, the circuit opens and the
flow of current is interrupted.
This basic switch doesn’t have many applications in home electronics,
but think of a simple switch in a movie laboratory, like the one Dr. Franken-
stein used to create his monster. Large high-voltage switches, like the main
power switch in industrial or commercial settings, are examples of modern
uses of knife switches.
Bi-metal Switches
A bi-metal switch is made of two different metals with different sensi-
tivities to heat. The metals are coiled together in layers and can rotate as
heat rises due to the metal’s expansion when heated and its contraction in
response to the metal’s cooling. When the rotating coil reaches a certain
contact point, it activates a switch. Bi-metal switches are very important in
heat regulation applications, such as in an oven or in an automobile’s tem-
perature control.
In high-power situations, there is a danger of arcing (pronounced
ARK-ing) as contacts come apart. The insulating air between the
contacts can become ionized and the gas/current mixture forms an
electric arc. There are several ways to prevent this potentially dan-
HIGH VOLTAGE gerous and destructive event. One technique is to enclose the switch
in an insulating gas mixture, such as sulfur hexafluoride; another is
to use a magnetic blowout that redirects any arc.
Mercury Switches
A mercury switch is operated by the gravitational effect on a ball of
mercury in a vacuum tube. The mercury will always go to the lowest part
of the tube. If the tube is rolled to the side, the mercury will change where
it makes contact. The advantages of this type of switch are that it will not

Switches • 79
produce a spark in an environment where flammable gases may be present

and it doesn’t corrode from repeated metal-on-metal contact.
In the past, thermostats often used mercury switches in combination
with a bi-metal switch because they didn’t degrade over thousands of uses.
Because mercury is toxic, these types of switches are no longer used in
many consumer applications.
Other Mechanical Switches

You’ll encounter many other types of switches if you work with elec-
tronics for very long. The type of switch used is often a matter of design,
availability, or the level of security involved; often it has nothing to do with
electronic function. A slide switch can have one or more poles, with each
stop on the slide making or breaking the connection.
A toggle switch is operated by a lever or rocking mechanism. Think of
the little toggle switch on a guitar amplifier.
A rotary switch has multiple pins that when rotated can make a connec-
tion. An example is the knob of a three-speed fan or the cycle selector on a
basic washer or dryer.
A rocker switch is the type of switch that you may see on your surge
protector; a push on the raised portion of the switch will activate the other
position.
A keylock switch is activated with the action of a key in the lock; think
of your car’s ignition as one example.
DIP Switches
One type of switch that you won’t see as a visible part of many con-
sumer applications is a dual-inline-package (DIP) switch. It is a series of
switches in one unit that can be set individually.
In the past, this type of switch was often used on printed circuit boards
to allow for the manual adjustment of the settings. There are still many
industrial uses for this type of switch. DIP switches can be any of a number

of different mechanical switch types, but the term DIP switch refers to this
type of setup. When you add a resistor into a circuit, the power (current ×
voltage) that flows out of the resistor is less than the power that entered it.
Resistors dissipate the power through heat radiation and are classified by
the amount of resistance they provide.
When a mechanical switch is actuated and the contacts meet,

they may create a bit of noise (an unwanted signal that interferes
or obscures the electrical signal you intend to transmit) by the
physical properties of the two contacts coming together. This is
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
called contact bounce. There are some methods to filter this noise
in more sophisticated or sensitive electronics.
Some Common Switch Abbreviations

Abbreviation Switch Type
N.C. Normally closed circuit

N.O. Normally open circuit
SPST Single pole, single throw
SPDT Single pole, double throw
DPST Double pole, single throw
DPDT Double pole, double throw
MBB Make before break
BBM Break before make
Electromagnetic Switches or Relays

A switch that uses an electromagnetic field to control the opening and
closing of a circuit is called a relay. One modern use of a relay is in the
hinge of a laptop to put the computer into hibernation mode as the cover
is closed; another is a proximity switch for a burglar alarm, which detects
when the contacts are separated by the opening of the window or door.
One type of relay is the reed switch, which was invented in 1936 at Bell
Labs. It is made by applying a magnetic field onto two thin strips of ferrous
metal in an enclosed tube. When the field is present, the circuit remains
closed. If the field is interrupted, the circuit is broken.

Switches • 81

nn A switch is an electronic component that can open or close a circuit.
Contacts are the conductive materials that when brought together by
the switch, complete (close) the circuit.
nn There are several types of mechanical switches, including the push-
button, knife, bi-metal, and mercury switches.
nn Switches are classified by the number of poles and throws they have.
A pole is the position where the circuit is closed; a throw is one of the
several positions that will allow a switch to make pole connections.
nn Electromagnetic switches are called relays. The electromagnetic field
brings the contacts together or pulls them apart.
1. A switch is a basic electronic component that opens or closes a

_____________.
2. The conductive parts of a mechanical switch are called
_____________.
3. An _____________ uses mechanical force to bring the conductive
parts of the switch together.
4. Define pole _____________ and throw _____________.
5. A switch that controls two circuits is a _____________ -pole switch.
6. True/ False. A BBM switch is the same as an n.c. switch.
7. A mercury switch is operated by the _____________ effect on a ball of
mercury in a vacuum tube.
8. A _____________ switch has multiple pins that when rotated can make
a connection.
9. A keylock switch is activated by the action of a _____________ in the
lock.
10. A _____________ switch is made by applying a magnetic field onto two
thin strips of ferrous metal in an enclosed tube.

CHAPTER
7
RESISTORS
In This Chapter
●● Using resistors to control current
●● Making sense of the many types of resistors
●● Reading a resistor’s color code
●● Using Ohm’s Law to calculate resistance
R
esistors are electronic components that increase resistance. They
work against the flow, reducing the amount of current in a portion
of a circuit.
Resistors dissipate the power through heat radiation and are classified
by the amount of resistance they provide.
Resistors dissipate the current through heat and are classified by the
amount of energy they can dissipate. Most resistors are made of ceramic or
other materials that radiate heat at a predictable rate.
The Mighty Resistor

By managing the amount of voltage pushing the current through a cir-
cuit, resistors protect components that can only handle certain voltages. Re-
sistors also can serve as voltage dividers by partitioning voltage into smaller
values to perform precision tasks. Because resistors make it possible to fine-
tune the current flow, they are major electronic components. The following
figure shows the symbol for a resistor on a circuit board diagram.

FIGURE 7.1 The symbols for a resistor in a circuit diagram.
FIGURE 7.2 A carbon-film resistor.
Fixed-Value Resistors
A fixed-value resistor, sometimes simply called a fixed resistor, is a com-
ponent designed to provide a stable resistance. There are several types of
fixed resistors, including carbon-film, metal-film, ceramic, and wire-wound.
Each relies on layers of resistant materials and is categorized by size, level
of resistance, and tolerance.
Tolerance, in electronics, is the percentage in the possible variation from

DEFINITION the stated value.
In a carbon-film resistor, a small ceramic rod surrounding a metal-
wire lead is covered in carbon film. The carbon film is removed in spi-
rals to achieve the particular value of resistance required. The whole
mechanism is covered in an insulated material, and a color-coded band
labels the resistor.
Resistor Color Codes and Power Ratings

In the 1920s, the Radio Manufacturers Association standardized the
Resistor Color Code (see the following table). It consists of three- or four-
colored stripes that represent the value of the resistance provided. The first

Resistors • 85
two stripes are the significant digits (the digits to the left of the decimal
point), whereas the third digit is the exponent value (the powers of ten).
The formula for calculating the resistance is as follows: AB × 10x, where
A represents the first significant digit, B represents the second significant
digit, and 10x is the exponent of the 10 value.
The fourth stripe of the resistor code, if present, represents the stated
tolerance of the resistor. If there is no fourth stripe, the tolerance is plus
or minus (±) 20 percent. This means that the resistor may provide up to 20
percent more or 20 percent less resistance; so with a resistor with a value of
100Ω, its true range is anywhere from 80Ω to 120Ω.
The following table shows the resistor colors and their assigned values:
Resistance Color Code

Color 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band
Black 0 0 × 10 0
N/A
Brown 1 1 × 101 ±1
Red 2 2 × 10 2
±2
Orange 3 3 × 103 N/A
Yellow 4 4 × 104 N/A
Green 5 5 × 105 ± 0.5
Blue 6 6 × 106 ± 0.25
Violet 7 7 × 10 7
± 0.1
Gray 8 8 × 108 ± 0.05
White 9 9 × 109 N/A
Gold × 10-1 ±5
Silver × 10-2
± 10
None ± 20
Reading the Code

Let’s determine the resistance of a resistor with a blue stripe, a yellow
stripe, and an orange stripe. First, refer to the Resistor Color Code to de-
termine the values for each stripe. According to the Resistor Color Code,
the first stripe, blue, has a value of 6. The second stripe, yellow, has a value
of 4. The third stripe has a value of 103, or 1,000 (see Appendix C for infor-

mation on the power of 10). To calculate the resistance level, you multiply
64 times 1,000, giving you a value of 64,000Ω.
Let’s consider a resistor that is marked, from left to right, yellow, violet,
and red. The first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4. The second band is
violet, which represents 7. The third stripe is red, which represents 102. So
we would have a resistor value of 47 × 102 or 4,700Ω. As there is no fourth
band, the tolerance is ± 20 percent.
Only the tolerance band can be gold or silver, so if that is the first
band you see, flip the resistor over and start reading the code
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
from the other end.
The color code is an imperfect system. Overheating of the resistor can

make the colors hard to distinguish, and colorblind individuals can’t rely
on the system. To account for these issues, some resistors are also stamped
with a numeric value as well.
Power Ratings
Resistors are classified not only by their resistance but also by their
power rating, which represents the highest amount of power a resistor
can withstand. As currents travel through the resistor, heat is released.
If you use a resistor with too low of a power rating, it can fail or cause
damage.
The power rating is given in watts (W). Because watts are a unit of
power and not current or voltage, to determine the appropriate power rated
resistor for your projects you need to calculate the wattage of your circuit.
To solve for watts, you divide the voltage in volts squared by the resistance
in ohms.
Carbon-film and metal-film resistors are usually available in a range
from 1⁄8 to 2W. Usually, the larger the physical size of the resistor, the
higher the power rating. Wire-wound resistors are used where higher
wattage ratings are needed, as they can have a power rating range from
1W to 10W.

Resistors • 87
Surface Mount Resistors

Traditional resistors described earlier in this chapter have two metal
leads with a ceramic core. Modern electronics generally use surface mount
technology, mounted via soldering to the surface of a board. Surface mount
resistors do not use the resistor color code. Instead, a three- or four-digit
code is printed on the resistor. In a three-digit code, the first digit repre-
sents the first significant digit, the second, the second significant digit, and
the third is the exponent of the 10 value. So if it is marked 201, the resis-
tance value is 20 × 101, or 200Ω. Some precision applications require more
precise resistors; in that case, you may see a four-digit code. The first three
digits represent the significant digits and the fourth digit is the exponent of
the 10 value.
Single in Line Resistors

Single in line (SIL) resistors are a linked series of resistors in one com-
bined package, sometimes called an SIL resistor network. They are used
in many home electronics; due to their compact size, they require less sol-
ders than multiple individual resistors. They are primarily used in surface
mounted circuits.
Variable Resistors
Some resistors do not carry a fixed resistance value and are called vari-
able resistors. Types of variable resistors include thermistors (variable due
to temperature) and photoresistors (variable due to levels of light), also
known as photocells. Another variable resistor is the varistor (variable +
FIGURE 7.3 The SIL resistor pictured here has nine resistors, each delivering 47Ω. The code reads 470, which
equals 47 × 100, or 47.

FIGURE 7.4 Symbols for various types of resistors in a circuit diagram.
resistor), which serves mainly to protect sensitive components from short

spikes of excessive current. When triggered, it shunts the current away
from the more current-sensitive components.
One of the most commonly used variable resistors is the potentiometer
(often simply referred to as a pot), which is familiar to anyone who has used
a volume knob on an analog stereo or television. Instead of the simple two
terminals (or leads) of fixed-value resistors, a potentiometer, or “pot,” has
three terminals. The third terminal in a variable resistor can be moved to
different tapping points to yield varying levels of resistance. The terminal
that moves is usually in the center of the three-terminal arrangement and
is called the wiper.
A pot is usually controlled by a knob that moves the wiper to the dif-
ferent tapping points. Older televisions used tone knobs for the control of
brightness, and car and home radios were once controlled by pots. Any
analog signal can be controlled with a pot.
Resistors have different symbols depending on whether they are fixed-
value or variable resistors. Here are the symbols you would find in a circuit
diagram for several of the most common types:
Kirchhoff Õs Laws
To calculate the proper resistance to use in a particular part of a circuit,
it is necessary to look at the energy in that circuit. You already know that
voltage pushes electrons, creating an electrical current. To understand what
happens when you introduce resistance to that current, let’s look at another
foundational concept of electronics: Kirchhoff’s laws.

Resistors • 89
Gustav Kirchhoff described two basic laws of electronics that follow

from the concept of conservation of energy. The first relates to current in
a junction: the amount of current that enters a junction is the same as the
current that exits that junction.
Conservation of energy is the principle that energy is never lost or gained

without the application of an outside force. Along with conservation of
mass, it is one of the fundamental laws of physics.
DEFINITION
A junction is each particular meeting of wire and component along a
circuit.
The second of Kirchhoff’s laws states that the sum of all voltages in a
closed circuit is zero. The current pushed through a circuit is met with the
resistance of the different components, each of which generate negative
voltage, also called a voltage drop. All of the positive push of the voltage
is matched by the combined negative push of the resistance. In fact, resis-
tance is sometimes expressed as negative values of voltage. Resistors are
not the only components providing resistance; the load (lamp, motor, diode,
etc.) and wire of the circuit itself provides some resistance.
So using Kirchhoff’s laws, we know that all of the voltage in a circuit
(the power supply or battery) must equal the total resistance in a circuit.
Calculating Resistance
In Chapter 2, you learned about Ohm’s Law, which states that the cur-
rent (I) between two points is directly proportional to the voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R). You learned that as an equa-
tion, it is written I = V/R, and that if you have any two of the variables, you
can solve for the other: V = R × I or R = V/I.
Based on this law, as you construct a circuit, you have three variables to
consider: voltage, current, and resistance. In practice, you will encounter
components that have specified current and voltage levels for their opera-
tion, and you will need to use Ohm’s Law to calculate the amount of resis-
tance that must be provided between the power supply and the component.
In other words, you will be solving for R. The equation for solving for R is R
= V/I, which means to find R, you need to divide the voltage by the current.
Here is a basic example. You have a 5V power supply that provides
500mA of current. If you want to construct a circuit that uses a c omponent

that requires no more than 20mA of current, you can solve for the resis-
tance needed by dividing 5V by .02A. The desired resistance would there-
fore be 250Ω.
Notice that the values for the current in the preceding example were
expressed in milliamps (mA) instead of amps. As you work on electronics,
not all values will be expressed as amps (A), volts (V), or ohms (Ω). You are
regularly going to encounter values such as mA or micro-amps (μA). To do
any calculations, you need to make sure that you convert your variables into
like terms. So if you are dealing with 8V and 500mA, you need to convert
your mA to A by either expressing the number as .5A or 500 × 10–3A. To
keep units expressed in standard metric numbers, remember to use engi-
neering notation (see Appendix D).
To help you with these conversions, consult the following table for a list
of basic metric prefixes and their values:
Metric Prefixes and Their Values

Number Exponent value Prefix Symbol
×1,000,000,000,000,000 10-15 femto f
×1,000,000,000,000 10-12
pico p
×1,000,000,000 10-9 nano N
×1,000,000 10-6 micro μ
×1,000 10-3 milli m
10 100 N/A N/A
1,000 103 kilo K
1,000,000 10 6
mega M
1,000,000,000 109 giga G
1,000,000,000,000 10 12
tera T
Once you know the level of resistance needed in the circuit, you can
use the right resistors to achieve the total resistance required. You need to
consider the resistance of the components and then combine different val-
ues of resistors to achieve the overall resistance required. Remember that
resistors have different tolerances, so there may be a variation of up to 20
percent. Most circuits are designed with those variations in mind, but some
will require more precise values.

Resistors • 91
Lab 7-1: Using OhmÕs & Kirchhoff Õs Laws to Determine the

Proper Resistor
In this lab, you build a simple circuit with a red LED (light emitting
diode) as a load. You want to provide a voltage of approximately 2V and
20mA (.020A) of current to power the red LED, and you need to calculate
the value of resistor you need.
Materials:
Breadboard
1 9V battery
1 red light-emitting diode (LED)
1 390Ω resistor (orange white brown)
Jumper wires
The supply voltage of our battery (VS) is 9V. The diode requires 2V, so
our total voltage is 7V (9V – 2V = 7V). It requires 20mA of current. When
doing calculations in Ohm’s law, you need to use amps as the standard unit,
so you should use .020A (the equivalent of 20mA) in your calculations. R =
7 ÷.020, which yields a required resistance of 350Ω. The closest value resis-
tor available is 390Ω.
Instructions:
1. Place the components on the breadboard as shown in the diagram.
Note the placement of the red LED.
2. Attach the jumper wires to the battery as shown. The lead attached to
the – side of the battery MUST be attached to the flat side of the LED.
LAB FIGURE 7.1 Attach the jumper wires to the battery as shown.

FIGURE 7.5 The symbol for resistors in series on a circuit diagram.
You should see that by using Ohm’s law, you have created circuit that
provides adequate voltage and current without overwhelming the toleranc-
es of the load. The LED lights and there is no excessive heat or damage to
the LED.
Resistors in Series Circuits

Resistors can be arranged in series, which means they can be placed
one after another in a circuit. To determine the total resistance provided by
resistors in series, you simply add together their values RT = R1 + R2, where
RT represents total resistance and R1 and R2 represent the first and the sec-
ond resistors in series combined.
Lab 7-2: Resistors in a Series Circuit

In this lab, you will use your DMM to see how resistors affect the mea-
sured voltage when you arrange three in a series.
Materials:
Digital multimeter (DMM)
Breadboard
Jumper wire
Three resistors with values of 470Ω (yellow violet brown), 100Ω (brown
black brown), and 270Ω (red violet brown)

Resistors • 93
Instructions:
1. Place the resistors in a series on the breadboard exactly as shown in the
diagram.
2. Place the jumper wire on the breadboard as shown.
3. Put the black lead in the COM jack of your meter.
4. Put the red lead in the jack labeled V Ω.
5. Move the selector dial to the Ω position on the meter.
6. Touch the two probes, one to each jumper wire, coming off the bread-
board. The value you get will vary depending on the tolerance of your
resistors, but it should be close to 840Ω.
When working through these labs, it is important to follow the

instructions in conjunction with the images or circuit diagram
accompanying them. In most electronics projects, no formal
written instructions are provided, just a schematic, or enhanced
WATTAGE TO THE WISE circuit diagram, and some notes. Learning to interpret the sche-
matic is a critical step in becoming adept in the field of electronics.
Resistors in Parallel Circuits

If resistors are arranged in a parallel circuit, the math determining
their total resistance is a little more complicated. To determine the total
resistance provided by three resistors that are in parallel, use the following
equation: 1/Requivalent = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3. If you have multiple resistors, the
equation would just continue on, with further resistor values being entered
in a like fashion (1/Rx).
FIGURE 7.6 The symbol for resistors in parallel on a circuit diagram.

LAB FIGURE 7.2 Resistors in a parallel circuit
Lab 7-3: Resistors in a Parallel Circuit

Materials:
DMM
Breadboard
Jumper wire
Three resistors with values of 470Ω (yellow violet brown), 100Ω (brown
black brown), and 270Ω (red violet brown)
Instructions:
1. Place the resistors in parallel on the breadboard as shown in the dia-
gram.
2. Place the jumper wire on the breadboard as shown in the figure.
3. Put the black lead in the COM jack of your meter.
4. Put the red lead in the jack labeled VΩ.
5. Move the selector dial to the Ω position on the meter.
6. Touch the two probes, one to each jumper wire, coming off the bread-
board. The value you get will vary depending on the tolerance of your
resistors, but it should be close to 63Ω.

Resistors • 95
A good rule of thumb is that in a parallel circuit, the equivalent

resistance will always be lower than the lowest value resistor.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
Voltage Division Circuits

A voltage division circuit is used in situations when you need to supply
varying output voltages or to interpret the different voltages produced by
the circuit to provide information. The first use is fairly straightforward:
you have a power supply that provides one voltage, and you need to reduce
it along the circuit to produce lower voltages to different components. The
second use is a bit more complicated but incredibly useful.
As mentioned previously, variable resistors provide different levels of
resistance depending on how the resistor was set. A potentiometer might
be used to increase or decrease the resistance to lower or raise the volume
on a stereo. But the resistance that is detected in variable resistors like
the photoresistor or photocell can provide information about an outside
value—the amount of light detected, for example—that affects the output
voltage. You can then use the outputted voltage to feed information into the
circuit about how bright of a light is detected. This means that a photoresis-
tor can act as a light sensor (see Chapter 21 for more on sensors).
Let’s focus on the first use of a voltage divider circuit. Suppose you want
to be able to produce a certain outputted voltage, known as voltage out. To
determine the voltage out in a simple voltage division circuit, the equation
is Vout=Vin (R2/ R1 + R2).
FIGURE 7.7 The symbol for a voltage division circuit on a circuit diagram.

LAB FIGURE 7.3 A voltage divider circuit using fixed a value resistor.
Lab 7-4: Voltage Division Using Fixed Value Resistors

In this lab, you will build a voltage divider circuit using fixed value re-
sistors. You will see if the calculations you do to determine the voltage out
matches what your DMM measures.
Materials:
DMM
1 breadboard
1 9V battery
Jumper wire
1 470Ω resistor
1 100Ω resistor
Instructions:
1. Use the formula Vout= Vin (R2/R1 + R2) to calculate the resistors required
to produce an output voltage of 7.4V (Vout = 7.4V). To achieve that we are
using two resistors valued at 100Ω (labeled R1 and 470Ω (labeled R2).
Plug the numbers into the formula: 7.4V = 9V (470/100 + 470).
2. Connect the resistors in series as shown in the diagram.
3. Using jumper wires, connect the DMM probes to the bottom and top
leads of the bottom resistor, labeled R2, as shown in the diagram.

Resistors • 97
LAB FIGURE 7.4 A voltage divider circuit using a variable resistor.
4. Set the DMM to measure DC voltage.

5. Connect the 9V battery’s + and – terminals using the jumper wire to the
breadboard as shown.
6. Using jumper wire, connect the two sides of the breadboard to the
series resistors as shown.
7. Your DMM should show a value for this outputted voltage Vout that is
close to what we calculated above: 7.4V.
Lab 7-5: Voltage Division Using a Variable Resistor

In this lab, you will build a voltage divider circuit using a variable re-
sistor called a photoresistor or photocell. You will see the reaction of the
photocell to varying light conditions and how it affects the output voltage.
Materials:
DMM
1 breadboard
1 9V battery
Jumper wire
1 100Ω resistor
1 photocell

Instructions:
1. Starting from the setup from the previous lab, disconnect the battery.
2. Replace R2 with the photocell.
3. Reconnect the battery.
4. Move your hand to cover the photocell and watch how the voltage out
(Vout) changes on your DMM display. This is because the value of the
resistance of the photocell changes depending on the amount of light it
is exposed to.

nn Resistors are components that increase the resistance in a circuit.
nn There are fixed-value resistors and variable resistors. Fixed-value resis-
tors are marked in accordance with the Resistor Color Code indicating
their value.
nn One type of variable resistor is the potentiometer. An example of this is a
volume knob on a stereo.
nn You can use equations derived from Ohm’s Law to determine the total
resistance of resistors in a circuit.

1. A -value resistor is a component designed to provide a
stable resistance.
2. , in electronics, is the percentage in possible variation
from the stated value.
3. Provide the resistance value of a resistor marked from right to
left -- Blue, Green, Brown. Ω
4. Provide the resistance value of a resistor marked from left to
right --- Red, Black, Yellow. Ω
5. What is the tolerance percentage for a resistor marked from left to
right --- Yellow, Yellow, Gray, Red?

Resistors • 99
6. In addition to their resistance, resistors are also classified by their

rating, which represents the highest amount
of a resistor can withstand.
7. Where a surface mount resistor is marked 370, the resistance is
Ω.
8. A volume knob on an analog radio is often a variable resistor known as
a or pot.
9. True/ False. A photoresistor is a type of fixed-value resistor.
10. In a circuit with a 9V battery and a 25mA lamp, what value resistor
should you choose? Ω.

CHAPTER
8
CAPACITORS
In This Chapter
●● Using capacitors to store charge
●● Understanding the inner workings of capacitors
●● Getting acquainted with electrolytic, non-polarized, and variable
capacitors
●● Charging and discharging capacitors
C
apacitance is the ability to store charge (electrons). A capacitor,
also sometimes called a condenser, is an electrical component that
can store charge. Capacitors are used for many purposes, includ-
ing smoothing out spikes or drops in voltage and releasing quick bursts of
power in applications such as a camera flash.
How a Capacitor Works

A capacitor is constructed of two layers, or plates, of conductive mate-
rial separated by an insulator. When voltage passes through a capacitor,
it creates an electric field in the insulating material, called the dielectric,
situated between the two layers. The field holds an electric charge in the
dielectric.
When voltage is applied, the current travels through the capacitor and
the dielectric moves electrons from one of the conductors to the other cre-
ating opposing polarity—one layer with a deficiency of electrons so it has

a positive charge and the other layer with an excess of electrons yielding a
negative charge. The net charge of the capacitor is zero.
When current flows through the capacitor, it charges the capacitor so
that the voltage matches the source voltage. Once the capacitor is charged,
the voltage that flows through the capacitor is the same as the voltage that
enters it.
A capacitor maintains a constant voltage, and the process is often called
smoothing the current. It accomplishes this by using its storage capacity—
its capacitance—to either donate or accept electrons when there is a drop
or a spike in voltage.
Capacitors can be dangerous to work with. In some common elec-
tronic devices, capacitors hold enough charge to be fatal, and they
can hold a charge for quite some time after the device it is con-
nected to no longer works. Always assume that capacitors are fully
HIGH VOLTAGE
charged and can release their full charge.
If there is a voltage drop in a circuit, the capacitor will push elec-
trons toward the direction of the source voltage, acting as a voltage
source. This may seem counterintuitive because we are used to thinking
of electrons flowing in a single direction, from the positive to the nega-
tive terminals of a power supply. But electrons also flow “backwards” in
a circuit if the charge in the capacitor is positive compared to the voltage
entering the capacitor. Electrons are still flowing positive to negative,
but until the charges match, the capacitor acts as the source voltage
until it has exhausted its capacitance.
FIGURE 8.1 The parts of a capacitor. Note that the dielectric is the area between the two layers that holds
the electric fields.

Capacitors • 103
FIGURE 8.2 A capacitor can act as a source when there is a dip in power.
FIGURE 8.3 A capacitor can act as a load when there is a spike in power.
If there is an increase in voltage from the voltage source, the capacitor

will resist that change by storing the excess electrons up to its rated capaci-
tance. When this happens, a capacitor is said to be acting as a load, and the
incoming voltage is reduced.
Farads
Differences in the dielectric medium determine the amount of charge
that can be held in the electric field of the capacitor. The measure of ca-
pacitance is the farad, represented by an F. A farad is equal to the current
in coulombs required to raise the voltage across the capacitor by one volt.
A coulomb is an ampere second, the amount of current provided by one

DEFINITION
ampere of power in one second.
The most commonly used units of capacitance are the microfarad (μF,
1 × 10−6), nanofarad (nanofarad, 1 × 10−9), and the picofarad (picofarad,
1 × 10−12). Integrated circuits use even smaller capacitors, which require an
even smaller unit of measurement, a femtofarad (fF), which is 1 × 10−15F.
Relative Permittivity
Different dielectric materials provide varying levels of capacitance, as
shown in the following table. Remember that the dielectric is the insulating
material in a capacitor that stores charge. Permittivity is the ability to create

an electric field. Permittivity is measured relative to a pure vacuum as the

dielectric; this is called relative permittivity.
A higher relative permittivity means that a capacitor can store more
charge; a lower relative permittivity would hold less charge. A pure vacuum
has a relative permittivity of 1.0. The relative permittivity of a material is
also given as its dielectric constant.
The Dielectric Constant for Some Materials

Material Relative Permittivity (dielectric constant) at 0°C
Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0006
Teflon (PTFE) polytetrafluoroethylene 2.0
Polypropylene 2.20 to 2.28
Polystyrene 2.45 to 4.0
Transformer oil 2.5 to 4
Hard rubber 2.5 to 4.80
Silicones 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused 3.8
Glass 4.9 to 7.5
Porcelain, steatite 6.5
Distilled water 80.0
Hydrofluoric acid 83.6
Titanium dioxide 173
Strontium titanate 310
Barium strontium titanate 500
Capacitor Ratings
Beyond the materials used to create a capacitor, other factors need to be
considered when choosing a capacitor. Each designated value for a capacitor
also has tolerance, with the performance varying some percentage higher
or lower. In addition, higher or lower temperatures can change the permit-
tivity of the dielectric. Capacitors have maximum circuit voltages, so even
if the capacitor has the proper capacitance, it won’t be appropriate for your
particular circuit if the voltage of the circuit exceeds that maximum voltage.
Each of these factors needs to be considered when choosing a capacitor.

Capacitors • 105
Nominal Value and Tolerance

Capacitors have a code imprinted on them, which represents their
nominal value. The code used to indicate the capacitor’s nominal value
is similar to the Resistor Color Code (see Chapter 7). The first two dig-
its are the significant digits (the digits to the left of the decimal point),
whereas the third digit is the exponent value (the power of ten). As most
capacitors have very small values, the code expresses values in pF.
Electronics buffs frequently refer to capacitors as caps and pico-

farads as puffs. Don’t be surprised to hear seasoned electronics
folk toss in several other odd terms. When you’re not familiar
WATTAGE TO THE WISE with the jargon, be sure to ask questions.
Immediately following the two- or three-digit nominal value code,

you will often find a single letter representing the tolerance of the ca-
pacitor. The following table matches each code with its respective
tolerance:
Tolerance Codes for Capacitors

Letter symbol Tolerance—%
B ±0.10
C ±0.25
D ±0.5
E ±0.5
F ±1
G ±2
H ±3
J ±5
K ±10
M ±20
N ±0.05
P +100–0
Z +80–20
Not all capacitors are marked with a tolerance code. A tolerance of ±10 percent
means that the value is somewhere in the range of 10 percent higher or lower than
the stated value.

Temperature Coefficients
A capacitor’s performance can vary with the operating temperature.
Capacitors are sometimes marked with a temperature coefficient, usually
given as parts per million (ppm)/°C. The temperature coefficient of (100
ppm/°C) is equivalent to .01 percent/°C.
Temperature coefficients are also usually assigned a negative or positive
value. A positive temperature coefficient means that there is a positive corre-
lation between the temperature and capacitance; in other words, an increase
in temperature increases the capacitance and a decrease in temperature
decreases the capacitance. A negative temperature coefficient means that
the capacitance decreases when the temperature increases and vice versa.
There is a negative correlation between the temperature and capacitance.
Breakdown Voltage or DC Working Voltage

At certain voltages, capacitors can break down. The electric fields
formed can make the dielectric fields conductive, resulting in the ca-
pacitor being unable to hold a charge. The peak operating voltages for
proper long-term operation of capacitors are given as the direct current
working voltage (DCWV). Another value that may be given is the surge
voltage, which is the peak voltage that a capacitor can withstand for
temporary surges or drops. Usually, the higher the resistance value, the
lower the working voltage is.
Polarized Capacitor Types

Some capacitors are designed to be operated in just one direction in a
circuit. They usually can only be used in a circuit with direct current (DC)
and will break down if improperly inserted.
FIGURE 8.4 Circuit diagram symbol for a polarized capacitor.

Capacitors • 107
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are a type of polarized capacitor that uses an ion-
ized conductive liquid as one of the conductive layers or plates. An alumi-
num electrolytic capacitor is made of two layers of aluminum foil, with one
of the layers covered in a thin film of oxide separated by a paper insulator
soaked in an electrolyte solution. The coated layer and the soaked paper in-
sulator form a cathode (from which electrons flow), whereas the non-coated
layer acts as the anode (into which electrons flow).
An anode is an electrode that current flows into. A cathode is an electrode

that current flows out of. Some common mnemonics to help remember
DEFINITION
these terms are ACID (Anode Current Into Device) for anode and CCD
(Cathode Current Departs) for cathode.
Electrolytic capacitors provide a higher capacitance than non-polarized
dielectric capacitors (especially in relation to their volume), but they have
a lower breakdown voltage and life span. Electrolytic capacitors are pri-
marily used in higher voltage situations, such as power smoothing and AC
applications.
Tantalum Capacitors
A tantalum capacitor is a specific type of electrolytic capacitor. The tan-
talum capacitor was developed by researchers seeking a more stable ca-
pacitor that has still a high capacitance relative to its volume. Tantalum (a
lustrous metal element) powder is formed into a pellet and coated in an
oxide layer. Then a conductive material or an electrolytic solution “plate”
surrounds the pellet and the oxide layer. The result is a polarized capacitor
that has a high capacitance with higher breakdown voltages and a potential
life span of decades.
Tantalum resistors are used in many compact devices or in situa-
tions where long-term reliability under high-temperature conductions is
necessary.
Non-polarized Capacitor Types

There are many types of non-polarized capacitors created for various uses
and operating environments. The dielectric materials used depend on factors

FIGURE 8.5 Circuit diagram symbol for a non-polarized capacitor.
FIGURE 8.6 Circuit diagram symbol for a variable capacitor.
including voltage environments, cost, size, tolerance, and life span. The fol-
lowing table lists some common dielectric materials and their properties:
Dielectric Properties & Notes

Paper Used in high-voltage situations; being replaced by plastic-film capacitors
PET∗ film Used in high-voltage and high-temperature situations;
Polyethylene terephthalate has replaced most paper types
Polystyrene Good general use, slightly negative temperature coefficient;
only good for mid-temperature applications
Polypropylene One of the most popular general-purpose caps; more subject to damage
from voltage
Teflon (PTFE∗∗) Very reliable and high-temperature performance; downsides
Polytetrafluoroethylene are high cost and large size
Glass Very stable, very reliable; high cost
Variable Capacitors
Some capacitors can be adjusted to increase either the area between
the plates or the amount of overlap between the plates. Applications of vari-
able capacitors include digital tuners, sensors in industrial applications, and
capacitor microphones, which adjust their volume according to the effect
of sound on a diaphragm.

Capacitors • 109
Capacitors in a Circuit
Unlike with resistors, when you combine capacitors in a series circuit,
the sum of the capacitance is less than the capacitance of the individual ca-
pacitors. The formula used to calculate capacitance in a series is shown here
(note that this is the same formula used for resistors in parallel).
When you combine capacitors in parallel, the total capacitance is the
sum of the individual capacitances. Again, this is the opposite of the behav-
ior of resistors in parallel.
When a circuit first has current flowing through it, a capacitor has not
yet charged. A capacitor will let current flow through as it charges. A fully
discharged capacitor acts as a short circuit; there is no voltage drop as the
current flows.
When a capacitor is fully charged, the voltage of the capacitor matches
the source voltage and current will not flow. In other words, a fully charged
capacitor acts as an open circuit.
Transient Time of Capacitors in a DC RC Circuit

For a capacitor to function in a circuit, it requires some resistance pro-
vided either by a resistor or a load in addition to the power supply. To de-
scribe the action of a capacitor, we consider it as part of a simple DC circuit
called an RC (resistor-capacitor) circuit.
The time between when a capacitor is fully discharged to when it’s fully
charged (or fully charged to fully discharged) is called the transient time.
The charging process isn’t steady; when the switch is first closed to start
the flow of current, there is an initial burst of charging and then a slower
increase until the capacitor is said to be fully charged. The time it takes to
charge/discharge is calculated by determining the time constant.
FIGURE 8.7 Calculating capacitance in series, where CT represents the total capacitance and C1, C2, and so
on represent the first and the second capacitors in the series.
FIGURE 8.8 Calculating capacitance in parallel.

FIGURE 8.9 The transient time from zero to approximately fully charged.
The time constant (symbolized by •) is determined by the resistance

and the capacitance in a circuit. The formula is • = R × C, where R is the
resistance given in ohms (Ω) and C is capacitance given in farads (F).
In the first time constant of charging, the capacitor is charged to ap-
proximately 63 percent. During each time constant, it moves closer to being
fully charged. Please see the chart in Figure 8.9.
You can see that it takes five time constants to reach close to a full
charge. This is an approximate value because the capacitor never approach-
es being fully charged or fully discharged.
It continues to increase ever so slightly toward a charge of 100 percent
or 0 percent when discharging, but for almost all purposes, five time con-
stants will bring the capacitor to a steady state (either fully charged or fully
discharged).
The increase in voltage across the capacitor as it goes from 0V to the
source voltage value and then discharging back to zero can be graphed as a
curve known as an exponential curve.
Lab 8-1: Charging Capacitance

In this lab, you use a resistor and an LED to show the charging of a capacitor.

Capacitors • 111
LAB FIGURE 8.1 Charging a capacitor.
Materials:
9V battery
Breadboard
1 470Ω resistor (yellow violet brown)
1 220μF electrolytic capacitor (or cap)
1 red light-emitting diode (LED)
Jumper wire
Instructions:
1. Place the components on the breadboard as indicated on the diagram.
Note that the resistor doesn’t have polarity so it can be connected to
the breadboard in either direction. The LED needs to be connected to
the resistor on its positive lead. (Note: The flat side of the LED is the –
side.)
2. Connect the capacitor at its positive lead. (Note: The cap has + and –
marked, and the longer lead is +.)
3. Connect the jumper wires to the battery. The LED lights up for about
one second, then slowly dims. This is the capacitor charging. To repeat
the lab, first disconnect the battery, then discharge the capacitor by
touching a jumper wire between the two leads of the capacitor. Then
start again.

nn Capacitors store charge. Capacitance is measured in farads.

nn When working with capacitors, you should always assume that the ca-
pacitor is fully charged and could potentially cause injury or damage the
circuit and its components.
nn Capacitors are of two conductive plates with an insulating layer, called
the dielectric, between them. The type of material used for the dielec-
tric affects the capacitance.
nn Capacitors are either in the steady state (fully charged or fully dis-
charged) or are in the transient state. You can determine the charging
(or discharging) time if you know the current and the resistance in the
circuit.
1. In a capacitor, the area where an electric field is held is called the
.
2. is the storage capacity of a capacitor.
3. True/ False. If there is a voltage drop in a circuit, the capacitor will
push electrons toward the direction of the source voltage, acting as a
voltage source.
4. If there is a/an in voltage from the voltage source, the
capacitor will resist that change by storing the excess electrons up to its
rated capacitance.
5. Rank these 3 materials by increasing relative permittivity: air, glass,
hard rubber. , , .
6. If a capacitor has a code of 453D, the nominal value is .
7. The same capacitor has a tolerance of .
8. A capacitor is designed to operate in just one direction in
a circuit.
9. True/ False. When you combine capacitors in parallel, the total capaci-
tance is the sum of the individual capacitances.
10. The time between when a capacitor is fully discharged to when it is
fully charged is called the time.

CHAPTER
9
DIODES
In This Chapter
●● Using diodes to allow current to flow in a single direction
●● Classifying diodes by their voltage drop, peak inverse voltage, and
recovery time
●● Distinguishing between P-N diodes, Zener diodes, Schottky diodes,
light-emitting diodes, and photodiodes
●● Using diodes as power rectifiers
D
iodes are components that permit electricity to flow in a single
direction and act against its flow in the opposite direction. They
have two terminals: a positive terminal, also called an anode, and a
negative terminal, or cathode. While this seems like a pretty basic function,
diodes have been used to do some revolutionary things.
Diodes are the technology that made early radio transmission and re-
ception possible. They are essential in converting alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC). They prevent damage to electronics from high volt-
ages. The use of diodes to create logic gates makes possible the computa-
tions that are the backbone of computers. Your digital camera’s flash de-
pends on diodes. All of these functions are based on the ability of a diode to
determine when to let current through, when to block current, and when it
will send a big jolt of current back through a circuit.

Diodes are primarily used in small-signal applications (1A or less) and

to convert AC to DC power, a process called power rectification. Diode ar-
rangements for power rectification are usually referred to as rectifiers.
Diodes can also be used to protect against spikes or other power fluctu-
ations that may cause a reverse current. When used in this capacity, diodes
are called transient protectors.
Another common use of diodes is as reverse polarity detectors in elec-
tronic devices to protect the devices against connecting to a power supply
in which the polarity reversed.
How Diodes Work

Most diodes are constructed by stacking a P-type semiconductor, which
is positively charged; a boundary (or depletion) region called a P-N junc-
tion, that is neutrally charged; and an N-type semiconductor, that is nega-
tively charged. This creates a valve-like component that conducts current in
a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side (called
the cathode), but not in the opposite direction.
Although the comparison is far from perfect, it might be helpful to

think of diodes as the electronic equivalent of check valves, which
are plumbing fixtures that allow water to flow in just one direction.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE Most modern diodes are made using semiconductors, but for
some high-voltage situations, a vacuum tube is used instead.
Before the diode can function properly, it first needs to be “turned on.”
When current is first applied, there is a forward voltage drop that needs to
be overcome. This is the amount of current that is necessary before current
FIGURE 9.1 A semiconductor diode.

Diodes • 115
can pass through the diode. This forward voltage drop is .7V in diodes made
of silicon and .3V in germanium diodes.
Until this forward voltage drop is overcome, the diode acts as an insula-
tor (it doesn’t permit any current to pass through) even if it is of the correct
polarity. When the diode does overcome the forward voltage drop, it is then
“turned on” and only allows the passing through of current in one direction.
This direction is called the bias of the diode. The time it takes to overcome
the forward voltage drop is called the recovery time.
Bias refers to the direction of the voltage, either forward or reverse.

DEFINITION
The direction the current travels is determined by its polarity (its
positive or negative charge). Electrons flow from the positive to the
negative. The two terminals of the diode are labeled as “a” for the anode
(positive side) and “k” for cathode (negative side). The diode acts like a
one way valve to the flow of electric current. Current flowing from the
anode to cathode flows with ease, but current flowing from the cathode
to anode is blocked.
The word cathode is derived from the Greek kathodos, which means
descent or way down. This also is the reason for the abbreviation k.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
When the diode encounters current of the opposite polarity, the diode
acts as an insulator. It is this ability to block current in one direction and
allow it in the opposite direction that gives diodes so many uses.
A diode’s insulating effect is not limitless. It is subject to a peak inverse
voltage (PIV). This is the highest amount of voltage in the reverse bias the
diode can withstand before failing. This is like the amount of pressure that
the valve can stand before bursting. Once the PIV is exceeded, the number
of electrons can overwhelm the P-N junction. This is called breakdown.
Usually, breakdown occurs in higher values, typically 50V or more.
Be sure to pay close attention to your diode’s PIV rating to avoid
breakdown. In most cases, if breakdown occurs, the component con-
taining the diode and any other components on the circuit will be
HIGH VOLTAGE destroyed.

Types of Semiconductor Diodes

Which type of semiconductor is used in a diode and how the diode is
constructed determine its specific function in an electronic device. The fol-
lowing sections describe some common semiconductor diodes you might
encounter in various electronic devices.
Common Silicon Diodes

The most common types of diodes are silicon diodes, also called P-N
diodes. They are usually enclosed in a glass tube, with a stripe indicating
the cathode (negative) terminal. They have two leads, or wires, that connect
into the circuit.
Zener Diodes
A Zener diode depends on a precise PIV to act as a type of voltage-de-
pendent switch. These are sometimes called constant voltage diodes. When
the PIV is reached, current can travel in the reverse direction. It is a type
of avalanche diode, which is any kind of diode that depends on a surge in
voltage for the reverse current flow.
Zener diodes are used in surge protectors to protect against spikes.
They are usually used with a resistor to limit the current so the maximum
current parameters are not exceeded.
FIGURE 9.2 A silicon diode. The stripe indicates the location of the cathode within the glass tube.
FIGURE 9.3 The symbol for a diode on a circuit board diagram. It refers to any common diode; if a particular
diode construction is required, it will be represented by that specific symbol.

Diodes • 117
FIGURE 9.4 The symbol for a Zener diode on a circuit board diagram.
FIGURE 9.5 How Schottky diodes are constructed.
Clarence Zener (1905–1993), the American physicist for whom the
ener diode was named, was an innovator in many areas of applied phys-
Z
ics beyond his work with electronics. His colleague at Carnegie-Mellon,
Hubert Aaronson spoke very highly of his importance: “Zener is a rare,
strange genius. He’s an unbelievably talented innovator. He’s able to go in
to a fresh field, swiftly comprehend the central issues, address them as a
theoretical physicist in a simple but incisive way and make, in a matter of a
few months, important and useful contributions.”1
Schottky Diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed with a metal-semiconductor design. A
conducting metal and a metal-oxide film are attached to an n-type semicon-
ductor. This construction provides both a very low voltage drop (typically
between .15V and .45V) and a very fast recovery time.
Walter Schottky (1886–1976) was a German physicist at Siemens. Many
scientific achievements have been named after him, including the Schottky
effect, the Schottky barrier, Schottky contact, the Schottky anomaly, and
the Schottky diode.

FIGURE 9.6 The symbol for a Schottky diode on a circuit board diagram.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.7 Bridge rectifier arrangement.
Schottky diodes are often used as power rectifiers, but their proper-
ties also make them ideal components in radio-frequency circuits and other
specialty applications. In the supplemental files, please see Animation 9 to
see an animated bridge rectifier in action.
Power Rectifiers
As noted at the beginning of this chapter, diodes can be arranged to act
as AC-to-DC power rectifiers. A bridge rectifier is a type of rectifier con-
sisting of a series-parallel arrangement of diodes that ensure that only one
polarity of current is the output no matter the polarity of the input current.

Diodes • 119
This may seem like a very complicated construction, but if you want to
see how an AC-to-DC rectifier works, it is important to work through the
two images. In the first figure, during the positive half cycle of the AC wave,
the current flows through the white diodes (forward biased) and DC flows
out of the rectifier.
In the negative half cycle of the AC wave (second figure), the current
travels through the black diodes (reverse biased) and is returned through
the rectifier to the AC source instead of passing to the DC out. This means
that only current in the correct direction (DC) passes through the bridge
rectifier.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

An LED is a P-N junction diode constructed of materials that are
considered “direct band-gap materials.” In these specialized materials,
when the electrons combine with the holes, energy in the form of a pho-
ton is released. The type of semiconductor material used in the LED
determines the frequency or wavelength of the light emitted and thus
the color.
To produce white light, you can use a combination of other col-
ored LEDs or a phosphor coating. LEDs in the infrared spectrum are
used in many remote-control devices. LED lighting provides a very ef-
ficient source of light output per power input, especially in low-power
situations.
LEDs can be connected in series to power several LEDs off of one
power source. Connecting LEDs in parallel is usually not necessary be-
cause the same current required to power each LED in parallel could be
provided in series, whereas in a parallel arrangement, each LED would
need its own resistor.
FIGURE 9.8 The symbol for an LED diode on a circuit board diagram.

Photodiodes
A photodiode is a specialty diode that detects light. In other types of
diodes, the P-N junction area is usually shielded from light, so light energy
doesn’t interfere with the function of the diode. A photodiode is designed
to register light energy and so is not shielded from light.
Whenever you see the prefix photo-, you know it is about light. A
few other prefixes to keep in mind when working with electron-
ics vocabulary: hydro- relates to water; chrono- relates to time;
WATTAGE TO THE WISE chromo- relates to color; and tele- relates to a distance.
Photodiodes use a PIN structure (P-type semiconductor, I-type semi-

conductor, N-type semiconductor) or a NIP structure (N-type semiconduc-
tor, I-type semiconductor, P-type semiconductor). This forms a wider band
so the diode can detect longer light wavelengths.
An I-type semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor, meaning that it

is a material that has excited electrons even when no dopant is introduced;
DEFINITION
instead, the electrons are excited through thermal excitation or by crystalline
defect when a current is applied.
Photodiodes have many electronics applications, from optical storage
and retrieval to telecommunications and photography.
Handling Diodes
Handle diodes with care. It is usually a good idea to use your multime-
ter to test your diode to ensure that it is operating before soldering it into
your circuit.
Always pay attention to the polarity of the leads, as diodes function
correctly only when properly polarized. The positive lead (anode) may be
FIGURE 9.9 The symbol for a photodiode on a circuit board diagram.

Diodes • 121
labeled with an “a” and is slightly longer. The negative lead (cathode) may
be labeled with a “k” and is slightly shorter. As these differences are small
and usually require a magnifying lens to read, a better method of telling the
anode from the cathode is to look for the flat side of a round diode assem-
bly. The flattened side is the cathode. We recommend looking for at least
two of these three features before soldering.
As diodes are easily damaged by heat, extra care should be taken when
soldering them. It is usually a good idea to use a heat sink clipped to the
lead between the soldering joint and the diode body.

nn Diodes are electronic components that allow current to flow in a single
direction and resist the flow of current in the reverse direction.
nn Some key concepts to understand are voltage drop (the loss of voltage
that is required to “turn on” the diode), peak inverse voltage (PIV, the
highest amount of reverse voltage a diode can block), and breakdown
(the avalanche of reverse voltage that overtakes a diode after the PIV is
exceeded).
nn Most diodes are made using semiconductors and include P-N diodes,
Zener diodes, Schottky diodes, power rectifiers, light-emitting diodes,
and photodiodes. The type of semiconductor used determines its
function.
1. Most diodes are constructed with an P-type semiconductor, which is

charged; a boundary (or depletion) region called an P-N
junction, which is charged; and an N-type semiconductor,
which is charged.
2. The time required for a diode to overcome the forward voltage drop is
called the time.
3. The two terminals of the diode are the (a) and the
(k).
4. Common silicon diodes are also called .

5. A diode can block the opposite polarity and act as an insulator until the
is reached.
6. A diode (sometimes called constant voltage diodes) is
a type of avalanche diode that allows current to travel in the reverse
direction once PIV is reached.
7. True/ False. A power rectifier takes DC power in and sends AC power
out.
8. In LEDs, when electrons combine with the holes of specialized mate-
rial, energy in the form of are released.
9. An I-type semiconductor is a/an semiconductor, meaning
that it is a material that has excited electrons even when no dopant is
introduced.
10. When identifying the polarity of a diode you can use three methods,
identify two. and .

CHAPTER
10
TRANSISTORS
In This Chapter
●● Using transistors to amplify signals
●● Distinguishing between bipolar junction transistors and field effect
transistors
●● Applying voltage to transistors and the effects
●● Looking at specialized FETs developed for cutting-edge applications
A
transistor is an electronics component that amplifies signals or acts
as a switch in a circuit. Transistors enable us to control the amount of
current that flows through a circuit, diverting it or even reversing it.
When we talk about amplifying signals, we are talking about the

amount of power (voltage x current) that flows through a circuit.
Volume on a television or a stereo refers to the volume of elec-
trons moving through the circuitry of the device. More power
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
means more signal creating louder sounds.
Prior to the invention of the transistor in the first half of the twentieth
century, electronics were dependent on vacuum tubes, which were bulky,
expensive to produce, not very rugged, required a lot of power, and gave off
quite a bit of heat.

The invention of transistors led to the field of modern electronics

and made possible smaller and more powerful electronic devices be-
cause transistors require little power, don’t generate a lot of heat, and
are very reliable. Tiny transistors can be used in complicated integrated
circuits, making it possible to pack a lot of computing power in a small
package.
There are two main types of transistors: bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) and field effect transistors (FETs).
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

BJTs are basically two diodes put end to end. As you learned in Chapter
9, diodes allow the flow of current in only one direction. If the polarity is
properly matched, there is a small drop in voltage and the current passes
through. If the polarity is not matched, the diode stops the current (unless,
of course, it exceeds the peak inverse voltage and breakdown occurs). But
if a transistor is two diodes put end to end, you would think that each di-
ode would block current in the opposite direction, allowing neither to pass.
That isn’t the case.
So why doesn’t a transistor act as an insulator in both directions? As
with diodes, resistors have leads connecting to the collector (C) (which is
analogous to the anode on a diode) and the emitter (E) (which is analo-
gous to the cathode in a diode). Unlike diodes, transistors have a third lead,
called the base lead, which connects to the base (B). This base lead provides
a voltage, which changes everything. More on that in a bit; first, let’s take
a closer look at the two types of BJTs—PNP and NPN—and how they are
constructed.
The difference between PNP and NPN BJTs is the bias, which is the
direction of current that is allowed to pass.
In a PNP BJT, there are two positively charged regions—the collector
and the emitter—each with excess holes. The depletion region in between
the two is negatively charged in that it has excess electrons. The borders
between the regions are called junctions. The base-emitter junction is re-
verse-biased, and the base collection junction is forward-biased. A small
voltage is applied to the base region.

Transistors • 125
In an NPN BJT, there are two negatively charged regions—the collec-

tor and the emitter—each with excess electrons. The depletion region is
positively charged in that it has excess holes. In an NPN BJT, the base-emit-
ter junction is forward-biased, and the base collection junction is reverse-
biased. A small voltage is applied to the base region.
How Amplifiers Work

What does the addition of a voltage at the base of NPN and PNP BJTs
accomplish? Let’s look at the operation of an NPN BJT as an example.
Voltages are applied at the collector end and to the base. If the current
is of the same polarity— negative in our case—it will pass through. Elec-
trons flow by combining with the holes, but as they move, new holes open
up behind them. While an n-type semiconductor has excess electrons, holes
are still being created, pulling in more elections to combine. The overall
polarity remains negative (because in an NPN, the two negatively charged
regions are the majority carrier), but holes are still being created (in the
positive region known as the minority carrier in a NPN). When current
moves in the same direction as the majority carrier, current passes through
and the depletion zone is made very thin, allowing an even faster transmis-
sion of electrons.
The base voltage acts like a pump in that it moves some electrons from
the emitter region into the base circuit, leaving behind holes in the base
region. The pumping action increases the voltage across the base-emitter
junction. This creates a greater push through the majority carrier from col-
lector to base and on to the emitter, which increases the overall voltage
(which acts as a push) and amplifies the current that can travel through the
transistor.
In BJTs, a small voltage applied to the base lead creates a much
larger current (an exponential increase) flowing from the collector an-
ode (+) to the emitter cathode (-). The emitter cathode is usually shown
by an arrow on the component diagram. Notice that the direction of the
arrow indicates whether the transistor is PNP or NPN and indicates the
direction of current flow. PNPs are reverse-biased. NPNs are forward-
biased.

FIGURE 10.1 Circuit diagram symbols for an PNP BJT and an NPN BJT.
BJTs Under Varying Voltages

A transistor’s functions depend on the voltages applied and the polarity
of the current. The following formulas show the function of the transistor in
various scenarios. The subscripts refer to the base (VB), the collector (VC),
and the emitter (VE).
If VE < VB < VC, then the transistor acts as an amplifier.
If VE < VB > VC, then the transistor is a conductor.
If VC > VB < VE, then the transistor is an open switch and cuts off
the flow.
Think of positive voltages as being greater than zero, or +V > 0,

and negative voltages as being less than zero, or –V < 0. This will
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
make working through these formulas easier.

Transistors • 127
Gain
The amplification effect in a transistor is called a gain. The equation
representing the gain is:
Voltage gain = VOUT / VIN.
The gain is represented by βFE or by hFE. There is a proportional rela-
tionship between the gain and the base current, represented as
βFE = IC / IB.
That is, the gain in current over a transistor is the current at the collec-
tor divided by the current at the base.
Amplifiers, gains, transistors—are we talking rock and roll here?

Well, yes, we are. Anyone who knows what a Marshall stack is
should be familiar with all of these terms.
Electric guitars, effects pedals, and their amps (yes, amplifiers)
are all electronic equipment. To be a true guitar gearhead, you
need to have electronics chops. From the warm, buzzy sound of
a vacuum tube amp to custom digital effects, pulling out your
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
soldering iron can be a critical step in achieving your signature
sound. There are tons of online resources for the musician/elec-
tronics hobbyist.
Some of you may be taking an electronics course or learning the
basics so you can build, repair, or modify your equipment. To this
we say, “Rock on!”
Darlington Pairs
Darlington pairs are two transistors sold as one with the leads arranged
as if they are a single unit. This arrangement allows for much more signifi-
cant amplification and is used in situations where gains in the order of 1,000
are called for.
Field Effect Transistors

FETs have four terminals or leads: gate, drain, source, and body. The
body is the substrate of the transistor; the gate is analogous to the base on

FIGURE 10.2 Darlington pairs.
FIGURE 10.3 N-type FET.
a BJT-type transistor; the drain functions the same as a BJT collector; and
the source does the same work as a BJT emitter.
The gate opens and shuts depending on the voltage applied. The source
to drain area is the channel through which current travels when the gate
allows connection between the two areas. There are two general types of
FETs: enhancement or depletion mode. These modes are further catego-
rized by their bias (n-type or p-type). Further classification is made based

Transistors • 129
FIGURE 10.4 The circuit diagram symbols for MOSFETs.
on the materials used or by the transistor’s function. MOSFET is a metal-

oxide-semiconductor FET that is used in digital logic gates.
There are many other FETs adapted for use in particular applications. For
example, an ISFET is an ion-sensitive FET; it is used for detecting ions in solu-
tion. An EOSFET uses an electrolyte-oxide semiconductor to detect brain ac-
tivity. Other cutting-edge FET types include CNTFETs, used in cutting edge
quantum computer research, and DNAFETs, used in DNA sequencing.
Lab 10-1: Using a Transistor to Amplify Current

To see a transistor in action, let’s see if we can overcome the very sig-
nificant resistance offered by the human body when it is put between a 9V
power source and an LED requiring 20mA (.020A) of current to operate.
LAB FIGURE 10.1 A transistor circuit to amplify current.

Materials:
1 9V battery
Breadboard
1 2N2222 NPN transistor
1 red LED
1Ω resistor (green blue brown)
Jumper wire
Instructions:
1. Connect the components as shown in the diagram.
2. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current provided by the circuit with-
out the use of a transistor. The resistance of the human body when
dry is around 100,000Ω. The LED has a voltage drop of 2V. So I = (9–
2)/100,000 + 390 (I = V / R). I = .00007A (.7mA).
3. The LED requires 20mA of current to light, so without an amplification
of current we wouldn’t be able to light the LED.
4. Touch the two leads, each in one hand.
5. Even with the addition of your body’s resistance to the circuit, the lamp
will light due to the transistor amplifying the current to the required
20mA.

nn Transistors are one of the key inventions that powered the development
of modern electronics.
nn Transistors are used to amplify current. The amplification effect is called
gain.
nn Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are basically two diodes placed end to
end; it is the addition of a voltage at the base that makes a transistor into
an amplifier. The key parts are the collector, the emitter, and the base.

Transistors • 131
nn Field effect transistors (FETs) have four key parts: the body, the gate,
the source, and the drain.
nn There are many specialized FETs used in medical, chemical, and quan-
tum computing applications
1. Transistors made possible the replacement of __________ __________

leading to the development of smaller and powerful electronic devices.
2. BJTs are basically two __________ put end to end.
3. The three leads on a BJT are connect to the __________, the
__________, and the __________.
4. The difference between PNP and NPN BJTs is the __________, which
is the direction of current which is allowed to pass.
5. True/ False. In a PNP BJT, the depletion region between the two posi-
tively charged regions is negatively charged in that it has an excess of
holes.
6. PNPs are __________-biased and NPN are __________-biased.
7. If VE < VB < VC, then the transistor acts as a/an __________.
8. If VE < VB > VC, then the transistor is a/an __________.
9. If VC > VB < VE, then the transistor is a/an __________ __________
and cuts off the flow.
10. Field effect transistors (FETs) have four key parts: the _______, the
__________, the __________, and the __________.

CHAPTER
11
POWER SOURCES AND
POWER SUPPLIES
In This Chapter
●● Making sense of the many different types of power sources and
supplies
●● Creating a chemical reaction in a voltaic cell to produce energy
●● Turning electricity from a main power source into usable power
●● Getting acquainted with specialized power supplies
T
his chapter is all about power—specifically, power sources and pow-
er supplies. Although the two terms sound quite similar, they have
distinct meanings.
A power source provides electricity. In electronics, we work with two
primary power sources: direct current (DC) voltage from stand-alone bat-
teries and alternating current (AC) power, also called AC mains, provided
by the electric utilities. Each of these sources can provide electricity to a
power supply.
A power supply is the power source in a circuit for a particular electronic
device, whether that source is a battery, a power outlet, or a small circuit that
adapts power from an outlet to the appropriate voltage needed for the device.

Batteries
Batteries—from the tablet-sized cells that power our watches and cell
phones to the large units in our cars—are stand-alone power sources that
don’t rely on electricity from wall outlets.
Instead, they produce electrical energy through a chemical reaction.
How Batteries Produce Energy

A battery consists of one or more voltaic cells. Voltaic cells usually
consist of two half cells, each with an electrode surrounded by electro-
lyte and separated by a separator. The separator allows for the move-
ment of ions, but not the mixing of materials, between the electrodes
FIGURE 11.1 The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram.
FIGURE 11.2 A battery.

or the electrolyte. In the course of the chemical interaction (called a

reduction and oxidation chemical reaction) between the electrolytes in
the two half cells, the charged ions are constantly moving until the reac-
tions between the two electrodes are completed, equilibrium is reached,
and a battery is created.
To function as a power source, an external connection to a circuit
is made between the two electrodes. Negatively charged ions travel
through the electrolyte to the negative electrode and positively charged
ions travel through the electrolyte to the positive electrode. The move-
ment of ions creates an electrical potential difference in energy be-
tween the two electrodes; this potential difference is the voltage. One
of the electrodes is a positive terminal and the other is a negative ter-
minal. When connected to a circuit, the voltage pushes current from
the negative terminal through the circuit and returns to the positive
terminal.
Primary vs. Secondary Batteries

Batteries that are designed to produce energy until the chemical reac-
tion is depleted are called primary batteries. Once primary batteries lose
their charge, they cannot be recharged to produce more energy.
Batteries that can be recharged are called secondary batteries. Second-
ary batteries can be recharged by introducing a reverse voltage into the
cells. For example, a car battery can be recharged through the alternator
as it runs, and rechargeable AA batteries can be recharged through their
recharging station plugged in to a household outlet. The ability to recharge
a secondary battery isn’t limitless; eventually the ability for the battery to
achieve full charge diminishes.
Many portable electronic devices use rechargeable dry cell batteries.
These are made with a paste instead of a liquid electrolyte. One common
dry cell rechargeable battery construction is the lithium ion type.
The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) is credited with cre-
ating the first working electrochemical voltaic cell. He was made a count
by Napoleon in 1910, and the Voltian Temple was created in his honor in a
museum in Como, Italy.

Voltages in Batteries
Each cell in most common battery types produces 1.3 to 3V, but across
most battery types, the voltage is usually 1.5V. The chemical construction of
each cell determines its voltage. This is why some battery types are not inter-
changeable in different applications. For instance, because rechargeable AA
batteries made with nickel cadmium produce 1.25V and alkaline AA batter-
ies produce 1.5V, they cannot be used together to power an electronic device.
Multiple cells are often contained in a battery to produce different volt-
ages. When you see a 9V battery, think of it as having six cells (6 × 1.5V = 9V).
Lab 11-1: Making a Potato Battery

Although building a potato battery is admittedly low-tech, it shows you
that the chemical reactions that create electrical current are to be found
everywhere around us.
Materials:
Digital multimeter (DMM)
Clip leads
1 potato
1 dime
1 penny
Instructions:
1. Push the edge of the dime halfway into the potato.
2. In a spot about 2 inches away from the dime, push the edge of the
penny halfway into the potato.
3. Connect the probe leads to your meter: black to COM and red to VΩ.
4. Attach the clip leads to the meter probes.
5. Clip the lead that is attached to the COM or black probe to the penny.
6. Clip the lead that is attached to the VΩ or red probe to the dime.
7. Move the dial to V DC. The DMM should register a very low voltage
reading. You have just made a battery.

LAB FIGURE 11.1 A potato battery.
FIGURE 11.3 Batteries in parallel. You can see that the resistance of each battery, .2Ω each, is reduced by
this arrangement to an overall resistance of just .04Ω. The voltage overall is not increased, it remains at 2.2V.
Batteries in Series and in Parallel

To obtain higher voltages than a single battery can provide, you can
connect multiple batteries in series. Three batteries stacked in a standard
flashlight are in series; together they provide more voltage than each indi-
vidual battery can.
A parallel arrangement of batteries does not provide increased volt-
age. However, when batteries are connected in parallel, they reduce the
resistance of the batteries; this reduced resistance results in an increase in
the overall current. Generally, the larger the battery is, the larger the resis-
tance. You can see parallel battery arrangements in many older electronics,
such as portable radios.

Amp-hours
Batteries are usually categorized by their voltage, but they are also cat-
egorized by their amp-hours (AH). An amp-hour is a unit of energy capac-
ity; it is equal to the amount of continuous current in amps per hour that
a battery can provide before depletion. You will also see energy capacity
described in milliamp-hours (mAH).
The discharge time for a battery depends on the load on the circuit.
Lighter loads take longer to discharge than higher loads. The ratings given
by battery manufacturers vary according to operating conditions (tempera-
ture, age of the battery, amount of heat lost to resistance in a circuit, and
so on), but you can get the approximate hours of operation by dividing the
amp-hour rating by the continuous current (in amps).
Several types of nonchemical batteries, including solar cells and

fuel cells, have been developed. Solar cells collect electrons that
are dislodged from a semiconductor by the action of the pho-
toelectric effect. Fuel cells collect the energy released by the
oxidation of chemicals outside of the cell, such as hydrogen and
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
oxygen. Both of these technologies produce long-lasting voltaic
cells without the harmful waste products associated with metal/
acid batteries.
AC-to-DC Power Supplies

Very few items in a typical household run directly on the AC power pro-
vided from the outlet. Usually, only motorized high-power appliances such
as refrigerators and washing machines are designed to run on AC. Most
everything else converts the current into DC.
Power supplies connect via a power cord to the AC mains. The power
supply then goes through the following steps to produce the DC at the right
voltage to power the appliance:
1. The transformer steps down (reduces) the high-voltage AC to low-

voltage AC.
2. A rectifier converts AC power to DC power.
3. The DC wave is smoothed as close to a straight-line wave as possible.

FIGURE 11.4 The process of turning AC to DC power.
4. The voltage is regulated to maintain a constant voltage.

If you look around at the various power cords in your home or office,
you might see what is commonly called a wall wart or an AC adapter; each
of these have a transformer, rectifier, some smoothing of current, and a
regulator. Your cell phone, computer, and stereo system each have their
own power supply.
Transformers
As noted in the preceding section, transformers reduce or increase AC
voltage. They do this through the operation of mutual induction. A trans-
former consists of two coils (also called windings) separated by a laminated
iron core. AC power is applied to the first coil, creating an electromagnetic
field in the core. A secondary current is transferred to the second coil.

The secondary current isn’t conducted across the core, however, in-
stead, it is induced through electromagnetism.
Induction is the production of a voltage by passing a conductor moving

DEFINITION through a magnetic field.
Each coil has a certain number of turns, and the ratio between the
number of turns of each coil determines the voltage induced in each coil.
If we call the voltage in the primary coil VP, the number of turns in the pri-
mary coil NP, the voltage in the secondary coil VS, and the number of turns
in the secondary coil NS, then the ratio is VS/VP = NX/NP. If the number of
turns in the primary coil is more than the number of turns in the second-
ary coil, the voltage is reduced, or stepped down, across the transformer. A
transformer can also “step up” or increase the voltage if the number of turns
in the secondary coil is more than the number of turns in the primary coil.
FIGURE 11.5 Diagram of a transformer.
FIGURE 11.6 The symbol for a transformer in a circuit diagram.

When a power supply is plugged into a wall outlet, it is draw-

ing power even when you aren’t using the device it powers. AC
is still drawn from the outlet and powering the conversion and
conditioning of the AC to DC. To conserve energy and save on
WATTAGE TO THE WISE your electric bill, unplug these power supplies or plug them into a
power strip that can be switched off when they are not in use.
Variable DC Power Supplies

For working on electronics projects, you will want either to buy or con-
struct a variable DC power supply. This is a power supply that connects to
the wall outlet and allows you to choose an output DC voltage.
There are also power supplies with variable current (both AC and DC)
and voltage; some allow you to test power draws of various devices. The rule
of thumb is that the more control you have, the more expensive the variable
power supply will be.
You will learn how to construct your own variable DC power supply in
Chapter 13.
Uninterruptible Power Supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a power supply that draws
power from two sources (AC and battery) to provide power and charge the
battery. If there is an interruption to the AC power, the battery switches
over to be the power source. Usually used in computer situations, the bat-
tery has charge sufficient to give the operator the opportunity to shut down
the computer safely so that there is no data loss or damage to the system.
The difference between an UPS and a backup generator is the near-
instantaneous switch between power sources. This is essential in situations
where there is a threat of data loss or other damage with power loss.
Switched-Mode Power Supplies

Primarily used in computers, a switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
takes the AC mains power and provides power at different levels to the vari-
ous voltages needed for the circuits in a computer.

SMPS constantly switches very quickly between on and off, using this rap-
id switching to manage the various voltages in a computer instead of having
specified voltage levels constantly delivered as in so-called “linear” methods.
SMPSs are much more complex than other power supplies, but they
are also more efficient. They are able to provide high current for modern
computer processing units (CPUs) and can handle a greater range of input
and output voltages. An added benefit of SMPSs is that they are less likely
to draw power when switched off.

■■ AC mains power and DC from a power supply are the two power
sources for electronics.
■■ Batteries operate without reliance on AC mains power. Electrical
energy is produced by a chemical reaction in a voltaic cell. There are
two types of batteries: primary, which deplete, and secondary, which are
rechargeable.
■■ Power supplies take electrical energy from a mains power source and
condition it to meet the requirements of a device. Most electronic de-
vices need DC at lower voltages than the mains source does.
■■ Variable DC power supplies are a useful tool for working with projects
requiring different output DC voltages.
■■ Uninterruptible power supplies provide power from one of two sources:
from AC mains while power is available and via a rechargeable DC bat-
tery when there are power interruptions.
■■ Switched-mode power supplies provide active power management
instead of linear power management. They are used to supply power to
personal computers.
1. True/False. Power sources are not the same as power supplies.

2. Batteries produce electrical energy through a/an
reaction.

3. A typical voltaic cell of a battery consists of two

, each with an electrode surrounded by
and separated by a/an .
4. Batteries that are designed to produce energy until the chemical reac-
tion is depleted are called batteries. Batteries that can
be recharged are called batteries.
5. Contrast the effect on a circuit from batteries arranged in series
versus batteries arranged in parallel.
6. A/an is a unit of energy capacity equal to the amount

of continuous current in amps per hour that a battery can provide be-
fore depletion.
7. Power supplies typically go through four types of circuits in adapting
AC mains power to a regulated 5V DC. They are the Transformer,
, Smoothing, and Regulator.
8. Transformers reduce or increase AC voltage through the operation of a
mutual .
9. Describe what an uninterruptible power supply does.
10. True/False. A SMPS provides constant levels of voltage to all parts of

complicated electronics like computers.

4
PART
GETTING TO WORK
N
ow that you have a grasp of the major electronics components, it’s
time to learn how to connect them together in a circuit. But to do
that, you need to know how to use a soldering iron and solder.
This part also explains the different types of power sources, from potato
batteries to more practical power supplies you can use in your projects. By
the time you’re done with this part, you’ll have made your own direct cur-
rent (DC) variable power supply.

CHAPTER
12
SOLDERING
In This Chapter
●● Connecting parts of a circuit with solder
●● Getting acquainted with your soldering iron
●● Using flux to prevent oxidation and improve the solder connection
●● Working with circuit boards
●● Desoldering poorly executed joints
S
oldering is an ancient art, dating back to at least ancient Egypt, where
soldering was used in creating jewelry. It is the use of a material (sol-
der) to create a joint. For electronics, the process is specifically used
to create joints that allow for the conductivity of electricity and to protect
against water movement through a joint. It is done by applying a melted
layer of filler material (solder) to bridge the joint. Unlike welding, which
melts the base metals to combine the two components being joined, solder-
ing melts only the solder that forms the joint between components.
Soldering is used in a number of non-electronic applications, including
plumbing, jewelry making, creating the separation between colored glasses
in stained glass, and attaching flashing on roofs. Each of these applications
has different requirements with regard to the type of solder and flux used
and the temperature needed to make the joint. Some tools and techniques
overlap among the various soldering applications, but soldering in electron-
ics has particular requirements to achieve optimum results.

Solder
Solder is a wire-shaped alloy sold in spools. The most commonly used
solder in electronics is a 60/40 alloy of tin and lead, which has a melting
range of 183° to 190°C (361–374°F).
An alloy is a combination of two metals. Different alloys have different

DEFINITION
melting ranges.
The 60/40 tin/lead alloy is close to what is called a eutectic alloy, a type
of alloy that has a single melting point rather than a range. (A true eutectic
alloy has a 63/47 tin/lead combination.) The smaller the melting range, the
easier it is to solder a joint, as the solder changes from liquid to solid very
quickly rather slowly solidifying as the temperature decreases.
The metric system is the common language of electronics world-

wide. Familiarity with the metric systems translates into a more
efficient use of your time (no need to convert from metric to im-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE perial units) plus fewer errors while working in your shop.
FIGURE 12.1 A spool of solder.

Soldering • 149
Instead of converting metric units into imperial units (Fahren-

heit, ounces, or miles), embrace the metric world so the values
have meaning to you independently of their imperial conversions.
If you use the units of metric measurement regularly, they will
become second nature. Sticking with metric temperature units is
particularly time saving because the conversion between Celsius
(C) and degrees Fahrenheit (F) temperatures involves two steps:
readjusting to zero, and then applying the ratio between them.
That’s a lot of math!
Lead-free Solder
Increasingly, governments around the world are prohibiting the use of
lead in the manufacture of electronics because of the negative health con-
sequences associated with lead ingestion. Lead can also damage the envi-
ronment when it is released into the environment in the manufacture or in
the recycling of electronics.
Manufacturers are quickly moving to lead-free soldering, and even
hobbyists should prepare for the eventual phase-out of lead alloys. Because
most lead-free solders are even less eutectic than our 60/40 tin/lead stan-
dard, they require better technique to form a good solder joint.
Flux
In soldering, flux is a compound that prepares a surface base metal
so that it can be joined efficiently with solder. It is often said that flux is a
cleaning agent to prepare components for soldering, but it doesn’t clean
dirt and grime. Instead, it reduces oxides to prevent oxidation during the
soldering process. When heat is applied to copper, oxidation often occurs,
preventing the formation of a good solder joint. Flux prevents the oxidation
process.
Flux also assists in wetting, which is the process of reducing the surface
tension of the base metal so that the liquid solder can make better contact
with it. To get a better sense of wetting, think of a bead of water on a newly
waxed car. The water forms a bead because of the greater surface tension
of the waxed surface; in other words, the water does not make good contact
with the surface. Flux prevents beading of solder, enabling the solder to
adhere as a flat droplet instead of an angled bead.

FIGURE 12.2 Flux improves wetting by decreasing surface tension.
FIGURE 12.3 A flux bottle and liquid soldering flux.
Solder is often sold already combined with flux, in the form of rosin-
cored or flux-cored solder. This is often all the flux you need in a basic
printed circuit board (PCB) solder. If you are working with surface-mount
soldering, you may also want to prepare the surface of the PCB and the
component itself with additional liquid flux.
Rosin is a pine tree resin that has been used as flux for many hundreds of
DEFINITION years for its ability to reduce friction.
Soldering Iron and Tips

The type of soldering iron we recommend (see Chapter 4) has variable
power but no temperature control. Generally, if you’re just starting out in

Soldering • 151
electronics, you should look for a relatively low-power unit (25–50W) that
can accept a variety of tips and comes equipped with a stand and an on/off
indicator light. Our iron also has a place for a sponge for wiping off any sol-
der residue after each use. If yours doesn’t come with a sponge, you’ll need
to buy one and keep it on hand when soldering.
You will also want at least two different types of tips: one with a flat
head much like a screwdriver (this is the one that will come with your iron)
and one with a fine point. Tips are usually made of a copper core because
of copper’s conductivity. The tips are then covered with iron, chrome, and
nickel to provide hardness and better high-temperature performance.
Read the manual that comes with your iron before beginning to use it to
find out how to properly attach your tips and other advice operating the iron.
FIGURE 12.4 Soldering iron.
FIGURE 12.5 YouÕll want a flat-head tip (left) and a fine-point tip (right) for your soldering iron.

Heat Sink
A heat sink is used to protect heat-sensitive components from damage
during the soldering process. Basically, it is a piece of metal that increases
the surface area available for the release of excess heat. As we discussed in
Chapter 4, there is a specific electronics tool called a heat sink, but you can
also use alligator clips for this purpose.
Circuit Boards
The type of circuit board you use to construct your circuits depends
on how permanent of a project you are creating. When you’re doing quick
labs or constructing test circuits and plan to reuse the board, a breadboard
is the best choice because it enables you to experiment without making
permanent connections.
FIGURE 12.6 Using a heat sink.
FIGURE 12.7 A breadboard.

Soldering • 153
For more permanent construction, you can work with stripboard or

perfboard, two inexpensive boards that are available from any hobbyist
shop. On these boards, you make all of your connections through the cop-
per channels on the board. These boards work with through-hole methods
of connecting components; in other words, the leads go through the holes
of the board and are soldered to the conductive channels. Both sides of the
boards can be used.
Printed Circuit Boards

Alternatively, you can design and create your own printed circuit boards
(PCBs). PCBs use a layer of copper bonded to a substrate that is covered
with a nonconductive coating. The desired tracings (or conductive path-
ways) are etched through to the copper layer. You can print onto blank
PCBs or you can order a printed PCB from one of many online printing
services.
PCBs are available in both through-hole and surface-mount styles. The
connections are made with the copper traces (lines of copper connective)
on the board’s surface instead of connecting components through holes.
The printed areas include solder pads, which are designated solder points
for your components. Both sides of the board are available for printing.
FIGURE 12.8 Through-hole PCB.

FIGURE 12.9 Surface-mount PCB.
When you are repairing electronics, you will likely encounter only sur-
face-mount PCBs, so you’ll need to become comfortable soldering on these
types of boards.
Electronics manufacturers often use multilayer PCBs to connect
multiple circuits compactly. Because of the layered construction, it
is difficult to access the connections, effectively making most home
HIGH VOLTAGE repairs unfeasible.
Prepping for Soldering

Before beginning a soldering project, you must first prepare your work-
space and materials. In Chapter 5, you learned basic shop safety; take the
time to review the key points in that chapter. Make sure you have adequate
ventilation so the irritants in the flux and solder are diluted by fresh air. You
should have adequate room to work and to organize your equipment and
components.
Make sure that the components and the board you are using are clean.
Use a brass sponge (with no soap) to remove any waxy or oily substances.
Place the Items on the Board

Place the items you are soldering together on your board. With a
through-hole PCB, bend the lead so it makes a connection. For a surface-
mount PCB, carefully place the lead against the exposed copper tracer.

Soldering • 155
Surface mounts can be more difficult to work with because it’s not as
easy to keep the components in place while you are soldering them together.
One trick is to melt a bit of solder on the solder pad, place the component
before the solder cools, heat the component’s lead, and then apply more
solder. Prepping the areas to be soldered on the PCB with liquid flux prior
to soldering can be helpful as well, because the flux helps prevent solder
bridges (unintended joints) between part leads that are very close together.
Prepare Your Soldering Iron

Prep your soldering iron by following these steps:
1. Make sure your iron’s tip is clean and shiny. Know which part of the tip
is the proper work area.
2. Prepare your sponge by dampening it (not soaking it until it is dripping
wet).
3. Turn your iron on. Follow your manufacturer’s instructions for the
proper settings for the solder you are using.
4. Wipe the iron’s tip on the damp sponge and apply a bit of solder to the
tip to tin it. Tinning helps in the even heat transfer from your iron to
the solder, so even if your tip is pre-tinned, it’s a good idea to re-tin
every time you wipe the tip with the sponge. You can also buy tinner,
which is a dip-in product that cleans and tins tips.
HIGH VOLTAGE
Irons are hot! Follow these safety tips when soldering:
■■ Don’t touch a hot iron’s tip.
■■ Don’t leave a hot iron unattended.
■■ Don’t set a hot iron on anything but its stand.
■■ If you get burned, follow basic burn first aid.
■■ Wait until the iron has cooled completely before storing it.
■■ Know where your fire extinguisher is. Be sure it is rated for electrical
fires (Class C) and is up to date.
■■ Keep the iron’s power cord out of the way so you don’t risk tripping over it.

Soldering Technique
A steady hand is always your best tool. Hold your iron like a pen, with a
comfortable, relaxed grip. Then follow these steps:
1. If you are soldering a particularly heat-sensitive component (such as a

transistor), attach a heat sink to the lead.
2. Heat the connection you want to make, not the solder. Hold the con-
nection with the tip for a few seconds.
3. Apply a little solder and let it flow into a small volcano shape over the
connection.
4. Remove the solder, then slowly remove the iron, all while maintaining
a steady hand so as not to disrupt the joint.
5. Keep everything still as you inspect the joint. If it looks like it needs
more solder, repeat steps 2 through 5.
Don’t worry if you make a mistake. You can always remove the solder
and reapply it.
FIGURE 12.10 Examples of good and bad soldered joints.

Soldering • 157
Desoldering
If any solder joints are cracked, incompletely connected, or overlap
onto other components or traces, it’s best to start over, remove the solder (a
process called desoldering), and then try again.
Keep in mind that melted solder can cause severe burns. Always
wear protective eyewear, avoid loose clothing, and use caution when
soldering.
HIGH VOLTAGE Follow these steps for desoldering:
1. Clean the area around the solder joint. Again, steel wool should do the
job nicely.
2. Gather your tools: soldering iron, solder sucker, and soldering wick.
3. Heat the joint to melt the solder.
4. Depress the plunger on the solder sucker; when the solder melts, use
the solder sucker to take up the solder. This may be the only step you
need to take to remove all of the solder.
5. If there are bits of solder left, heat a portion of solder wick (enough
to hold the remaining solder) and place it on the remaining solder. It
should suck up the remaining solder.
6. Clean the area with steel wool to remove any remaining rosin or solder
bits.

■■ Soldering is an ancient technique of making connections.
■■ Most electronics solder is a 60/40 tin/lead solder.
■■ Flux is used to prevent oxidation and to improve the flow of the solder.

■■ There are specialized tools for soldering.

■■ If the joints are poorly executed, you can desolder the joint and retry the
solder.

Briefly describe what each of these tools/materials are:
1. Solder
2. Soldering iron
3. Heat sink
4. Flux
5. Rosin
6. Solder sucker
7. Solder wick
8. Breadboard
9. Tracing
10. PCB

CHAPTER
13
CONSTRUCTING A
POWER SUPPLY
In This Chapter
●● Building a variable direct current (DC) power supply from a kit
●● Studying the schematic
●● Producing various DC voltages
●● Troubleshooting common problems
A
variable power supply is an essential tool for any student of electron-
ics. You can buy one already assembled, but this chapter teaches you
how to construct one using a kit. Doing it yourself gives you hands-
on experience producing an electronics project using the tools you’ve gath-
ered and provides you with an opportunity to apply some of the concepts
you’ve learned up to this point.
Power Supply Kit and Construction

The power supply kit described in this chapter is from Jameco Elec-
tronics (www.jameco.com); the part number is 20626(JE215). The kit
comes with all necessary parts and a circuit board. Once it’s constructed,
you’ll have a general-use power supply that you can use in the projects and
labs covered in the rest of this book. You can purchase another variable DC
power supply pre-assembled, but by building your own (either with this kit

or another) you can practice your soldering skills and gain some hands-on
experience with the components in a power supply.
Basic kits generally range from $25 to $40.
Don’t worry if you have a different model or brand of power supply

kit. The same principles apply to all power supplies, so you should
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
be able to follow along with this chapter using any power supply.
Using the set of instructions that comes with the kit, assemble the pow-
er supply. If you accidentally break a part, you can order replacements (see
the instructions for details). But if you follow the instructions and use a heat
sink on the diodes, you shouldn’t have any problems.
The schematic (circuit diagram) and instructions that come with

your kit have lots of symbols and abbreviations. Each of the symbols
represents a different component, which we include in this chapter.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE Learning to use a schematic takes patience but no special talent.
This power supply uses household alternating current (AC) for its
power source. Household AC mains in the United States deliver
current at 120V; worldwide, the range is 100V to 250V. Serious
injury or even death can result from electric shock at these voltages.
HIGH VOLTAGE You should not be terrified of working around AC, but you need to
be alert and double-check everything you do.
FIGURE 13.1 The top of printed circuit board (PCB) diodes and the heat sink. Note the placement of the
diodes and how to apply the heat sink before soldering.

Constructing A Power Supply • 161
FIGURE 13.2 Bottom of the PCB. Note the leads and the copper traces and the first soldered joints in the
upper left side of the PCB.
FIGURE 13.3 Finished top view. Your supply will look like this when completed.
FIGURE 13.4 Finished bottom view. DonÕt forget to place the feet to raise the power supplyÕs conductive
traces. Even with the feet applied, we recommend only using your power supply when it is placed on a non-
conductive surface.
This supply produces adjustable positive and negative voltages ranging

from 1.2VDC (volts of DC) to 15VDC and power outputs of ±5VDC at 500mA,
±10 VDC at 750mA, ±12VDC at 500mA, and ±15 VDC at 175mA. All of the
digital labs later in the book require ±5VDC at 500 mA.

Safety First
Turn over the power supply. Do you see those traces—the copper lines
in the PCB? Each one is conductive. To keep things safe, use a large wood-
en cutting board as a work surface. Be very careful about where you place
your hands and test probes when the power is on.
These traces can carry live current; if they come into contact with
another conductive surface, such as your skin or metal, they can
cause an electrical shock.
We also recommend using a power strip that has an on/off switch as
this power supply does not have its own power switch—the only way
to turn it off is to unplug it. Using a power strip will save wear and
tear on the power cord.
Another good practice is to use test probes with clips that will hold
HIGH VOLTAGE the probe in place so you don’t have to hold it in place by hand. This
way you can place your test probes where they need to be with the
power off and step back before turning the power on. This process
can help you build confidence in what you are doing as well. Re-
member, people work safely with AC power every day.
Powering On
After you’ve assembled the kit, it’s time to start exploring what you can
do with your new power supply.
First, plug the power supply in to a power strip with the switch turned
off. Then turn the power strip on.
You should see LED1 light up; if not, there is a problem. Refer to
the instructions that came with the power supply for troubleshooting
tips. In addition, you can check the following for commonly encoun-
tered problems:
nn Is the LED properly installed in the proper position?
nn Is the power cord connected correctly?
nn Check for the proper placement of C1 and C2 the + and –.

nn Check for 18.5 VDC across C1. Attach the black probe to the – side and
the red probe to the + side, and set your DMM to VDC. Be sure to also
check the same across C2.
Troubleshooting is an art. Generally, the more experience you

get, the better troubleshooter you will be. Thankfully, for the
beginner, there are a few approaches you can take when you are
first starting out. First, check for the basics, such as whether the
plug is plugged in all of the way. Sometimes it is the easy stuff.
Second, keep an open mind. A little imagination goes a long way.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
Third, work step by step. Troubleshooting requires deliberate
elimination of any potential problem. Remember that the short-
est path between two points is a straight line; if you take a scatter-
shot route to a solution, you might find yourself getting lost—and
frustrated—along the way.
Getting Acquainted with Your Power Supply

For the following procedures, you will need a digital multimeter
(DMM) and, if you have one, an oscilloscope. If you don’t have an oscil-
loscope, don’t worry; we provide rough diagrams of what you would see on
a scope.
FIGURE 13.5 Schematic of the assembled power supply. Note the use of the circuit diagram symbols you
have learned so far. (Courtesy of Jameco)

FIGURE 13.6 Positive DC wave.
First, let’s look at the schematic of the assembled power supply that’s
included in the instructions.
The filled dots are test points. They are labeled TP1 through TP26.
Creating a Positive DC Wave

To show the function of your power supply, let’s turn it on and generate
a positive DC voltage signal. By using the different test points, you can see
many of the components you have learned about so far in action.
1. Using your DMM, place the black probe on TP3 and the red probe on
TP2.
2. Set your DMM to VAC (volts AC).
3. Turn on the power. You should have a reading of around 12.6VAC. This is
the effect of the power supply’s transformer stepping down the 120VAC
from the mains to 12.6VAC, as described in Chapter 12.
4. If you have an oscilloscope, place the probe on TP4 and place the
ground clip on the circuit ground (labeled GND on the schematic). You
should see a positive pulsing waveform (also known as a rippling DC
wave).

5. Ripples or pulses, which are variations in the current, occur when the
current has not yet been smoothed by the capacitors. The power supply
at this point has removed the negative portion of the AC, but it is not yet
ready to be used as a DC power source.
6. Even though this current needs to be further smoothed by the power
supply, it does provide power to the LED, letting us know that the
power is on.
Seeing Caps and Voltage Regulators in Action

Now let’s look at your power supply’s capacitor in action. In this case,
it has a slower discharge time than the frequency of the input signal, so it
gets charged more quickly than it can discharge. This is a good thing for a
DC power source, as it will smooth out most of the ripple you saw in the
previous test.
Place your scope probe on TP19 or TP14 and the ground clip on the
POS SUPPLY ground.
IC1 and IC2 are integrated circuits (IC) that act as voltage regulators
and are used to provide a constant voltage and current.
FIGURE 13.7 Reduced ripple DC wave.

The voltage is adjusted by voltage dividers, which are identified on the

schematic as R2 and R3 (on the positive side) and R4 and R5 (on the nega-
tive side).
The capacitors and diodes C3, CR3, C4, and CR4 are there to stabilize
the output when adjusting R3 and R4 and to protect IC1 and IC2 from
feedback on the outputs or an accidental short on a circuit connected to the
POS or NEG SUPPLY, as this could destroy the ICs.
CR3 and CR4 also provide a discharge path for C2 and C1 when you
shut the power off. As you may recall from Chapter 8, capacitors can hold a
charge even after they are powered off.
Using Your Variable DC Power Supply

Now you have a variable DC power supply that you can use for all of
your electronic projects.
Let’s take a look at the output and how to make adjustments:
1. With the power to the supply turned off, connect your DMM to the
power supply: The red lead to the +DC terminal and the black lead to
the ground (labeled GND in the next illustration).
2. Attach the black probe to the COM on the meter and attach the probe
end to the GND post of the power supply.
3. Attach the red probe to the VΩ on the meter and attach the probe end
to the + post of the supply.
4. Set the meter to read DC voltage.
5. Turn the power on and see what output you have.
Try to adjust the output voltage. You can adjust this by using the settings
knob of R3. You should see the output voltage changing. If not, check the
following:
nn Are either IC1 or IC2 installed backward? If yes, they will need to be
replaced, as they were most likely destroyed. You will need to reorder
new ones using the part numbers provided in the instructions.
nn If the output stays high, check for proper solder on R3 and R4.

FIGURE 13.8 +DC and ground on your power supply, along with the R4 adjustment for DC output.
nn If the output is not constant or is hard to adjust, check for the proper
placement of C3, C4, CR3, and CR4.
The other settings knob, R4, changes the negative output voltage.
The projects you will be completing later in the book require a

5VDC setting. To change your power supply to that output, use the
knob of R3. After adjusting the output, do one last DMM check
WATTAGE TO THE WISE to confirm that it is set correctly.

nn Follow the instructions that come with your power supply kit to assem-
ble the power supply.
nn Plug the power supply into a power strip or a source that has an on/off
switch.
nn The power supply you made produces adjustable positive and negative
voltages of 1.2VDC to 15VDC and power output of 5VDC at 500mA, 10VDC
at 750mA, 12VDC at 500mA, and 15VDC at 175mA.
nn A power supply does more than simply convert AC to DC. Capacitors
and voltage regulators are used to remove ripple to provide steady DC
voltage.


Give the name of the electronic component indicated by each symbol:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

5
PART
GOING DIGITAL
T
ransistors were quite a leap in the history of electronics, but another
equally revolutionary development was the application of binary val-
ues to the on/off (well, really high- and really low- voltage) states,
and the idea of representing questions in logic to electronic circuits. The
following chapters explain how digital electronics work and how you can
put them to work for you.
You will learn about integrated circuits, which are simply multiple cir-
cuits miniaturized and combined on a single chip. You will next learn how
memory stores data as well as the instructions for running digital devices.
You will be able to understand that writing a program is speaking to a ma-
chine in its own language.
Microcontrollers are amazing digital tools. They are small computers
designed to work in embedded devices, including your own electronic proj-
ects. They have a streamlined construction and are easy to customize.

CHAPTER
14
DIGITAL THEORY
In This Chapter
●● Using binary digits in electronics
●● Distinguishing between analog and digital electronics
●● Representing logical operations with truth tables
●● Using logic gates to control circuits
T
he idea of linking the binary digits 1 and 0 to high-voltage and low-
voltage levels, respectively, made possible revolutionary changes in
how we use electronics. Great strides had already been made in elec-
tronics prior to this digital revolution, especially in the field of communica-
tions and the launch of radio and television. But once digital concepts were
overlaid on electronics theory, the pace of change in technology accelerated
to warp speed.
The Idea Behind Digital Concepts

In 1937, a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) graduate stu-
dent named Claude Shannon wrote “A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and
Switching Circuits,” which has been called the one of the most important
master’s theses of the century. In the paper, Shannon proposed the use
of Boolean algebra’s two-position analysis in creating digital circuits. The
world of electronics was from then on destined to change, even if it took a
few decades for the idea to reach its full potential.

Claude Shannon (1916–2001) is considered the father of digital
circuits, but his impact goes much further. His work at Bell Labs
and MIT with electronics, cryptography, and mathematics provided
inspiration to generations of future engineers.
Shannon was quite a character, and often invented contraptions for
pure enjoyment: a motorized pogo stick, a rocket-powered flying disk,
and a mechanical mouse that could solve a maze. He would ride his
unicycle through the halls of Bell Labs while juggling balls. He and a
fellow MIT professor enjoyed taking their mathematical research on
trips to Las Vegas to test drive some theories at the blackjack table and
roulette wheel. Unfortunately, his final years were spent in the fog of
Alzheimer’s, but his lasting impact remains perfectly clear.
Analog vs. Digital

An analog signal is a continuous wave in both amplitude and in time.
A digital signal is composed of individual, identifiable steps. A wave in the
ocean is an analog signal; the tick-tick-tick of the second hand on a clock
is digital. The following figure shows a sine wave in analog form and digi-
tal form. The digital wave approximates the analog wave by representing
points along the waveform.
There are pros and cons to working with each signal type. Because an
analog wave is a continuous wave, it has more information. However, be-
cause it has more information, it needs more processing and storage space.
FIGURE 14.1 An analog wave (top) and its digital equivalent (bottom).

Digital Theory • 175
A digital signal can be much more compact than its analog counterpart,
which means it requires fewer resources to transmit, receive, or store. A
digital signal is also less likely to be affected by noise.
In electronics, noise is any unwanted interference with a signal. Noise

sources can be natural, due to the natural interaction of electromagnetic
DEFINITION
fields, or man-made—from motors, fluorescent lights, radio or radar
transmissions, wireless signals, and numerous other sources.
One of the primary benefits of digital waves for electronics is that each
discrete bit of information can be expressed numerically using Boolean al-
gebra. The states of “on” and “off” or “high voltage” and “low voltage” can
be represented by 1 or 0, which in turn can be easily transmitted using
switches, diodes, and transistors in circuits.
Boolean algebra is an approach to the study of numbers that is based on

logic.
Logic is a branch of philosophy that was developed by the ancient Greeks,
including Aristotle. It starts with the basic premise that an answer is either
true or false. Aristotle proposed that there are laws of logic regarding a
bi-valued reality in which statements are either true or false: X = X, X ≠ Y,
DEFINITION not–X = Y, and X = not–Y. English mathematician George Boole expanded
upon these classical views of logic and developed a system of algebra based
on them.
Boolean numbers are not the same as real numbers. Instead, Boolean num-
bers represent a decision. They ask: Is it 1? If yes, 1. If no, 0. Each decision
has the possibility of producing just two outcomes: 1 or 0.
Truth Tables
The most common questions asked about a relationship of numbers in
Boolean logic can be expressed by the following logical operations:
nn NOT: negation
nn AND: conjunction
nn OR: inclusion
nn NOR: neither/nor
nn NAND: not both

nn XOR: exclusive
nn XNOR: equality
To represent these concepts, we can use something called a truth table.

One value, called an operand, goes across the top of the table horizontally
and the second operand goes down the table vertically. For each question
or logical operation, the various answers populate the box.
An operand is a quantity that has a mathematical or logical operation

performed on it.
DEFINITION
A truth table is used in Boolean logic to give the results for the possible
inputs and outputs.
The columns represent one side of the logical decision and the rows
represent the other side of the logical decision. The result of each combina-
tion is depicted in the box where the column and row intersect.
In this table, 0 ≠ 1 is true (because 0 is NOT equal to 1), whereas 0 ≠
0 is false. Let’s now represent true with 1 and false with 0, as shown in the
following figure.
This table does not represent multiplication, division, or any other real
mathematical operation.
Instead, it the outputs of the question, “Is A not equal to B?” The an-
swer can be true or false, and we are using the binary digits 0 and 1 to rep-
resent both the operands and the answers.
FIGURE 14.2 A truth table for NOT.

FIGURE 14.3 Truth table for NOT with binary substitution.
FIGURE 14.4 Truth table for AND.
FIGURE 14.5 Truth table for OR.
Truth tables can be created for each of the logical operations you just
learned. Let’s look at AND. The operation AND is true only if both op-
erands are true—in other words, only when both operands are 1. Stated
another way, the operand 0 represents false and the operand 1 represents
true. So false AND false is false; true AND false is false; false AND true is
false but true AND true is true.

The operation OR is false only if both operands are false—that is, only
when both operands are 0.
The operation NOR is true only if both operands are false—only when
both operands are 0.
The operation NAND is true only if at least one of its operands is false.
One operand must be 0 and one must be 1.
Two common operations of Boolean logic that we use in electronics re-
quire two inputs: XOR or “exclusive-OR” and XNOR or “exclusive-NOR.”
These operations compare the two inputs and ask a question about them.
Here is the truth table for XOR. Looking at the two inputs, the output
is true if one (and only one) of the inputs is true.
The XNOR gate is the inverse of XOR. For XNOR, looking at the two
inputs, the output produces a value of true if and only if both operands are
false or both operands are true.
FIGURE 14.6 Truth table for NOR.
FIGURE 14.7 Truth table for NAND.

FIGURE 14.8 Truth table for XOR.
FIGURE 14.9 Truth table for XNOR.
The field of logic takes some getting used to. It all makes sense—it is
logic, after all—but only if you work deliberately through each state-
ment. This is not a problem for electronic signals; they simply do what
their circuit tells them to do. When working with logical statements,
WATTAGE TO THE WISE designers and programmers use tools such as truth tables to keep their
ones and zeroes straight.
Binary Numbers
Binary numbers are distinct from Boolean numbers. Binary numbers
use the same two digits as Boolean numbers, but binary numbers are real
numbers that represent values beyond 0 and 1. (See Appendix C for details
on working with binary numbers.) A binary system can represent numbers
from the base 10 system (our familiar numbering system with digits from 0
to 9) with a string of binary zeroes and ones. Binary number representations

of decimal numbers or binary-coded decimals (BCDs) can be sent as indi-

vidual digits (in series) or as a group of bits (in parallel). The usual arrange-
ment is in a byte, which is eight bits.
A bit is a binary digit. Four bits are called a nibble. A set of eight bits is a
DEFINITION byte.
Application to Electronics
So why do you need to know about binary numbers and Boolean opera-
tions? Because of the real-world application of these concepts to electron-
ics. You’ve already learned that, using diodes and transistors, you can create
circuits that can pass through no (or relatively low-) voltage or relatively
higher-voltage signals.
If you go back to the idea of a computer as something that performs
computations, you can see that creating a series of questions or logical op-
erations could get you to a result. Of course, the number of operations re-
quired to perform even simple tasks would require lots of these operations
and, therefore, lots of circuits.
Logic Gates
Each of the circuits that do these computations contains gates. In digi-
tal or logic circuits, the gates are called logic gates. Each gate gives one
output but can have multiple inputs.
NAND gates and NOR gates are known as universal gates because
given enough combinations, they can mimic the function of any other logic
gate. A NOT gate is also called an inverter because it inverts one signal into
the reverse.
When you begin designing your own circuits or doing your own
programming, you need to think like a circuit or a computer. It is
important to map out the processes step by step.
Designers and programmers often use flowcharts to represent the
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
inputs and the decisions at each step. As you start out in electron-
ics, get in the habit of planning things out. You might be going
high-tech, but a pencil and paper can still be your most useful tools!

FIGURE 14.10 Symbols for various logic gates on a circuit board diagram.
Lab 14-1: AND Gate

To see how a digital logic gate works in action, let’s construct an AND
gate.
Materials:
1 9V battery
2 single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switches
Jumper wire
1 flashlight bulb
Instructions:
1. Connect the jumper wires as shown in the diagram to the two switches,
the light bulb, and the battery.
2. Turn on SW1 to turn the light bulb ON.
3. Turn on SW2 to turn the light bulb ON.
The circuit is constructed so that if SW1 = ON AND SW2 = ON, then
TRUE. The true answer is represented by high voltage so it turns the light
ON.
4. Now let’s generate a FALSE output by turning off SW1. This yields a
FALSE (or low voltage) because with SW1 = OFF, it is not true that

LAB FIGURE 14.1. An AND gate.
both are on. The result would be the same if both were turned off, as
they both need to be ON to be TRUE.
Lab 14-2: OR Gate

Let’s try another gate, the OR Gate. In this case, for the answer to be
TRUE, either SW1 OR SW2 needs to be ON.
Use the same materials as in the preceding lab.
1. Connect the jumper wires as shown in the diagram to the two switches,
the light bulb, and the battery.
2. Turn on SW1 to turn the lamp ON.
3. Turn off SW1 to turn the lamp OFF. The light bulb will light because if
we ask the question SW1 = ON OR SW2 = OFF, the answer is TRUE.
4. Turn on SW2 to turn the lamp OFF.
5. Turn off SW2 to turn the lamp ON. Again, the light bulb will light be-
cause if we ask the question SW1 = OFF OR SW2 = ON, the answer is
TRUE.

LAB FIGURE 14.2. An OR gate.
A Revolution Requiring Attention to Detail

The combination of Boolean algebra, the binary system, and the ability to
create high- and low-value voltage values with electronic components is one of
the most revolutionary concepts in human history. Because of this idea, and all
of the steps required to invent the devices that make it all possible, we can use
electrical signals to solve the most complicated calculations, to render digital
images in timeframes almost too small to measure, to connect people from
across the planet and into space. While it’s easy to get overwhelmed with the
potential of electronic decision-making, it’s important that you understand that
each thing you do with a computer requires many, many individual logical de-
cisions being made—made one at a time, or simultaneously—but following a
plan drawn out by the designer or programmer.

nn Claude Shannon revolutionized electronics by combining binary con-
cepts with voltage levels.
nn An analog signal is a continuous wave; a digital signal is composed of
individual, discrete steps.

nn Boolean algebra is an expansion on classical logic theory composed of

statements that are true in a bi-valued world. The answers to each logi-
cal question can be depicted in truth tables.
nn Using Boolean logic, you can create electronic circuits that can perform
logical operations.
1. The binary digits one and zero are linked to voltage for
one and for zero.
2. True/False A sound wave can only be represented by a digital wave.
3. Two benefits of using digital signals mentioned in the text are:
and .
Give the name of the logical operation that express the relationship
below:
4. Negation
5. Inclusion
6. Equality
7. Not both
8. Conjunction
9. Equality
10. Neither/ Nor

CHAPTER
15
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
In This Chapter
●● Integrated circuits (ICs)
●● Analog ICs
●● Digital ICs
●● Mixed signal circuits
A
n integrated circuit (IC) is a miniaturized circuit that rests on a semi-
conductor base, also known as a chip. Modern ICs can contain many
millions of transistors all in a compact package. ICs can be analog,
digital, or a mix of analog and digital signals.
ICs are manufactured on a mass scale, so we won’t address their con-
struction, but they are a part of almost any modern electronic device. There
were ICs in your power supply project (see Chapter 13) and they will be on
most other project shopping lists as you work in electronics.
Each of the ICs discussed in this chapter have standard functions and
are common tools in the electronics toolbox. Other ICs are designed for
specific applications.
Analog ICs
Analog ICs work with varying levels of voltages, not simply high or low
voltage. They are used in sensors, timers, and power management and as

amplifiers. One example is an operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit. Op-

amps take input voltages from two terminals and can output a voltage many
hundreds of times higher than the voltage that is input. Many high-end
audio systems make use of op-amps.
Digital ICs
Digital ICs, also called logic ICs, range from very simple circuits that
process a single input from a light sensor to chips that can perform millions
of logic operations. Digital circuits perform one of two types of functions:
decision making using logic gates or memory storage.
You can compare the computing and storage of ICs to the same
ability in the human brain. Our brains process data (sensing,
processing, and decision making), give an output and then store
the whole matter into our memory to recall for future use.
Engineers are working toward achieving an artificial re-creation
WATTAGE TO THE WISE of these abilities in the field of artificial intelligence. Neurobi-
ologists are also analyzing just how our brains do what they do.
Imagine the possibilities if scientists are able to create electronic
models of human decision making.
Logic ICs are classified as either Active-Low or Active-High. The IC

functions only when a certain voltage level—either high or low—is applied.
In a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) with a 5V power
supply, high voltage (or binary value 1) is voltage in the 3.5V to 5V range.
Low voltage (or binary value 0) is in the 0V to 1.5V range.
FIGURE 15.1 Op-amp symbol on a circuit board diagram.

Integrated Circuits • 187
FIGURE 15.2 High or low voltage in a CMOS IC.
FIGURE 15.3 An Active-Low IC symbol on a circuit board diagram.
When an IC is Active-Low, it is indicated on a circuit diagram with a

small circle near the voltage level input for the IC. For example, in the fig-
ures below, the first has an Active-Low voltage of 1 and the second has an
Active-High voltage of 6.

FIGURE 15.4 An Active-High IC symbol on a circuit board diagram.
The following sections describe various types of digital ICs.
Flip-flops
As you’ve seen so far, a logic gate is designed to produce just one output.
It’s possible, however, to arrange a circuit that will have the output feedback
to the input; that is, the gate constantly feeds its output value back around
to the gate as an input value. These types of gates are called multivibrators.
One use of a multivibrator is a flip-flop. A flip-flop is used to store a
single bit in either a high or low state. It can be created by arranging the
connections so that the output provides feedback that keeps it in that state
of either high or low. This is essential to the concept of storing memory (see
Chapter 16 for more on memory). A flip-flop has two outputs, labeled Q
and not-Q. The symbol for not-Q is a Q with a horizontal line over it.
The primary output, Q, holds the logic state of the flip-flop. The output
at not-Q is a complementary output, so it holds the opposite value. If Q is 1,
not-Q is 0. When Q is 1, the flip-flop is in set mode; when Q is 0, the flip-
flop is in reset mode.

FIGURE 15.5 A D flip-flop circuit diagram symbol; note the symbol for the not-Q output.
FIGURE 15.6 A storage register is composed of four D flip flops connected to a clock input.
The most common flip-flop used in logic circuits is the D flip-flop,

where D stands for delay. It relies on a pulse circuit to set or reset the
output.
Four D flip-flops can be connected to a clock input (a clock in this
case is a timing circuit—a specialized IC—that provides pulses to a system
to synchronize operations) to form a storage register, which is a form of
memory. Four bits (a nibble) of binary values can be stored at each pulse of
the clock input.
Let’s go through that again. We don’t normally think of electronic sig-
nals as being stored. The current travels through a circuit, and then the sig-
nal is lost. The memory register uses the feedback to the input to constantly
reprocess the output level. This is to keep the memory register showing the
same output value in a steady state so it can “remember” the value.
555 and 556 Timers

With most electronic devices some sort of timing mechanism is needed
to enable the various processes within the device to work in sync. When
you are working with linked devices such as phones, networked comput-
ers, even televisions and radios, the interaction of these devices requires

s ynchronized signals. The more sophisticated the operation, the more pre-
cise the timing must be.
There are many methods of providing a clock or timing input, some
involving the oscillation of different crystals or nuclear materials, but in
most electronic devices a specialized IC known as a timer is used. Timers
rely on the frequency of an outside supplied voltage to create a signal that
is fed back to the system using digital logic. Two common logic ICs are
the 555 and 556 timers. Each has three operating modes that can perform
many functions. A 555 IC has 8 pins (leads or connectors) and the 556 has
14 pins.
FIGURE 15.7 The symbol for a 555 timer on a circuit board diagram.
FIGURE 15.8 The symbol for a 555 timer on a circuit board diagram.

These timers have three distinct modes. In astable mode, the 555/556
pulses a continuous square wave at the frequency you set. It is called astable
because the output is constantly alternating between two states. Some uses
include any sort of pulsing circuit, such as flashing light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) or clock pulses.
In bistable mode, the output stays at one state until a triggering input
switches it to the other state. This can operate a switching circuit or a flip-
flop.
Operating in the monostable mode, the output remains low until a trig-
ger event, and then a single pulse of high voltage is output. This can be used
to overcome the electrical noise from the bounce of a switch (the energy
created by the mechanical operation of a switch) by sending a reverse pulse,
or in any application where a triggering event is needed.
Counters
ICs can act as counters. Counters are used to count the number of
pulses to then trigger another operation or to provide information back into
the system. There are two main types of IC counters: ripple and synchro-
nous. A ripple counter counts through a series of flip-flops. Each output
state cascades to the next. A synchronous counter uses a single clock pulse.
Ripple counters count on the falling edge of each square wave, and
synchronous counter counts on the rising edge of each square wave. Many
basic counters use binary-coded decimal (BCD).
Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a hybrid of both the decimal and binary

system used. Instead of providing a true binary representation of a digital
number, the system gives each of the binary equivalents of the individual
digits in binary form. For example, the decimal number of 142 in true
DEFINITION
binary would be 010001110. In BCD, it is 0001, 0100, 0010, to represent
the digits 1, 4, and 2. The leading zeroes are given because each bit in the
nibble would need to be filled. In electronics, each of these significant digits
are labeled D, C, B, and A.
Encoders and Decoders

Encoders are ICs that convert multiple inputs into a single output. An
example is your computer keyboard. A standard keyboard has more than

100 characters that could be input into your computer. Instead of each key
having a direct input into your computer’s central processing unit, an en-
coder transmits the character name in BCD, binary, or hexadecimal via the
encoder chip’s single output.
Each value represents a character in ASCII (American Society for Code
Information Interchange) or the more recent Unicode standards (UTF-8 is
the current Unicode standard). These systems are standards for communi-
cating on the web and via e-mail. UTF-8 encodes each character in one to
four octets (8-bit bytes). The first 128 characters of the Unicode character
set (which correspond directly to ASCII) use a single octet with the same
binary value as in ASCII. The first 32 characters in ASCII (and UTF-8) are
nonprinting control characters such as ESC and DEL.
The following ASCII chart gives the binary, octet, decimal, hexadeci-
mal, and keyboard character values.
ASCII Values
Binary Octet Decimal Hexadecimal Character
100 0000 100 64 40 @
100 0001 101 65 41 A
100 0010 102 66 42 B
100 0011 103 67 43 C
100 0100 104 68 44 D
100 0101 105 69 45 E
101 0111 127 87 57 W
101 1000 130 88 58 X
101 1001 131 89 59 Y
101 1010 132 90 5A Z
101 1011 133 91 5B [
101 1100 134 92 5C \
101 1101 135 93 5D ]
101 1110 136 94 5E ^
101 1111 137 95 5F _
Decoders perform the opposite action of encoders. They take an in-

put and create multiple outputs. Decoders are integral to display circuits,
memory addressing (the location where computer data is stored, more on
memory in Chapter 16), and code translation circuits.

Mixed Signal ICs

Mixed signal integrated circuits have both analog and digital compo-
nents. The analog segments can work with power, radio, or sound signals
and integrate them with digital controls. Most of these circuits are analog-
to-digital converters (ADCs) or digital-to-analog converters (DACs).
An important concept to understand with ADCs or DACs is sampling.
Because an analog signal is continuous rather than the stepped signal of a
digital signal, to convert an analog signal to a digital signal, it is necessary
to sample the wave. The more samples taken of the analog signal, the more
accurate the representation of the signal in digital form will be. This con-
cept is easily understood if you listen to the difference in the quality of the
sound produced by a voice phone call (sampled at frequencies ranging from
8,000 to 16,000Hz) versus that of an audio CD (which has a sampling rate
of 44,100Hz). The CD has a higher sampling rate than a voice phone call,
so there is a much fuller sound.
Lab 15-1: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 1

In this lab you will use a DIP switch to send a binary signal to a decoder.
You will see how when you change the switch settings, or the inputs, it
changes the output on the display.
Materials:
Breadboard with 5Vdc power supply
4 or 8 dual-inline-package (DIP) switches
1 7448 decoder
7 270Ω resistors
1 common cathode 7-segment LED display
Jumper wire
In this lab, you will learn to use a schematic instead of a picture show-
ing the components on the breadboard. You should recognize many of the
symbols from previous labs, like the 270Ω resistors between the decoder
and the LEDs, but in this case, the LEDs are all in the 7-segment display.
Schematics may seem complicated to read at first, but they give you all of
the information you need. They are also much less cluttered than the same

circuit shown as a photograph. Compare the schematic below with the pho-
tograph of the same circuit in the photograph following the schematic.
Before we leave you to your own devices with a schematic, let’s take
the time to learn a bit more about using a breadboard. In the lab in Chap-
ter 6, you learned about the power rails of the breadboard (the outer two
horizontal rows on the top and bottom) and that the two larger work areas
in the middle are where you should build your circuits. Note: When we talk
about rows and columns, we are looking at the breadboard aligned so that
the breadboard is wider rather than taller. So how do you get the power to
the work area?
From the power rail row (horizontal), use a jumper wire to connect to a
cell in the work area. When you add power to the work area, all of the cells
in the column (vertical) you place the jumper wire in will now have power.
Keep this in mind as you construct your circuit. Leave enough room to fit
all of your components along the rows so you don’t cross columns that are
connected to an earlier powered column or component lead.
Be sure to connect your circuit to the power rail that leads either to the
negative end of your battery or the ground lead of your power supply.
On the 7448 decoder, you will need to be able to find pin 1. This is
where you will start making your connections. If you look at the following
figure, you see that pin 1 is on the top left of an IC on the side where this
LAB FIGURE 15.1 (1) Schematic of our lab circuit.

LAB FIGURE 15.1 (2) How to find pin 1 on a 7448 decoder.
is a small notch. Pin 2 is underneath it going down vertically. The 7448

decoder has 16 pins—8 on each side forming a U ending at pin 16 on the
opposite side across from pin 1. Finding pin 1 on the 7-segment display will
depend on which 7-segment display you purchase. The data sheet for your
decoder will be available from where you purchased it or searchable online.
Some 7-segment display segments may use letters instead of numbers. You
can see the letter assignments in the schematic as well.
Also, note the ground symbol (GND). This is the return path to the
ground terminal on your power supply.
Instructions:
1. Before assembling your circuit, make sure your power supply is off.
2. Use the breadboard to connect the circuits as shown in the diagram.
Make sure you connect the ON side of the DIP switch to the correct
pins of the 7448 decoder. The resistors are labeled R1-7.
3. Connect your power supply to your breadboard. See the following figure
to identify the +DC and GND terminals. The wire from the +DC terminal
should connect to the top row of your breadboard, and the wire from the
ground (GND) terminal should connect to the bottom row of your bread-
board.

4. Turn on your power supply.

5. Using the following binary chart below as a reference, turn the DIP
switches on and off to change the numbers on the display from 1 to 9. You
are loading this data into the decoder by hand.
It is good practice to turn your power supply off after you complete
each lab to avoid any accidental electric shocks. As an extra check,
be sure it is off before starting any project.
HIGH VOLTAGE
Switch inputs for binary values and their digital output

Switch 1 Switch 2 Switch 3 Switch 4 BINARY Display
OFF OFF OFF OFF 0000 0
OFF OFF OFF ON 0001 1
OFF OFF ON OFF 0010 2
OFF OFF ON ON 0011 3
OFF ON OFF OFF 0100 4
OFF ON OFF ON 0101 5
OFF ON ON OFF 0110 6
OFF ON ON ON 0111 7
ON OFF OFF OFF 1000 8
ON OFF OFF ON 1001 9
Lab 15-2: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 2

In the previous lab you used the DIP switches to send signals to the
decoder. In this lab, you will remove the DIP switch and replace it with a
timer and a decade counter. The timer will send out pulses, and on each
pulse the decade counter will count up from 0 to Fhex (hexadecimal) or 0 to
1510 (decimal) and then restart at 0. The frequency of the timer is set by the
capacitors and resistors connected to the timer. In the supplemental files
for the book, see Animation 15 to see the effect of changing the resistor and
capacitor values to alter the timing circuit.
Materials:
Completed Part 1 lab
1 555 timer IC
1 7490 decade counter IC

1 100KΩ resistor
1 1MΩ resistor
1 10μF electrolytic capacitor
1 0.01μ capacitor
Jumper wire
Instructions:
1. Before assembling your circuit, make sure your power supply is off.
2. Remove the DIP switch.
3. Follow the schematic to add the timer IC (labeled S1) and the decade
counter IC (labeled S2) as shown in the schematic.
4. Turn on your power supply. The numbers on the display should change
every four seconds. When it is running, the counter goes from 00002 to
11112 (decimal numbers 0 to 15). With just a single display, numbers con-
taining more than two digits (9 and above) are represented by symbols.
LAB FIGURE 15.2 (1) Schematic of our modified circuit, replacing the DIP switches with a timer and a
decade counter.

LAB FIGURE 15.2 (2) Your display will show the digits 0-9, and then a series of symbols to represent the
digits 10-15.
Lab 15-3: Guitar Amplifier

In this lab, you will build a small, basic guitar amplifier. This project is
based on a design by Runoffgroove.com and used with their permission.
As the components in this project are fairly inexpensive, you might want
to have extras on hand in case you damage any parts while soldering them.
If you work slowly and deliberately, you should do just fine.
Materials:
1 perf board
¼ inch mono audio jack
0.01µF capacitor
LM386 op amp (operational amplifier)
8-pin socket
5KΩ potentiometer
100µF electrolytic capacitor
220µF electrolytic capacitor
10Ω resistor
0.047µF capacitor
25Ω rheostat
9V battery
9V battery connector with leads
8Ω speaker
Guitar to test amp

Perf board has pre-drilled holes covering the entire board. There are
solder pads on every hole, but none of the solder pads are connected to one
another. You solder your components in place and then connect them to
each other by soldering pieces of wire to make the connections.
Instructions:
1. Attach the 8-pin socket to the board. This is the most delicate part of the
project.
2. Place the rest of the components on the circuit board as indicated by the
schematic and diagram, but don’t solder them yet. First, expose the last
inch or so of wire on each of the leads that are marked as GND. Then
twist the wires to make a connection between them all. Now you can
solder them together.
3. Use the other component leads to connect them to the appropriate pins
of the socket, the speaker, and the other components.
4. Use some jumper wire to connect pins 3 and 4 to the interconnected
ground leads. Connect the lead of the negative terminal of the battery
connector to the ground leads. Connect the positive terminal lead to the
junction of pin 6 and the 100µF electrolytic capacitor.
LAB FIGURE 15.3 (1) Schematic for the guitar amp project.

LAB FIGURE 15.3 (2) Diagram of the perf board with all of the components attached.
LAB FIGURE 15.3 (3) Pin assignments of the LM386 op amp.

LAB FIGURE 15.3 (4) The authorÕs enclosure.
5. Connect the LM386 to the socket and the 9V battery.

6. To test your amp, pick up your guitar and connect your cord to the plug
on the amp and give it a strum. Adjust the two potentiometers (5KΩ po-
tentiometer is the gain adjustment and the 25Ω rheostat is the volume
adjustment) and listen to the effects. Be aware that nearby electrical
equipment such as your soldering iron can cause interference. An enclo-
sure will help to shield the amp from such unwanted noise.

As described, the project does not have an enclosure of a power switch.

There is a wide variety of enclosures on the market specifically designed for
electronics projects. You might want to get creative and come up with your
own enclosure, perhaps in an old cigar box or in a box constructed of plastic
building blocks. Just be sure to use a nonconductive material (wood or plas-
tic) with enough room inside for all of the parts and to be able to securely
attach everything to protect against damage to your circuit and connections.
You can add a power switch by getting as SPST (single-pole, single-
throw) switch. Cut the positive lead of the battery connector. Solder on end
of the lead to one side of the switch and one end to the other side of the
switch. You may want to add this after choosing an enclosure. This gives
you the flexibility to have the switch in an aesthetically and functionally ap-
propriate place.

nn An integrated circuit (IC) is a miniaturized circuit that rests on a silicon
or other semiconductor base.
nn An operational amplifier is an example of an analog IC.
nn Digital ICs, also called logic ICs, are classified as either Active-Low
or Active-High. Some examples of logic ICs are flip-flops, encoders,
decoders, and timers.
nn Mixed signal circuits can be digital-to-analog converters (DACs) or
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
1. True/False: An IC is a miniaturized circuit that rests on a semiconduc-

tor base, and is also known as a chip.
2. An IC, known as a(n) , is used to take input voltages from
two terminals to output a voltage than can be many hundreds of times
higher than the voltage that is input.
3. Digital ICs are also known as ICs.

4. To indicate that an IC is an Active-Low circuit on a schematic, the

input will be marked with a small .
5. A flip-flop can store a single bit in either a high or low state; if the out-
put at Q is 0, the output at not-Q is .
6. In the state indicated above, is the flip-flop in set or reset mode?
7. Three modes for 555/556 timers are (output is constantly

alternating between states), (output remains low until a
trigger event, and then a single pulse of high voltage is output), and
(the output stays at one state until a triggering input
switches it to the other state).
8. A/an converts multiple inputs into a single output.
9. take a single input and create multiple outputs.
10. Mixed signal ICs have both and digital components.

CHAPTER
16
MEMORY
In This Chapter
●● Digital vs. analog storage
●● Data and addressing
●● Writing and reading
●● Volatile and nonvolatile memory
●● Storage media
I
f we had written this book 10 years ago, we would probably have titled
this chapter “Computer Memory,” but memory is now an essential ele-
ment of most modern digital electronics. From the computers that run
your car’s various systems, to the digital picture frame on your desk, to the
greeting card you pick up at the drug store, digital memory storage has
made its way into all sorts of consumer and industrial products. Advances in
chip design and manufacturing are leading to cheaper, bigger, more stable
memory, and less power consumption every year.
While your beginner electronics projects may not involve a great deal
of memory, if you do any further study of electronics or plan to create more
complicated projects, you will have to use memory. Almost all modern elec-
tronics have at least a small amount of memory, and the dividing lines be-
tween computer and electronic devices are becoming more meaningless.

Digital vs. Analog Memory Storage

Analog memory storage holds a physical representation of an analog
signal; in other words, it holds the full continuous wave as opposed to the
sampled stepped representation of a digital signal. Analog recording tech-
nologies have included magnetic recordings on tape and on wires as well
as physical representations on disks of vinyl and wax. Analog storage is sus-
ceptible to degradation or damage either by magnetic interference or by
physical damage to the storage medium.
Digital memory storage stores a sampled portion of an analog signal
or digital signals. Digital signals stored on any medium are less likely to be
degraded because of the nature of digital signals. Instead of analog’s con-
tinuous wave, digital signals are composed of a series of either high or low
voltages. Slight changes to a magnetic or physical storage medium are likely
to fall within the tolerances of either a high or low voltage and so are much
less likely to affect the digital signals.
Parity Bits and Other Error Detection

Digital signals are still subject to errors in transmission, data storage,
and retrieval. Spikes or dips in voltage, electromagnetic interference, and
other factors, such as faulty hardware, might introduce errors. This is not
just an issue with digital signals; analog signals also can have errors intro-
duced when transmitted, stored, or retrieved. Digital signals are, however,
easier to “error correct.” Error correction is a system that helps to identify
errors so these errors can be filtered out. Error detection is simply the pro-
cess of identifying errors; it doesn’t involve correcting them.
Error detection was especially important in early computing when banks
and other large businesses needed to trust that their information was accurate
and error-free. For industry leaders to trust in the soundness of their digitally
stored information, error correction methods needed to be developed.
Some of these methods just check for or detect errors (error detection)
and some both detect and correct (error correction). Often these terms are
used interchangeably, but it is good to know that these are actually separate
actions.
One of the most basic error check methods is to add a parity bit. A par-
ity bit indicates whether a number is even or odd. ASCII characters occupy

Memory • 207
seven bits out of eight to allow for the addition of a parity bit. Before a byte
(which is 8 bits) is transmitted, the digits representing the data are added
together and determined to be either even or odd. The parity bit is then
occupied with either a 1 or a 0. When the byte is transmitted, the parity
bit travels along with the data. When the data is received, the parity bit is
checked and bytes that don’t match the parity are discarded and an error
message is created.
Parity is a relationship of oddness or evenness between numbers.

DEFINITION
In telecommunications, a method for detecting and correcting errors is
forward error correction (FEC), in which the data is transmitted more than
once with an embedded code that satisfies a pre-established code.
Another error detection method used for lines of numbers that repre-
sent bank accounts or identifiers such as Universal Product Codes (UPC)
or International Standard Book Number (ISBN) codes is a check digit. A
check digit can be used to protect against errors in human data entry or
in transmittal. So-called “checksum algorithms” use a block of data that is
compared at set events. Some checksum schemes allow for data correction
in addition to error detection.
An algorithm is a problem solving procedure or mathematical problem;

usually it’s an equation describing a relationship between the numbers in a
DEFINITION
string of numbers.
Hexadecimal
Everything we have talked about so far when discussing digital cir-
cuits and memory has been linked to binary numbers. However, many
computer designers and programmers use a base-16 numbering system
called hexadecimal. Hexadecimal allows us to store more data in fewer
bits.
Hex digits range from 0 to 9, and the additional digits are represented
by the letters A to F. Each nibble (four bits) can hold a hexadecimal value
that can represent up to 65,535 in decimal (6553510, base-10). That same
number would be 11111111111111112 in binary (base-2) and FFFF16 in
hexadecimal (base-16).

FIGURE 16.1 Conversion chart for binary, digital, and hexadecimal numbers.
We are so used to the base-10 numbering system (digits 0–9) that

we may not realize there are an infinite number of possible num-
bering systems (although only a few are in practical use). Binary
numbers (digits 0–1) are base-2 systems and hexadecimal (digits
0–9 and A–F) are base-16 systems.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE Subscripts can be used to indicate what base numbering system is
being used. For example, 11012, 1101bin, or 1101binary all represent
a binary number; 1310, 13dec, 13decimal represent the decimal; and
D16, Dh, or Dhex represent hexadecimal.
Data and Address

When using memory, you need to consider two different things: the
actual information or data (datum is the singular version of data) and where
the data are stored. The storage location is referred to as the data’s address.
The address includes both the address and the instructions for retrieving
the information. In a computer, addresses are stored in the memory regis-
ter, which is part of the central processing unit (CPU).
Just because you store something doesn’t mean you can find it.
Think of the dreaded junk drawer you may have in your kitchen
or a basket of laundry. Each of those storage places can store
things but do not have system to find anything. It is not an ef-
ficient system.
Now think of a filing cabinet with files arranged alphabetically or a
WATTAGE TO THE WISE datebook that stores appointments chronologically. Each of those
has an addressing system. If you know the system, you can easily
find what you are looking for. Memory addressing methods are like
a filing system. They describe where data are stored so that they
can be retrieved later.

Memory • 209
There are two primary methods used in memory addressing: stack data
architecture and dynamic memory allocation. With stack memory, data are
stored in stacks of memory on a last-in, first-out basis. Data just keeps on
getting stored without any check to see if enough space is available. It is fast
and simple, but it is subject to error when more memory is allocated than is
available; this is called a stack overflow error.
With dynamic memory allocation, memory is allocated as the programs
run. Available memory is taken from the heap (a supply of available memo-
ry storage locations). This approach is subject to the fragmentation of data,
which happens when the available memory is scattered and only available
in separate locations. This can slow the retrieval of the data when it is frag-
mented widely.
The Von Neumann Computer Model

In the 1940s, when the very early modern computers called the Elec-
tronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) and Electronic Dis-
crete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) were being developed, com-
puter scientists needed to design a system architecture for computers that
could be used going forward so that the basic structure of a computer didn’t
need to be reinvented again and again. The model that became the stan-
dard going forward is known as the Von Neumann model.
John Von Neumann (1903–1957) was a Hungarian-born mathematician
who came to Princeton University in 1930 and was part of the founding
faculty of Institute for Advanced Study (along with other notables including
Albert Einstein and Kurt Gödel).
The Von Neumann model owes much to the theories of Alan Turing
and others, but he definitely had a major role in the adoption of the archi-
tecture as a standard. Von Neumann contributed to many fields includ-
ing math, economics, mechanics, quantum theory, and many scientific and
mathematical concepts bear his name.
The Von Neumann model consisted of three main portions: the CPU,
the input and output (I/O) subsystems (all of the I/O devices), and the
memory. These building blocks are all connected by a system bus, the data
bus, and the control bus.

FIGURE 16.2 Von Neumann computer model.
A bus in electronics is the electrical connection between components. In

computing, the term refers to the transfer system of information between
DEFINITION
components.
Memory Registers
Remember that data are stored in an IC called a memory register,
which is part of the CPU. The two primary types of memory registers are
the Memory Address Register (MAR) and the Memory Data Register
(MDR). The MAR holds the location and the instructions; the MDR stores
the actual data. When data are fetched, they are moved to the Memory Buf-
fer Register (MBR) which is a holding position, then on to the Instruction
Register (IR) where the specified programming instruction is performed.
Writing and Reading

Storing data is called writing; retrieving data is called reading. Some
memory doesn’t allow for writing, and this is called read-only memory
(ROM). For example, a CD-ROM is a stand-alone read-only portable me-
dia device.
Different storage media are then described as whether or not they are
writeable. Some CDs and DVDs are labeled RW. That means that they are
both readable and writeable. Other media are read-only.

Memory • 211
The firmware (the embedded instructions that coordinate the opera-

tion of the computer’s internal processes) of a computer is typically ROM.
It contains the basic operating instructions and file structure for the com-
puter. Some computers use EPROM to store their firmware. EPROM
is erasable, programmable ROM. It is still considered ROM, however,
because it is infrequently rewritten and is not available for general storage
on the computer.
Volatile and Nonvolatile Memory

Volatile memory refers to memory that is power-dependent. If power
is not supplied to the memory, it loses its data. This data loss is not neces-
sarily instant, as the power is held in the capacitors, but volatile memory
is eventually lost. Nonvolatile memory is able to maintain data even when
there is no power.
An example of volatile memory is random access memory (RAM),
which is the working memory of your computer. It is called random access
because it doesn’t need to be accessed sequentially. In modern computers,
however, ROM is random access as well. The important distinction is that,
generally, RAM is volatile memory whereas ROM is not.
Storage Media
Several types of media are available for storing memory. These in-
clude magnetic storage on tapes; magnetic storage on disks (hard drives);
optical storage on removable disks; and flash (which is a type of electri-
cal erasable programmable ROM, or EEPROM); and other solid-state
memory (that is, media storage that doesn’t require any moving parts).
Each storage type has drawbacks. Magnetic storage can be corrupted
by exposure to magnetic fields (either electromagnetic or natural mag-
nets). Hard drives can suffer from mechanical failure. Optical storage
can degrade because of the chemical characteristics of the storage disks
themselves. Flash memory can degrade after multiple reprogramming
and is expensive relative to other memory types. Each type can be pro-
tected against these threats, and flash memory is becoming more afford-
able per byte of memory. New types of solid-state memory are being
developed, each trying to become a near-perfect universal memory.

Universal memory is a goal toward which computer scientists are working.

The ideal memory would be both affordable to produce and energy-
DEFINITION
efficient. It must be fast, nonvolatile, and resistant to magnetic interference.

nn When an analog signal is stored, the entire signal wave is stored. Digital
signals, which are stored by recording low and high voltages, are less
likely to degrade.
nn Two types of memory are stored in computers: the data themselves and
the address where the data are stored.
nn Storing memory is called writing; retrieving memory is called reading.
nn Volatile memory is memory that isn’t preserved when not powered; non-
volatile memory is stored even if no power is present.
nn There has been a continual evolution in storage media moving toward
the ideal of universal memory, which is memory that is affordable to
produce, nonvolatile, fast, and resistant to magnetic interference.
1. Digital memory stores a/an ____________ portion of an analog signal

or digital signals.
2. Two methods of error detection are the use of a/an ____________ bit
and /an ____________ digit that use a checksum algorithm.
3. A hexadecimal numbering system is a Base ____________ system.
4. The subscript bin indicates which numbering system? ____________
5. What are the 16 digits in hexadecimal? ____________
6. A nibble is ____________ bits.
7. The two primary types of memory addressing are ____________ archi-
tecture and ____________ memory allocation.

Memory • 213
8. The dominant computer model has three main portions:

____________, ________________, and the ____________, which are
all connected by a system bus.
9. True/False. Storing memory is called “reading.”
10. ____________ memory is power-dependent.

CHAPTER
17
MICROCONTROLLERS
In This Chapter
●● Microcontrollers vs. computers
●● Understanding how microcontrollers are made
●● Programming microcontrollers
●● Shopping for microcontrollers
M
icrocontrollers (MCUs or μCs) are self-contained, embedded
computers. When a computer or device is embedded, it means
that it is integrated into the operation of that device and isn’t avail-
able for purposes outside of that device. Everyday devices, from micro-
waves to your television remote, have microcontrollers that enable these
devices to execute commands based on inputs and generate outputs that
are customized to the operation of that particular device.
What Are Microcontrollers?

Microcontrollers are computers, but they do not have a lot of memory
because they are meant to perform a discrete set of tasks. Instead of fol-
lowing a Von Neumann architecture (see Chapter 16), they are designed
using the Harvard architecture, which has separate buses for instructions
and data storage so that operations can be completed more quickly.

FIGURE 17.1 Harvard architecture.
Notice that Harvard architecture has two separate memory locations—

one for instructions and another for data. Programmers can use the two
separate memory locations to their advantage by using address schemes
for the data memory and the instruction memory. One could use a 16-bit
scheme and the other could use an 8-bit scheme. In regular computers,
the address scheme would have to be consistent for both types of memory
(instructions and data).
Having two address schemes means that the microcontroller
esigners can use faster machine level code in one memory location
d
of the microcontroller for the microcontroller’s firmware and more
user-friendly programming tools when giving instructions in the other
memory location.
Don’t confuse microcontrollers with microprocessors. Micro-

processors are integrated circuits (ICs) that serve as the central
processing unit (CPU) for a computer.
Microcontrollers are complete computers with their own
memory, input/output (I/O) ports, and a CPU. In practice, mi-
crocontrollers are part of an embedded computer system with
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
various I/Os such as sensors, switches, and displays. Because
they are designed to execute specific tasks and the programs
tend to be much smaller, they do not require a lot of process-
ing power or memory.

Microcontrollers • 217
Just because microcontrollers seem simpler than computers

doesn’t mean that they are just toys. Our project in upcoming
chapters is a basic robot with a few sensors, but even a single
sensor allows for many useful and powerful applications. Once
you understand how to work with microcontrollers, you can go on
to construct more sophisticated projects, such as automating an
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
aspect of your home (security, light timing, and feeding of your
pets), creating a holiday light display, or using a global positioning
system (GPS) to monitor the flight and altitude of your rocket or
remote-control (RC) airplane. The types of projects that a micro-
controller can execute are limited only by your imagination.
Microcontroller Components
Typical microcontroller components include a CPU, serial I/O ports, mem-
ory (both volatile for data storage and read-only memory [ROM] or flash mem-
ory for instructions) and usually an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Other
components can include timers, clock generators, and event counters.
Inputs/Outputs
When choosing a microcontroller, be sure that there is an adequate
number of I/Os for your project and that they are of suitable types. Most
should have both analog and digital I/Os. A computer-compatible I/O for
programming is useful, as well. Most use a universal serial bus (USB) or
micro USB connector. If you have a particular project in mind, you can
research how many I/Os that project will require.
Ajay V. Bhatt is the creator of the USB I/O. You may have seen him on
Intel’s “rockstar” commercials, or at least an actor portraying him. Coming
from a middle-class family in India, he moved to the United States to study
at the City University of New York. As a consumer himself, he became frus-
trated at having different connectors for his computer and saw the need for
a universal connection device. He and his team at Intel developed the USB
as a universal connector for computers and other devices and peripherals,
as well as specialized software to make connections. Now USB connectors
are used on all sorts of devices.

FIGURE 17.2 The hierarchy of programming languages.
He also was part of the team that developed other I/O interfaces, in-
cluding the Accelerated Graphics Port (after he saw a need) and the PCI
Express, two interfaces for graphics cards. Mr. Bhatt has appeared on The
Tonight Show with Conan O’Brien and in India GQ, where he was listed as
one of “50 Most Influential Global Indians.”
Programming Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers must be coded with instructions that the CPU under-
stands. The most basic instructions must be in machine code or machine
language, which is made up entirely of zeroes and ones. As machine lan-
guage is very unwieldy, assembly language is used to translate basic com-
mands into machine language. Assembly language is considered a low-level
programming language. Low-level languages are more widely applicable to
any computing environment, but they are much more difficult to program.
Programmers usually use high-level programming languages and then use
a compiler to translate the source code of the high-level program language
into assembly language.
When programmers talk about code, they are referring to instructions in a

DEFINITION program, not just machine code. Coding means programming. Source code
is the instructions in a particular language; generally, it is not written in a
user-level language.

Most microcontrollers can be programmed using user-friendly, high-

level computer languages, such as the C programming language family (C,
C+, C++, and C#) or BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code) and its various dialects (especially Visual Basic).
Dialects in programming languages are just like dialects in any language—

they are slight differences in the language from region to region and group
DEFINITION
to group. A dialect of a programming language reflects its programming
environment and its purpose.
Microcontrollers for Hobbyists

Many different models of microcontrollers are designed for hobbyist
uses. When you choose one, you want to make sure it meets your needs.
Things to consider are the number and type of I/O ports, the program-
mability (the language used and whether or not its software is easily repro-
grammed), the amount of memory available for instructions, and the cost.
Some popular microcontrollers include:
nn Microchip PIC microcontroller, which one of the earliest affordable mi-
crocontrollers. It uses a freeware development package called MPLAB
and the C programming language.
nn Atmel AVR microcontroller, which has flash memory for program stor-
age. AVRs have been used in many automotive applications and even
with Microsoft Xbox controllers.
nn Intel© Quark™ microcontrollers: These are used in many engineering
schools and in industry.
nn BASIC Stamp, which is very popular with hobbyists because of its use of
the simple BASIC programming language.
nn Open source hardware microcontrollers (Arduino, Netduino): These
so-called open source hardware microcontrollers have seen a rapid rise
in popularity with hobbyists due to the balance between their ease of
use and adaptability to a wide range of products.
nn Particle microcontrollers, including the Photon, which uses the Cypress
Wi-Fi chip, which is found in many popular IoT devices.
nn BeagleBone, which is an open source Linux microcontroller family with
a vibrant community.

Open Source Hardware

Following on the ideas of open source software, several microcon-
trollers are part of the open source hardware community. Open source soft-
ware (or free and open source software) is software for which the source
code is available so others can review and modify it for their own use.
Open source hardware is hardware that publishes its schematics, print-
ed circuit board (PCB) design, embedded programming code, and the like.
Two popular microcontrollers have been developed under the open
source hardware scheme (and the software scheme for programming each):
the Arduino and Netduino electronics platforms. There are also other open
source hardware microcontrollers, including the OLinuXino, designed to
work in a Linux environment, and the Pinguino, which works with GNU/
Linux, Mac OSX, and Windows.
A lot of hobbyists are also starting to be interested in projects with the
Raspberry Pi. It should be noted that this is an applications processor which
is more complex than a microcontroller in that it has an operating system.
As each are optimized for different uses, they each have a role and can work
together. For example, you could have several microcontroller controlled
projects reporting to a Raspberry Pi in order to manage several processes
in tandem.
The Arduino Microcontroller Platform

The Arduino platform was developed by two Italians, Massimo Banzi
and David Cuartielles, as an inexpensive and easy-to-use microcontroller
(and control software) for students and hobbyists to create and test proto-
types for embedded devices of their own design or to create projects from
others’ designs. The creators named the Arduino after a favorite bar in
Ivrea, Italy.
The programming language is based on C#, and the processor is an
Atmel AVR microprocessor. It includes a bootloader, which allows the user
to upload to the flash memory easily. The bootloader is designed to work
with different shields (add-on modules or daughterboards) that can easily
be connected directly to the CPUs.

A daughterboard is a circuit board that connects directly to the CPU

or motherboard. It doesn’t use wires or computer buses to connect, but
DEFINITION
instead integrates with the main circuit board.
The Arduino is a cross-platform system, meaning that it can work in
Windows, Linux, or Mac operating system (OS) environments.
Many versions of the Arduino microcontroller are on the market. Be-
cause it is open source hardware, anyone can use their designs to create
their own (with some restrictions). There are many online user forums for
Arduino-based projects.
The Netduino Microcontroller Platform

The Netduino microcontroller was also developed under the open
hardware scheme. Netduino is designed for beginners and hobbyists, but
also can be used for commercial project prototyping. It is based on the
.NET Micro Framework, a version of Microsoft’s .NET, which is an operat-
ing environment for low-memory embedded devices. (See the files on the
DVD for information on running the .NET platform with a Mac operating
system.)

nn Microcontrollers are self-contained, embedded computers. They rely on
a different architecture than standard computers and have less memory
available.
nn Microcontroller components include a CPU, memory (volatile and non-
volatile), inputs/outputs, and usually an analog-to-digital converter.
nn Programming microcontrollers involves low-level computer instructions
or machine language.
nn Several microcontrollers have been designed for use by hobbyists and
students.

1. What is an embedded computer?

2. Name two abbreviations for microcontrollers: and
.
3. True/False. A microcontroller is based on a Harvard architecture.
4. One advantage of using a microcontroller is that they have two sepa-
rate locations—one for instructions and another for data.
5. True/False. A microprocessor is another word for microcontroller.
6. I/O is shorthand for / .
7. True/False. Assembly language is composed of simply ones and zeroes.
8. True/False. Visual Basic is a dialect of Basic.
9. Name two non-open source hardware microcontrollers:
and .
10. Name two open source hardware microcontrollers: and
.

6
PART
ELECTRONICS
IN PRACTICE
H
ere is where the action is. We’ve learned about how electronics
can be used to perform instructions in a computer, but when we
want to have a circuit or a series of circuits interact with the world
around it, we want to add motors, sensors, transmitters, and receivers.
In this next section, we will learn about motors and controlling motors
to move or control mechanical operations. We will discover that sensors
can be used to measure movement, interact with global positioning systems
(GPS), sense direction with magnetometers, and sense gas, light, move-
ment, and pressure. Electronic communication can be with signals across
the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves all the way to gamma rays.
This will set us up for our next and final section, applying all we’ve
learned to build a robot that can put your newfound skills to use.

CHAPTER
18
MOTORS AND
CONTROLLERS
In This Chapter
●● Understanding brushed and brushless direct current (DC) motors
●● Using stepper and servo motors
●● Controlling motors using pulse width modulation (PWM)
●● Controlling motors using H-bridge circuits
T
o get your electronics to do some work, you need to enlist the aid
of motors. You can use electronic controls to regulate the current
to drive the motor. Choosing the right motors and control systems
enables you to move, make, and drive your designs in a deliberate and ef-
fective manner.
It is easy to get lost in all of the discussions of new digital devices
and think that electronics is all about computing and home entertain-
ment, but electronics is so much more than these gadgets and consumer
products. Electronics play a large role in manufacturing, transportation,
energy (production, delivery, and heating/cooling), medicine, and yes,
computers and home entertainment. If you are planning to pursue a ca-
reer in electronics, you need to understand how electronics interact with
things that move. If you want to build remote control cars, airplanes, or
bomb disposal robots, you need to make them move—and motors are
what make things move.

Brushed DC Motors
A basic brushed DC motor operates through the use of a commu-
tator, brush, and armature assembly. A magnet, called a stator, is fixed
in place, and the armature is arranged so that it can revolve inside the
stator’s magnetic field. In Chapter 12, you learned about induction, and
how a conductor inside of an electromagnetic field can generate an AC
electrical current. In a motor, this process takes place when the armature
(which is a conductor with a wire attached) revolves inside the magnetic
field of the stator.
We now have a wire that is conducting current. When a wire is carry-
ing a charge, it creates its own electromagnetic field. When the armature
(think of it as the motor’s arm) has a charge applied by a DC power source,
it rotates 180° inside the larger magnet because of the interaction of the
magnetic fields (like charges repel and opposite charges attract, causing a
180° spin). This rotational force is called torque.
Torque is rotational force around an axis or pivot point. It is sometimes

DEFINITION
referred to in mechanical engineering as the moment or moment of force.
The commutator is a ring around the armature’s axis. It has two gaps.
DC power is applied to the commutator as it rotates through connections
made by brushes (one on each end), which are like small brooms made
of conductive material. The gaps on the commutator interrupt the power
applied to the armature because the brushes don’t make contact with the
commutator.
The interaction of the magnetic fields creates a continuously reversing
current (alternating current, or AC) because of the 180° rotation, and cre-
ates a continuous torque. The gaps in the commutator interrupt the electri-
cal current at the point where the polarity would shift, so it continuously
switches the direction of the current.
The preceding diagram depicts the elements of a brushed motor, but in
practical applications, there are more than two points of contact between
the brushes and the commutator. The reversing polarity and the interaction
of magnetic fields yields torque on the armature. This rotation powers the
gear of the motor.

Motors and Controllers • 227
FIGURE 18.1 Diagram of a brushed motor.
Brushless DC Motors
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors operate without a commutator or brush-
es. Instead, they use electronic controls to apply reversals of polarity to the
armature.
The lack of a mechanical commutator and brush system reduces the
motor’s weight, which translates into a lower power consumption and less
friction. In other words, these motors are more efficient. The downside
is that the electronic controls make BLDCs more expensive than conven-
tional brushed motors.
The current-to-torque ratio in brushless motors is linear. This means
that proportional increases in current will result in proportional increases in
torque. There isn’t a loss due to friction, which affects the performance of
brushed motors. This makes BLDC motors the preferred choice when preci-
sion applications are involved. There is also less opportunity for sparking as in
brushed motors and there is a significant reduction in the mechanical noise.
BLDC motors are used in many consumer electronics applications, in-
cluding computer hard drives and CD/DVD drives.
Stepper Motors
A stepper motor is a brushless DC motor that is controlled by the interac-
tion of multiple electromagnetic points (or steps) turned on and off to move

the rotor in a highly controlled fashion. Stepper motors are the motor of choice
in precision environments, where control is the most important factor. Stepper
motors drive things as diverse as hard drives to aerospace applications.
There are three principal types of stepper motors. The oldest is the
variable-reluctance–type motor with a large, iron-toothed gear set inside a
series of electromagnets. The magnets can be powered to create rotation.
A second version of the stepper motor is the permanent magnet type.
Instead of using a toothed rotor, it has a large permanent magnet construct-
ed to have alternating strips of north and south polarities. Electromagnetic
fields are created by two external terminals, which cause the rotation be-
tween the stepped strips of the magnets.
Hybrid stepper motors are a mix of variable-reluctance and permanent
magnet motors. In these motors, a permanent magnet rotates between the
terminals but the rotor also has teeth to allow for more precise control of
the steps.
Servo Motors
A servo motor is a brushless motor that provides feedback to the mo-
tor control. The typical servo motor has an actuator arm that broadcasts its
angle of rotation back to the control system.
The feedback allows for error correction and real-time instructions.
Servo motors can be any of the various motor technologies just described—
it is the ability to provide feedback to the system that defines them as servo
motors. One popular use of servo motors by hobbyists is in robotics and
radio-controlled airplanes.
Servos are usually controlled by three leads: the power, the ground, and a
control lead. The control lead transmits a signal that relates to the angle of an
actuator arm. That signal is fed back to the control unit. The length of the pulse
indicates the angle that the actuator is rotated, usually with a cap of 180°.
For many hobbyists, servo motors are their go-to motor because of
how they are controlled and their flexibility of use. Servo motors are
widely adaptable and generally affordable. Fans of shows like Myth-
busters or fans who have seen any robotics competition will see the im-
portant role that servo motors provide when it is time to combine design,
power, and agility.

Mechatronics is the field of study at the intersection of motor

technology and electronics control. It is a synthesis of the fields
of mechanical engineering, electronics, computing, and control
theory. Smart systems require that students and professionals un-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE derstand the theory of each of these areas. Your study of electron-
ics is preparing you for this next generation of technology.
Controllers
Be it a simple switch or a dedicated microcontroller, all motors need a
control. In DC motors, if you apply a voltage, the gear will spin; if you re-
verse the voltage, you reverse the direction of the spin. To control a motor
beyond these basic movements requires some control system.
You can control a motor’s speed by managing the amount of current
provided. The torque of a motor is directly related to the current driving it,
so controlling the voltage through varying resistance or switches can man-
age the amount of current provided.
Pulse Width Modulation

The use of pulse width modulation (PWM) is an effective method
of motor control. By turning electronic switches off and on, the user
controls the amount of power (voltage × current) to a motor. Each on
and off pulse is set close enough together that the load is not perceptibly
turned off. The percentage of off portions of the wave (when the switch
opens the circuit and provides no power) compared to fully on (when
the switch closes the circuit and the full current is flowing) is called the
duty cycle. If the pulses are equally on and equally off, the duty cycle
is said to be at 50 percent. Fans, simple heaters, and light dimmers all
operate with PWM.
You can use pulse width modulation for speed control. A 30 percent
duty cycle would provide a moderate amount of power to the motor and
would drive the motor to 30 percent of its capacity.
A 100 percent duty cycle would be full throttle on the motor. Most
motors benefit from lighter duty than full throttle because of the reduced
likelihood of wear and tear; in addition, lower duty cycles use significantly
less power.

FIGURE 18.2 An H-bridge symbol on a circuit diagram; A, B, C, and D are switches.
Settings for an H-bridge Circuit

A B C D Results
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor powers off
without braking
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
1 0 1 0 Motor brakes
H-bridge
An H-bridge circuit is often used to control DC motors by reversing
polarity. It consists of four switches that are turned on and off in different
combinations that each yield different results.
Depending on what switches are opened or closed, you can control the
motor’s direction, apply a brake, or let the motor power off without braking.
The other possible combinations of open and closed switches (such as
1111 and 1100) will result in short circuits.
Most H-bridge circuits are built with semiconductor transistors (either bi-
polar junction transistors [BJTs] or field effect transistors [FETs]) to protect
against potentially damaging flyback voltages. A flyback voltage is like a switch

FIGURE 18.3 An H-bridge circuit with the addition of transistors.
bounce—the mechanical force of the motor turning on and off can generate a
voltage. For this reason, diodes are usually included in the circuit.

nn Brushed DC motors convert current to torque through the interaction
of the electromagnetic fields of an armature connected to a DC power
source and a magnet called a stator. The brushes connect to a ring called
a commutator, which has gaps to allow the current to alternate polarity.
nn Brushless DC motors use methods of charge interruption other than a
commutator and brush assembly, usually electronic controls.
nn Stepper motors are brushless motors that operate by having intermittent
connections between a conductive toothed gear and an electromagnet.
nn Servo motors are motors that provide feedback to the controls.
nn Motors can be controlled using pulse width modulation (PWM), with
varying widths representing different degrees of rotation.
nn Motors can be controlled using H-bridge circuits, which are a series of
open or closed switches.

1. A basic motor is made of a commutator, brush, armature

assembly, and a magnet.
2. The magnet that is fixed in place in a brushed DC motor is called a/an
.
3. The interaction of the magnetic fields creates a continuously reversing
current, known as current.
4. is a rotational force around an axis or pivot point.
5. True/False. Brushless motors are more efficient because they have
greater friction than brushed motors.
6. Variable motors have large, iron-toothed gears inside a
series of electromagnets.
7. motors have a permanent magnet rotating between the
terminals but the rotor also has teeth to allow for precision control.
8. A servo motor is a brushless motor that provides to the
motor control.
9. A PWM motor control with equal on and equal off pulses has a duty
cycle of percent.
10. If an H-Bridge control circuit is set at all zeroes, the result is
.

CHAPTER
19
SENSORS
In This Chapter
ll Understanding electronic sensors
ll Measuring movement with accelerometers
ll Giving direction with magnetometers
ll Sensing light, color, sound, gas, and position
A
sensor is a device that sends back a signal or indication to represent
a measurement. Examples of nonelectronic sensors are a mercury
thermometer, which represents temperature displayed by the vol-
ume occupied by the mercury in a tube marked with different temperature
values, and a weathervane, which rotates to indicate wind direction.
In this chapter, we introduce some of the many types of sensors avail-
able. With sensors, outside information can be interpreted by electronic
circuits. With the addition of instructions given by the designer, that outside
information can be acted on.
What Is a Sensor?
A true sensor must be sensitive to what it is measuring. It must not react
to other properties that it is not measuring, nor should it affect the value
that it is sensing.

Of course, most sensors will break down in extreme operating con-

ditions. For example, mercury will freeze when temperatures fall below
–40°C or boil at temperatures near 360°C. Accurate sensing with a mercury
thermometer becomes impractical if not impossible outside of these rang-
es. Electronic sensors have similar restraints; they must be designed so that
under a specified set of operating conditions, the sensors are shielded from
interfering signals. For example, if you are measuring the temperature of
the air in the room, you would want the sensor to be shielded from the heat
of the circuit or any motors.
Most sensors are related in a linear ratio, meaning that an increase
in what is being measured, or sensed, will yield a correlating and linearly
related increase in the signal. If a microphone senses louder and louder
noises, it will register a signal that correspondingly gets stronger and
stronger.
The term transducer is often used to describe sensors. A transducer
represents one type of inputted energy as an output of another type of en-
ergy. For example, pressure sensors take physical energy (inputted energy)
and convert it to an electrical signal (outputted energy).
Electronic Sensors
Sensors in electronics can detect and measure many different values:
motion (control, location, gravity, speed, and position), the amount of a par-
ticular substance in the environment (gases), light (including color), infra-
red, radiation, sonar, collision/touch, temperature, humidity, and sound or
radio frequencies. The wide range of modern, affordable sensors combined
with a microcontroller means that you are limited only by your imagination
when constructing electronic projects.
Some of the better-documented hobbyist projects using sensors and
microcontrollers involve robots that can move autonomously based on sen-
sors that read their environments or radio-controlled vehicles, such as cars
or airplanes, that rely on radio signals to control speed and direction. Other
popular fields include security systems for home or office that rely on mo-
tion sensors and switches, as well as other home automation projects.
Don’t be limited by these ideas, though. Imagine building your own
Breathalyzer interface for your laptop to prevent you from posting on social

Sensors • 235
media websites after drinking too much or perhaps a magnetic lock and
actuator that open your back door when your dog barks (matched to the
voiceprint of your dog’s particular bark). Let’s look at a few of the more pop-
ular and readily available sensors that can be used with microcontrollers.
This brief list is by no means exhaustive.
Accelerometers
An accelerometer measures its orientation relative to either one or
more axes (the plural of axis, pronounced AK-sees). It makes that measure-
ment by measuring acceleration expressed in g-forces (gravitational forces).
G-force is the measure of acceleration relative to free fall. The standard
gravity unit of 1 g is the amount of acceleration due to gravity at sea level
on Earth. The more planes of movement on an axis (up/down, right/left,
or diagonally) that are measured, the more accurate the device will be at
tracking motion.
The basic model of an accelerometer can be constructed by a mass
connected to a spring. Reorientation (movement in any direction such as
height, to the left or right, or angled in any way) from the neutral position
will stretch or compress a spring. The displacement of energy on that spring
can be measured as a voltage. Think of a gyroscope: any tipping of the gyro-
scope would reorient it in space.
One of the most common types of accelerometer relies on principles of
piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric sensors are created from materials (such as
quartz and tourmaline) that produce an electric charge when subjected to
pressure due to the rearrangement of their crystalline structures. Piezo is
the Greek word for pressure.
Modern accelerometers and many other sensors are micro-electrome-
chanical systems (MEMS). These are complete systems but at a very small
scale, ranging from 20μm to 1mm. The small scale and power requirements
have enabled their use in a multitude of small electronics. Smartphones use
MEMS to orient their image display based on how the phone is held. Tab-
let computers, digital cameras, and game controllers use accelerometers to
enable more realistic game play. Digital cameras and video recorders use
MEMS to autocorrect motion in video or still images. The uses are limitless.

Digital Compasses or Magnetometers

Digital compasses (also known as magnetometers) can give a sensor’s
orientation relative to magnetic north. The output is generally given in de-
grees; for example, 90° is east, 180° is south, and 270° is west.
One of the most popular types of magnetometer available for hobby-
ists relies on the Hall Effect. The Hall Effect was discovered by American
physicist Edwin Hall. Basically, when a conductor or semiconductor with a
current running through it is exposed to a magnetic field perpendicular to
it, a voltage (called a Hall voltage) is created. The voltage varies proportion-
ally to the strength of the magnetic field, so by measuring the voltage, the
sensor can determine the magnetic orientation.
Edwin Hall (1855–1938) was an American physicist. His graduate work
at Johns Hopkins led to the discovery of the effect that bears his name. He
made his observations with gold leaf on a glass plate exposed to magnetic
fields. He became a physics professor at Harvard and did further research
in thermodynamics.
Light and Color Sensors

Light and color sensors detect light across the spectrum from infrared
to ultraviolet and even invisible light energy, such as gamma rays and x-rays.
FIGURE 19.1 The Light Spectrum; visible light is just a portion.

Sensors • 237
Some sensors are simple switches indicating the presence of light, whereas
others can distinguish the light intensity and color.
Color is just a different frequency of light wave. There is no physical
property of “greenness” or “orangeness;” it just is a matter of frequency
and wavelength. The following chart shows the electromagnetic spec-
trum, which includes the portion of the spectrum that includes visible
light.
Light and color sensors are very flexible tools. They can be used in
navigation, signal reception, and energy detection. The sensors can be con-
structed from many technologies, including photoresistors, photovoltaic
cells, photodiodes, phototransistors, and charge-coupled devices.
Microphones
A microphone is a type of sensor as well. It is a transducer that detects
sound waves and converts them to an electrical signal. Microphones are es-
sential components in sound recording, telecommunications, hearing aids,
voice recognition, and many non-voice sound applications, including those
used in the field of ultrasonic imaging in industrial applications.
Microphone sensors use many different technologies, including con-
densers (also called a capacitor microphone), piezoelectricity, and fiber
optics (by sensing the differences in the light intensity bounced off of a re-
flective diaphragm sensitive to sound vibrations). Microphones designed to
work with microcontrollers usually are MEMS and are sometimes referred
to as microphone chips.
Alcohol and Other Environmental Gas Sensors

From sensing toxic chemicals such as carbon monoxide, to deter-
mining levels of potentially combustible fumes, to detecting alcohol by
a Breathalyzer, electronic gas sensors have many uses. Gas sensors are
generally classified into two types: combustible and toxic and/or noncom-
bustible.
The technologies to detect combustible gases are catalytic sensing and
infrared (IR) sensors. In catalytic sensing, as the gas comes into contact
with a catalytic coil, it oxidizes and the resulting change in resistance on the
coil can be measured with the use of a bridge circuit.

To be combustible is to be capable of burning or igniting.

To be catalytic is to be capable of causing or accelerating a chemical
DEFINITION
reaction. In this particular case, oxidation is the chemical reaction that
results.
IR sensors measure the difference in an infrared beam as it travels
through the gas. The difference in the light intensity can be related to the
presence of a gas.
For detecting toxic or noncombustible gases, electrochemical gas sen-
sors are a common technology. They use an electrolyte and a porous mem-
brane connected to electrodes. When the gas passes through the mem-
brane, it oxidizes and a current is produced.
GPS Sensors
The type and specificity of data available via global positioning system
(GPS) satellites are incredibly valuable in electronics. GPS can provide lo-
cation in longitude, latitude, altitude, and time of day. Using that informa-
tion sampled over time, you can detect speed as well. GPS signals can be
integrated into mapping systems, which can be used to provide informa-
tion, make decisions based on set instructions, and make adjustments in
navigation.
The number of projects that can take advantage of GPS sensors is again
limited only by your imagination.

■■ Sensors measure a value and transmit a readable signal. Electronic sen-
sors provide an electric signal to describe a value.
■■ Accelerometers measure speed across multiple axes. This information
can be used to give the sensor’s orientation in space.
■■ Digital compasses or magnetometers give direction relative to magnetic
fields.
■■ Light and color sensing relies on reading the wavelengths and frequen-
cies of the light spectrum.

Sensors • 239
■■ Microphones can sense sound by converting sound waves to electrical

signals.
■■ GPS sensors receive satellites’ information, such as latitude, longitude,
and time, which can be integrated with maps and measure speed.
1. Name two types of non-electronic sensors given in the chapter:

and
2. True/False. A sensor needs to be sensitive to changes in what it is mea-
suring.
3. A/an represents one type of inputted energy as an out-
put of another type of energy.
4. An accelerometer measures acceleration expressed in
forces.
5. is the property of some materials, such as quartz, that
produce an electric charge when subjected to pressure.
6. The Effect is the voltage created when a conductor or
semiconductor with a current running through it is exposed to a mag-
netic field perpendicular to it.
7. True/False. All light and color sensors are based on photodiodes.
8. Radio waves have longer/shorter wavelengths than visible light.
9. Microphones are transducers that detect sound waves and convert
them to an signal.
10. signals can provide location in longitude, latitude,
altitude, and time of day.

CHAPTER
20
ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION
In This Chapter
ll Transmitting and receiving basics
ll Understanding various types of signals
ll Creating and detecting signals
ll Converting visual images to signals
U
p to this point, you have explored how electronic devices transmit
information via electrical signals in a closed system of an electric
circuit. This chapter focuses on how electronics can be used to
transmit and receive signals across a room, a field, a city, a continent, an
ocean, and even into space.
Signal transmission is a very broad area of study. The aim of this chapter
is to get you acquainted with the very basics of the topic. At the end of the
chapter, you will build an FM transmitter to get some hands-on experience
with signal transmission.
The Basics of Electronic Communication

Let’s first look at the basic steps involved in using electronics to
communicate.
The information being communicated has to be converted into a form
that can be transmitted using electricity. This is called encoding. That could

be a voltage level (amplitude) or another aspect of an electrical waveform.

The information, when communicated through electromagnetic methods,
is called a signal.
A signal is information communicated through electromagnetic methods.

DEFINITION Next, the signal needs to be transmitted. This can be done over a dedicat-
ed direct connection—such as a copper wire or fiber-optic line—or through
some sort of broadcast, such as a Wi-Fi signal over radio waves, or narrow-
cast—such as infrared waves from your television’s remote control device.
An infinite number of signals are constantly being transmitted from an in-
finite number of sources. Every time you cough, you create a sound wave and
a change in the air pressure around you; in other words, you create and send
a signal. Light, heat, and UV rays are created by the reactions on the sun and
transmitted in every direction. Signals emanate throughout our natural world.
For the next step in the communication process, the signal needs to be
received. The receiver has to be able to filter out which signals to ignore
and which to receive. The more accurate the filter, the less noise (unwanted
signals) is received along with the signal. The amount of signal compared to
the amount of noise in a method of communication is called the signal-to-
noise ratio. The ideal is a high signal, low noise ratio.
The final step in electronics communication is decoding, which is the
process of interpreting the signal into a user-friendly communication. The
result can be the pictures on your television, an e-mail in your inbox, or the
sound of a voice on your telephone.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum, Revisited

Let’s revisit the electromagnet spectrum from Chapter 19. You prob-
ably recall that two key parts of a waveform are the wavelength and the
amplitude.
FIGURE 20.1 Parts of a wave.

Electronic Communication • 243
The wavelength is the distance over which the wave’s shape repeats
along an axis. A symbol for wavelength most often used is the Greek let-
ter lambda (λ). The amplitude is the measurement either above or below
an axis at its greatest point. The frequency of a wave is determined by the
velocity (v) of a wave, which is the distance traveled over a period of time.
Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is the number of waves that
pass in a second, and is symbolized as f.
The formula showing the relationship between wavelength, frequency,
and velocity is f = v / λ, where v = velocity of the wave (meters/second, m/s),
f = frequency (in Hertz, Hz), and λ = wavelength (in meters, m).
From electronic communication, the size of the wavelength can range
from 1 x 103m in the lower end of the spectrum (radio waves) to 1 x 10-11
at the high end (gamma rays). The frequency increases as the wavelength
decreases, so the very long wavelengths of radio relate to very low frequen-
cies (from 148.5kHz of long wave AM radio), and the very short wave-
lengths of gamma rays relate to very high frequencies (with Hz values up
to 1020).
The amplitude of a wave is also a key concept in electronic communica-
tion. Remember that amplitude can be measured in different ways depend-
ing on the type of wave shape. On non-sinusoidal waves, the peak amplitude
of a wave is the absolute value of the wave (the highest or lowest point). The
amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is a representation of its voltage.
FIGURE 20.2 Longer wavelengths relate to lower frequencies. Frequency increases as we move to the right
on this chart.

Phase is the synchronous relationship between two waves; it is how

closely timed, or synchronized, they are. A wave’s phase can’t be described
without the presence of another wave. When two waves are not synchro-
nized, they are considered to be out of phase. The difference in timing
between two waves’ movements along an axis determine the amount they
are out of phase.
Radio Waves
Radio waves are the most widely used signals in electronics communi-
cation. They are used in radio and television broadcasting, mobile phones,
and wireless computer networking signals such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
The range of radio wave frequencies encompasses ultra-low frequency sig-
nals to high-frequency signals, each with its own properties of transmission.
Low frequencies can travel long distances and aren’t dependent on a line
of sight between transmission points. High frequencies are much more de-
pendent on line-of-sight transmission and are less likely to be able to trans-
mit through buildings or natural obstacles.
The robot project in this book uses 42kHz frequency waves. It

is in the ultrasonic range of frequencies, meaning it is a higher
frequency than is audible to the human ear. The human ear can
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
detect and interpret as sound frequencies in the acoustic range,
which goes from 20Hz to 20kHz.
Microwaves
Microwaves are used in short-range point-to-point communication ap-
plications, in satellite communications, and in radar applications. The ad-
vantages of using microwaves for communication are that they have a high
bandwidth and they use line-of-sight technology, so the same frequency can
be used as long as they don’t cross paths. The disadvantages of using micro-
waves for communication is that they do require line-of-sight relationships
between transmitter and receiver and they are affected by environmental
factors.

Infrared
Infrared light is used in short-range communication applications such
as in sensors or between two nearby devices. Signals can be sent between
LEDs and photodiodes, or with infrared lasers across longer distances.
Many TV and other remote control devices use infrared light.
Visible Light
The visible light portion of the spectrum can be used to transmit and
receive information, but it is not widely used for this purpose. However,
there is considerable research into its use as a very large bandwidth trans-
mission medium.
Ultraviolet, X-Rays, and Gamma Rays

Using the high frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum as a
transmission signal is problematic because the radiation associated with a
portion of the spectrum can be harmful to health. High-frequency waves do
play a role in many types of sensors and photodiodes measure these waves
to detect many naturally occurring signals.
Radiation, scientifically speaking, refers to all energy emitted in rays

DEFINITION
or waves.
Higher-frequency waves are known as ionizing radiation. These waves
are energetic enough to separate electrons from atoms, creating ions. That
doesn’t necessarily mean that they are dangerous to health, but this effect
does mean that these rays should be shielded to reduce the possibility of
damage to the DNA in cells and as such, their use as a means of electronic
communication has to be balanced against their potential harm.
Encoding and Decoding a Signal

A signal in electronics communication can be as simple as a measure-
ment of the voltage or amplitude. For example, for a pressure sensor that
switches on a circuit to provide a certain threshold voltage, the only signal

required is enough pressure. This type of electronic communication re-

quires very little sophistication in encoding or reading the signal.
Other methods of electronic communications involve modulation.
Modulation starts with what is called a carrier signal wave. The carrier sig-
nal wave is transmitted as a constant signal wave layered with an informa-
tion signal wave. Modulation is the process of encoding the information
that is sent along with the carrier signal.
There are three primary methods of modulation: amplitude modulation
(AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). Both ana-
log and digital communications use these methods to send signals.
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation encodes the information signal wave within the
amplitude of the carrier signal wave. In the following figure, notice how
the carrier wave is the outside limits of the wave. The information is stored
within the “envelope” of the carrier wave.
Frequency Modulation
With frequency modulation, the carrier signal wave is set to a particular
steady frequency and information is set within minor variations above and
below that frequency. It is a bit harder to visualize, but note in the following
FIGURE 20.3 Amplitude modulation.

FIGURE 20.4. Frequency Modulation.
figure that the information is encoded above and below the carrier signal
wave.
Phase Modulation
In phase modulation, the encoding and the decoding of the informa-
tion signal wave requires a timing key. The information signal wave is a set
off-phase from the carrier signal wave. The difference in phase contains
FIGURE 20.5 Phase modulation.

the information. The timing key is required at the transmitting end and the
receiving end of the communication.
The receiver uses a type of filter called a bandpass filter to select only
signals that fall within a certain range of frequencies or wavelengths. The in-
formation is then separated from the carrier wave signal by a demodulator.
A modem is a device that modulates and demodulates. It is a com-

bination of the two terms modulator and demodulator. The com-
munication of data across the Internet requires both the sending
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
and receiving of signals, and modems serve as the gateway for this
communication.
A demodulator may also be called a detector even though it does more

than detect. It decodes the signal by separating the carrier signal from the
information.
Rasterization
To send a visual image via electronic means, it is necessary to convert
it into a mathematical representation of a visual image, a process called
rasterization. A three-dimensional (3D) visual image is described geometri-
cally as a series of polygons composed of various triangles. The relationship
between these shapes can be expressed mathematically to create a two-
dimensional (2D) image that can be displayed on a television, computer, or
camera screen. Once the image is expressed mathematically, it can be sent
as an electronic signal.
When the signal for an image is received, it is constructed of a series of
instructions for pixels or dots that are arranged according to the rasterized
signal. Information such as color and brightness can also be embedded in
the signal.
Lab 20-1: Building an FM Stereo Transmitter

In this lab, you will build an FM stereo transmitter from a kit manu-
factured by Electronic Rainbow and sold by Jameco Electronics at www.
jameco.com (manufacturer no. FMST-100). Included in the package are
instructions, the schematic, and all of the parts necessary for construction.

An FM stereo transmitter enables you to send an audio signal from a

stereo in your living room to speakers throughout the whole house. This
project tunes from 88MHz to 108MHz, which is the FM frequency band
in most countries.
The radio signal is created with the use of a current applied to an
oscillator, in this case, a 38KHz crystal. This crystal is a piezoelectric mate-
rial that creates its own electrical signal at very precise frequencies. You
can tune to a specific frequency by adjusting the level of voltage applied
through the use of capacitors and resistors in an oscillator circuit.
The kit includes a printed circuit board (PCB) with clear markings that
indicate where each component should be placed as well as the appropriate
polarity direction of the components.
Materials:
1 FMST-100 kit
1 antenna (you can use any RCA cable)
1 9V battery
Instructions:
The instructions that come with the kit give good step-by-step advice,
but here is an overview of the process:
1. Place and solder the resistors as indicated by the kit instructions.

2. Place the IC socket, the inductor, and the crystal as indicated.
3. Place the capacitors as indicated. Remember that on a capacity, if the
polarity isn’t marked clearly, the long lead side is positive.
4. Place the remaining parts, being sure to carefully look over all of your
solders and double-check placement of all parts before inserting your IC.
5. Add an antenna
Follow the instructions for testing and tuning your transmitter. To tune
your transmitter, use the plastic tool (do not use a metal tool!) included in
the kit. For course tuning, adjust the coil marked L1. To make fine fre-
quency adjustments, also called fine tuning, adjust the coil marked R3.
You can adjust the volume (amplification) in each channel (right and
left) by adjusting R1 for the right channel and R2 for the left channel.

The Least You Should Know

■■ Electronics communication relies of the representation of information
in waveform.
■■ Communications involve encoding, transmitting, receiving, and
decoding.
■■ Signal types are spread across the electromagnetic spectrum from radio
waves to gamma rays.
■■ Signals are sent along carrier waves using amplitude, frequency, and
phase modulation.
■■ Rasterization is the encoding of visual images into an electronic signal.
1. To transmit information in electronics, there are four steps: encoding,

, receiving, and .
2. True/False. The human body is incapable of sending off signals without

electronics.
3. is a term used to describe unwanted signals in
communication.
4. Longer wavelengths relate to lower/higher frequencies.
5. amplitude is the absolute value of the wave above or
below an axis.
6. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are types of waves.
7. True/False. Microwave signals can be disrupted by crossing paths.
8. light is used in short-range communication such as TV
remotes.
9. True/False. Frequency modulation requires the use of a timing key.
10. To send visual information, the image is converted to a mathematical
expression in a process called .

7
PART
CONSTRUCTING A ROBOT
AND USING RASPBERRY PI
W
e give you two options to program with two of the most popular
open-source microcontrollers: the Netduino and the Arduino.
Choosing between Netduino and Arduino is a matter of personal
preference and comfort levels with the two programming environments.
There are hardware differences that will affect choices between the two,
but for our purposes and for most basic projects, either will suit someone
starting out. Arduino has a larger community and Netduino is often favored
by those who are comfortable programming in C#. If you are not yet a
programmer, explore some of the communities online to help you decide
between the two.
To get started building your very own robot, you first need to do a little
shopping. Once you have all your supplies, you’ll need to do some basic
programming using your home computer and a microcontroller, attach
some wheels, and give it some motor power and control.
Then we look at all of the sensors that we can use to give your robot its
many jobs. At their most basic level, sensors sense things. Imagine anything
that can be sensed—light, temperature, radio signals, gases, and a whole
lot more—and there is probably a sensor that detects it. The information
that the sensors provide can be fed back to your robot and, with your help,
your robot can use the information to make decisions. You will use a very
sophisticated ultrasonic sensor to detect objects and make your robot do
something unsophisticated: dance.
The Raspberry Pi is an affordable and adaptable small computer that
many electronics hobbyists are using for their projects. We teach you the
basics of connecting it to various inputs and outputs so you can tackle more
complex projects.
Basic Electronics_CH21 A.indd 251 5/27/2020 1:02:18 PM

CHAPTER
21A
ARDUINO: BUILDING
YOUR ROBOT
In This Chapter
●● Shopping for Your Robot
●● Get the Software You Need
●● Connecting Your Arduino and Getting to Work
T
ime to get your geek on: first by shopping, then by building a robot—
a machine that follows a set of instructions to perform different tasks
without human assistance. We sourced our parts through Sparkfun.
com but see Appendix E for other resources.
Feel free to shop at any store you like and choose different components.
Shopping for Your Robot

All of the parts and components you’ll need for projects in the rest of
this book are available from a wide variety of sites online. We have created
a public wish list at Sparkfun (https://www.sparkfun.com/wish_lists/91937)
to make things easier. This list contains both the Netduino and the Arduino
so be sure to uncheck the one you won’t be using.
Feel free to shop elsewhere and choose different components. Want
wheels instead of tracks? Want to use Lego sheets? This is your chance to

make your robot your own. Most of the connections and construction are
made to be reconfigurable—screws and bolts, snap-in pieces—so you can
adapt and add-on. We want you to try getting the basics together of a micro-
controller (to program), motors (to drive), wheels or tracks (to move), and
the addition of a sensor (to provide feedback to the microcontroller) that
work together to make a functioning robot.
When you go online to make your purchases, download the

manufacturer’s data sheets for the products you buy. These are a
trove of information on everything from circuit diagrams, instruc-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE tions, operating conditions, safety advice, and much more.
Our shopping list includes the following:
Arduino microcontroller DEV-11021

Ardumoto motor driver shield DEV-09815
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1 SEN-00639
Wall Adapter Power Supply-9VDC, 650 mA TOL-00298
9V to Barrel Jack Adapter PRT-09518
Break Away Headers-Straight PRT-00116
Breadboard Mini Self-Adhesive PRT-07916
Break Away Headers-Right Angle PRT-00553
Universal Plate Set ROB-10016
Arduino Stackable Header Kit PRT-10007
Screw Terminals 3.5mm Pitch (2-Pin) PRT-08084
Battery Holder - 4xAA to Barrel Jack Connector PRT-09835
Dual Motor GearBox ROB-00319
Standoff - Metal (4-40; 3/8”; 10 pack) PRT-10739
Screw - Phillips Head (1/2”, 4-40, 10 pack) PRT-10452
Nut - Metal (4-40, 10 pack) PRT-10454
Long Universal Arm Set Item # 70156
Universal Plate L - 210x160mm Item # 70172
You should be able to purchase all of these items for under $175.
These items are available directly from the manufacturer at www.Tami-
yaUSA.com.

Arduino: Building Your Robot • 255
Get the Software You Need

The software you need to program your microcontroller is available for
free download. Go to the Arduino website at http://www.arduino.cc/. We
will be using IDE (version 1.0.5-r2 for Windows): http://arduino.google-
code.com/files/arduino-1.0.5-r2-windows.exe.
Follow the steps to install the software. We recommend the default
Arduino setup installation.
Connecting Your Arduino and Getting to Work

Connect the Arduino microcontroller to your PC with the universal
serial bus (USB) cable that comes with it. Your system should detect it and
set up all the drivers.
Now you are ready to start your first program. This program makes an
LED on the system board blink. In the process of creating this program, you
will be introduced to working with the Arduino programming environment and
some of the basic programming we will expand on later in the book.
FIGURE 21A.1 The various parts on your Arduino microcontroller.

The program running on your computer is called an IDE. This

will take the code you write in C++ and translate into a machine-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
friendly language. You will only see the C++ language code.
1. Start the Arduino IDE.

2. On the menu bar chose File > Examples > Basics > Blink.
3. A new window will open with your code loaded in for you.
The code should look like this.
FIGURE 21A.2 The Arduino IDE start screen.
FIGURE 21A.3 Choosing the Blink Example.

Arduino: Building Your Robot • 257
FIGURE 21A.4 The code for Blink in the Arduino IDE.

Let’s take a look at what your code is doing. The “int led = 13” line is
a name so we can use that name later in our code. Further down you see
“pinMode(led, OUTPUT);” this is setting pin 13 as an output. In the last
section, we set up a loop function and set it to run forever “void loop()”.
The “digitalWrite(led, HIGH);” and the “digitalWrite(led, LOW);” sec-
tions are setting the voltage to HIGH and LOW is setting the voltage to
LOW.
The “delay(1000);” is calling for 1000 milliseconds or 1 second.
4. Your Arduino should still be connected by the USB cable, so now press
the arrow button at the top of the window.
5. After a few seconds, you should see the LED on the Arduino blinking.
FIGURE 21A.5 Upload to Arduino using the FIGURE 21A.6 See the blinking LED as
indicated button. indicated above.

CHAPTER
21B
NETDUINO: BUILDING
YOUR ROBOT
In This Chapter
●● Shopping for Your Robot
●● Get the Software You Need
●● Connecting Your Netduino and Getting to Work
●● Downloading to the Netduino Microcontroller
T
ime to get your geek on: first by shopping, then by building a robot—
a machine that follows a set of instructions to perform different tasks
without human assistance. By the time you’re done with this chapter,
you’ll have your robot up and running and even performing a trick or two.
You’ll also have the knowledge you need to try your own programs and add
some capabilities on your own.
Shopping for Your Robot

All of the parts and components you’ll need for projects in the rest of
this book are available from a wide variety of sites online. We have created
a public wish list at Sparkfun (https://www.sparkfun.com/wish_lists/91937)
to make things easier. This list contains both the Netduino and the Arduino
so be sure to uncheck the one you won’t be using.
Feel free to shop elsewhere and choose different components. Want
wheels instead of tracks? Want to use Lego sheets? This is your chance to
Basic Electronics_CH21 B.indd 259 5/27/2020 1:03:28 PM

make your robot your own. Most of the connections and construction are
made to be reconfigurable—screws and bolts, snap-in pieces—so you can
adapt and add-on. We want you to try getting the basics together of a micro-
controller (to program), motors (to drive), wheels or tracks (to move), and
the addition of a sensor (to provide feedback to the microcontroller) that
work together to make a functioning robot.
When you go online to make your purchases, download the

manufacturer’s data sheets for the products you buy. These are a
trove of information on everything from circuit diagrams, instruc-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE tions, operating conditions, safety advice, and much more.
Our shopping list includes the following:
Netduino microcontroller DEV-11663

Ardumoto motor driver shield DEV-09815
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1 SEN-00639
Wall Adapter Power Supply-9VDC, 650 mA TOL-00298
9V to Barrel Jack Adapter PRT-09518
Break Away Headers-Straight PRT-00116
Breadboard Mini Self-Adhesive PRT-07916
Break Away Headers-Right Angle PRT-00553
Universal Plate Set ROB-10016
Arduino Stackable Header Kit PRT-10007
Screw Terminals 3.5mm Pitch (2-Pin) PRT-08084
Battery Holder - 4xAA to Barrel Jack Connector PRT-09835
Dual Motor GearBox ROB-00319
Standoff - Metal (4-40; 3/8”; 10 pack) PRT-10739
Screw - Phillips Head (1/2”, 4-40, 10 pack) PRT-10452
Nut - Metal (4-40, 10 pack) PRT-10454
Long Universal Arm Set Item # 70156
Universal Plate L - 210x160mm Item # 70172
You should be able to purchase all of these items for under $175.
These items are available directly from the manufacturer at www.Tami-
yaUSA.com.

Netduino: Building Your Robot • 261
Get the Software You Need

The software you need to program your microcontroller is available for free
download. Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express is part of the .NET Framework,
which is an integrated development environment (IDE) that provides support
for programming in multiple languages, debugging, and much more. The .NET
Framework is a set of standards that enables programmers to develop programs
in one of several programming languages and to have their programs run on
any processor that is designed to work under these standards. Working outside
of this framework requires knowing the particular demands of each processor,
often with its own quirks and “dialect” of even the standard languages.
We will be working in the C# (pronounced C sharp) language for the
.NET Framework. This will require layering support for the .NET Micro
Framework onto the .NET, which expands the environment from computer
processors to work with microcontrollers.
The Netduino microcontroller is specifically designed to take advan-
tage of the .NET Micro Framework. These tools are designed to work with
Windows operating systems. On each linked page, you will find any mini-
mum requirements.
You can find all of download links at http://www.netduino.com/downloads/.
FIGURE 21B.1 The Netduino download page. Choose the downloads under the Netduino.

Connecting Your Netduino and Getting to Work

The Netduino Microcontroller has 14 digital input/output (I/O) pins, 6
analog input pins, and power ground (GND) pins; they are all labeled on
the board. There is also a programmable button and a light-emitting diode
(LED). You will be working with the LED in this section.
Connect the Netduino microcontroller to your PC with the Micro uni-
versal serial bus (USB) cable that comes with it. Your system should detect
it and set up all the drivers.
Now you are ready to start your first program. This program makes
an LED on the system board blink. In the process of creating this pro-
gram, you will be introduced to working with the C# programming en-
vironment and some of the basic programming we will expand on later
in the book.
The program running on your computer is called a compiler. This

will take the code you write in C# and translate into a machine-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
friendly language. You will only see the C# language code.
FIGURE 21B.2 The various parts on your Netduino microcontroller.

1. Start Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express.

2. Choose New Project.
3. Click the triangle next to Visual C# in the upper-left corner to expand
the list. Choose Micro Framework. In the project type list, choose
Netduino Application and name the project LED Blink.
4. Click OK. You should now see the following screen.
FIGURE 21.3 The start page for Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express. Choose New Project.
FIGURE 21B.4 Choose Netduino Application.

FIGURE 21B.5 You should see the LED Blink project on the list.
5. Double-click Program.cs in the list on the right. This creates the

proper form to start writing your code.
6. You can now start typing code immediately after “//write your code
here”.
OutputPort led = new OutputPort(Pins.ONBOARD_LED, false);
while (true)
{
led.Write(true);
Thread.Sleep(250);
led.Write(false);
Thread.Sleep(250);
}

FIGURE 21B.6 Start typing code here.
FIGURE 21B.7 Your code as it should be entered.
In the first line of code, you are creating a new output, naming it “led”
and telling the program to use the pin named ONBOARD_LED. You may
have noticed when typing that a list of pins appears from which you can
choose the pin rather than typing in the complete name of the pin.

Adding “false” after the pin name sets the LED to “off” as its default
state.
The “while (true)” statement tells the LED what to do when it is on.
The “led.Write(true);” statement turns the LED on.
The “Thread.Sleep(250);” statement keeps the LED on for 250 mil-
liseconds (ms).
The “led.Write(false)” statement turns the LED off and the line
“Thread.Sleep(250)” sets the time interval at 250 ms.
When writing code, you will get prompts on what the compiler
thinks you may need next; this is called intelli-sense. A short list
of possible commands to use next will pop up. You can select
WATTAGE TO THE WISE this command with the arrow keys and then press the Tab key to
insert it into the code you are writing.
Downloading to the Netduino Microcontroller

Now let’s download the code to your Netduino Microcontroller.
1. From the menu bar, choose Project, then LED Blink Properties.
2. Under Target framework, select .NET Micro Framework 4.1, and
under Transport, select USB.
FIGURE 21B.8 Under Target framework, select .NET Micro Framework 4.1.

FIGURE 21B.9 Under TRANSPORT, select USB.
3. Under the file menu, choose Save all then click the green play arrow
on the top menu bar or press F5 to debug the program. If your code is
correct, it will load the program you entered onto your Netduino. The
LED on the microcontroller will be blinking. If you have any errors or
bugs, the screen on your computer will highlight any bugs that need to
be corrected. Check that your code is typed correctly, as typos are the
most common errors.
A bug is an error in programming that causes unintended consequences.
DEFINITION To debug a program is to find errors and correct them.
FIGURE 21B.10 If you installed the program correctly, your LED should be blinking.

CHAPTER
22A
ARDUINO: GETTING
YOUR ROBOT MOVING
In This Chapter
●● Mounting your motor and microcontroller
●● Adding power
●● Programming your robot to start and stop
●● Controlling your robot’s speed
●● Assembling the robot platform
Y
ou can’t have a robot that just sits there. Let’s get things moving by
mounting a motor, adding a power supply, and giving the robot some
controls. We’ll start with a few commands, but the tools are in your
hands if you want to add more.
Get Your Motor on Board

Now it’s time to add features to your robot to get it moving.
Assembling the Motor Driver Shield

Materials:
Soldering Iron
Solder

Circuit board holder

The parts included with the Arduomoto Motor Driver Shield:
Motor driver shield
Shield board
2 6-pin stackable headers
2 2-pin screw terminals
Instructions:
Sparkfun has a great online tutorial on putting the motor driver shield
together with color photos and soldering tips. You can find them on the
product page on their website (www.sparkfun.com). Follow their instruc-
tions and assemble the shield.
Power It Up
Initially, power for your Arduino Microcontroller came from your
computer via the Micro USB cable. This provided enough power for
programming the device and making the light-emitting diode (LED)
blink.
We need to also consider power for the motors; the 5 volts coming
from your controller is fine for small tasks like talking to the attached
shields but not enough to provide power for the drive motors. In fact,
attaching something that needs more than 35 milliamps can damage
your microcontroller.
Take a look at the motor shield and you will see “VIN Max 12V” and two
holes for connecting an external power source. We used a 9V battery with
the 9V battery clip with wire to connect here.
Programming Your Robot to Start and Stop

Now let’s write some code to control the motors. You will set and
name the output ports and then have them go forward for 500 millisec-

Arduino: Getting Your Robot Moving • 271
FIGURE 22A.1 Attach battery as indicated above.
FIGURE 22A.2 The battery is attached
onds then backward for 500 milliseconds and repeat until you discon-
nect the power.
1. Start the Arduino IDE as you did in Chapter 21.

2. Type the following code:

You can disconnect the Micro USB cable after you have success-
fully uploaded the code to the Arduino Microcontroller. It will
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
hold the code until you reprogram it.
3. Click the arrow icon to upload to the Arduino.

4. Reconnect the power cord, keeping the wheels elevated. Watch the
motor go forward and in reverse. The code you entered tells the motor
what to do.

Arduino: Getting Your Robot Moving • 273
5. Disconnect the power cord when you are sure that everything is
functioning.
After you load a program onto your Arduino Microcontroller, the

program will run as soon as you supply power to the microcon-
troller.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
Identifying the I/O Pins

Unlike the Netduino, all of the digital I/O pins can perform PWM or
any other digital I/O function. See the image in the previous chapter, which
shows the various parts of your Arduino for identifying the output and input
pins.
Assembling the Robot Platform

The track and wheel set does come with instructions for building with
the universal plate set, but we had to modify the instructions to make this
platform hold the microcontroller and range sensor discussed in the next
chapter. We used a hack saw to cut the top piece to the size we wanted and
did the same for the supports to attach it to the wheel base. Be sure to
leave enough room to attach your parts and yet still keep everything close
enough to make your connections. Below are images of our robot under
construction.
FIGURE 22A.3 The universal plate with mounted motors.

FIGURE 22A.4 Assembled universal plate with tank tracks.
FIGURE 22A.5 Top plate for mounting microcontroller, batteries, and range sensor, as discussed in Chapter
23. We cut the top plate and the supports to hold the microcontroller, batteries, and sensor.

CHAPTER
22B
NETDUINO: GETTING
YOUR ROBOT MOVING
In This Chapter
●● Mounting your motor and microcontroller
●● Adding power
●● Programming your robot to start and stop
●● Controlling your robot’s speed
●● Assembling the robot platform
Y
ou can’t have a robot that just sits there. Let’s get things moving by
mounting a motor, adding a power supply, and giving the robot some
controls. We’ll start with a few commands, but the tools are in your
hands if you want to add more.
Get Your Motor on Board

Now it’s time to add features to your robot to get it moving.
Assembling the Motor Driver Shield

Materials:
Soldering Iron
Solder

The parts included with the Arduomoto Motor Driver Shield are as
follows:
Motor driver shield
Shield board
2 2-pin screw terminals
Instructions:
Sparkfun has a great online tutorial on putting the motor driver shield
together with color photos and soldering tips. You can find them on the
product page on their website (www.sparkfun.com). Follow their instruc-
tions and assemble the shield.
After assembling the motor shield, you will need to make one small
change. This shield was designed for the Arduino microcontroller, and we
are using a Netduino microcontroller; some of the output pins are different.
The Netduino uses I/O pins 6 and 9 for PWM (pulse width modula-
tion) but the input for PWM on the motor shield is on 3 and 11. You will
see them labeled on the board as PWMA and PWMB. This is an easy fix.
1. On the bottom of the board, trim off pin leads 3 and 11.
2. Next, use two small jumper wires on the top side. Use one to connect 3
to 6 and the other to connect 9 to 11.
After these changes, the output from the Netduino will be connected to
the right input on the motor shield.
Power It Up
Initially, power for your Netduino Microcontroller came from your
computer via the Micro USB cable. This provided enough power for pro-
gramming the device and making the light-emitting diode (LED) blink.
We need to also consider power for the motors. The 5 volts coming from
your controller is fine for small tasks like talking to the attached shields but
not enough to provide power for the drive motors. In fact, attaching some-
thing that needs more than 35 milliamps can damage your microcontroller.

Netduino: Getting Your Robot Moving • 277
FIGURE 22B.1 Attach battery as indicated above.
FIGURE 22B.2 The battery is attached.
Take a look at the motor shield and you will see “VIN Max 12V” and two
holes for connecting an external power source. We used a 9V battery with
the 9V battery clip with wire to connect here.

Programming Your Robot to Start and Stop

Now let’s write some C# code to control the motors. You will set and
name the output ports and then have them go forward for 500 milliseconds
then backward for 500 milliseconds and repeat until you disconnect the
power.
1. Start Microsoft Visual C# 2010 on your computer. Choose New Project

just as you did in Chapter 21.
2. Open the file project.cs and below the phrase “//write your code here,”
type the following code:
OutputPort Motor1 = newOutputPort(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D12,
false);
OutputPort Motor2 = newOutputPort(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D13, false);
while (true)
{
Motor1.Write(true);
Motor2.Write(true);
Thread.Sleep(500);
Motor1.Write(false);
Thread.Sleep(500);
}
3. Be sure to change the project properties to use the USB transport and
the set device to Netduino.
You can disconnect the Micro USB cable after you have successful-
ly uploaded the code to the Netduino microcontroller. It will hold
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
the code until you reprogram it.
4. Press F5 to upload the project to the microcontroller.

5. Reconnect the power cord, keeping the wheels elevated. Watch the
motor go forward and in reverse. The code you entered tells the motor
what to do.
6. Disconnect the power cord when you are sure that everything is func-
tioning.

After you load a program onto your Netduino microcontroller, the

program will run as soon as you supply power to the microcon-
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
troller.
Identifying the I/O Pins

Each input/output (I/O) pin on your Netduino microcontroller has a
particular function, as follows:
Digital pins 0 to 1: UART 1 RX, TX
Digital pins 2 to 3: UART 2 RX, TX
I/O pins 0 through 3 are UART (universal asynchronous) RX (receiver),
TX (transmitter); they are send and receive I/O pins that are used for serial
communications.
Digital pins 5 to 6: PWM, PWM
I/O pins 5 and 6 are used for PWM (pulse width modulation).
Digital pins 7 to 8: UART 2 RTS, CTS
I/O pins 7 and 8 are UART RTS (request-to-send) and CTS (clear-to-
send).
Digital pins 9 to 10: PWM, PWM
I/O pins 9 and 10 are also used for PWM.
Digital pins 11 to 13: SPI, MOSI, MISO, SPCK
I/O pins 11 to 13 are SPI (serial peripheral interface) pins, which can be
programmed as MOSI (master output/slave input), MISO (master input/
slave output), and/or SPCK (serial clock). These pins are used mainly for
sending commands to the Arduomoto Motor Driver Shield. When you set
the output state to TRUE, the motors will go forward, and when you set the
output state to FALSE, the motors will go backward.
All of these pins can do a lot more than what we describe here, but
we will keep it simple for now. What you do need to know is that the I/O
pins have specific functions. For example, you cannot program pin 11
to send PWM signals, but you can use pins 5 ,6, 9, or 10 to send PWM
signals.

Adding Speed Control

You can now start to add the speed control program code:
PWM pwm1 = new PWM(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D6);
OutputPort Motor1 = new OutputPort(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D12, false);
while (true)
{
pwm1.SetDutyCycle(30);
Motor1.Write(true);
Motor2.Write(true);
Thread.Sleep(5000);
Thread.Sleep(5000);
}
You have just told your robot to go forward for 5,000 milliseconds (ms)
with the speed reduced by about two-thirds by setting the pulse width mod-
ulation (PWM) with the following lines:
nn PWM pwm1 = new PWM(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D6);

nn PWM pwm2 = new PWM(Pins.GPIO_PIN_D9);
You have set the speed with the following lines:
nn pwm2.SetDutyCycle(30);
nn pwm1.SetDutyCycle(30);
The 30 in parentheses represents a value on the available duty cycle for
this motor shield, which has a range of 0 to 255. By reducing the duty cycle,
you have reduced the speed of the motor.
1. Make sure the power cord is disconnected before you load the program-
ming onto your robot.
2. Connect the Micro USB and press play or F5 to
load the program.

FIGURE 22B.3 Motor shield with jumpers.
FIGURE 22B.4 The universal plate with mounted motors.
FIGURE 22B.5 Assembled universal plate with tank tracks.

3. Disconnect the Micro USB cable.

4. Reconnect the power cord and let it run.
Your robot should run forward for 500ms, then reverse for 500ms re-
peatedly at a fraction of the speed from the first program.
Assembling the Robot Platform

The track and wheel set does come with instructions for building with
the universal plate set, but we had to modify the instructions to make this
platform to hold the microcontroller and range sensor discussed in the next
chapter. We used a hack saw to cut the top piece to the size we wanted and
did the same for the supports to attach it to the wheel base. Be sure to
leave enough room to attach your parts and yet still keep everything close
enough to make your connections. Below are images of our robot under
construction.
FIGURE 22B.6 Top plate for mounting the microcontroller, batteries, and range sensor discussed in Chapter
23. We cut the top plate and the supports to hold the microcontroller, batteries, and sensor.

CHAPTER
23A
ARDUINO: ADDING
SENSORS TO YOUR ROBOT
In This Chapter
●● Attaching an ultrasonic range finder to your robot
●● Setting up the power switch
●● Coding for collision avoidance
●● Letting your robot go
O
nce the wheels are spinning under the control of your program,
you have successfully built a robot. But you can do so much more
with a combination of new programming and add-on sensors. This
chapter gets you going by adding a sensor that can detect objects and their
distance through the use of ultrasound waves.
Adding Collision Control

Your robot goes backward and forward, which is cool enough, but let’s
take it further. Let’s have it go forward until it senses an object. Then we can
have it turn and go the other way until it encounters something again. This
process is known as collision control.
We will be using the MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder to tell the bot
when it’s within a certain distance from an object. You will use that infor-
mation combined with instructions written in C++ code to perform these
actions.

FIGURE 23A.1 The LV-EZ1 Ultrasonic Rangefinder by MaxBotix.
The Ultrasonic Range Finder

First you need to understand what the range finder does and how it
works. We are using an LV-EZ1 Ultrasonic Rangefinder from MaxBotix,
Inc. Download the data sheet for the range finder from MaxBotix’s website
at www.maxbotix.com.
The range finder works by sending out a 42kHz ultrasonic sound
wave and then calculating the time it takes for the sound wave to be
reflected back based on the speed of sound. Connect the range finder
to your Arduino microcontroller using the analog output pin labeled AN
on the sensor.
For every inch it measures, it produces a signal to the microcontroller
in increments of 10mV from 0 to 255 inches. So if you are 10 inches away
from an object, the signal would be 100mV. By sensing the signal, you can
calculate the distance and give instructions accordingly. You can view this
action by using your breadboard and a DMM.
Lab 23: Sensing Distance

In this lab, you will see how the sensor detects the distance from an
object and the output it supplies as you read it on the DMM.

Arduino: Adding Sensors to Your Robot • 285
Materials:
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1
Breadboard
5V power supply
Jumper wire
DMM
Instructions:
1. Connect the 5V power supply to the pin labeled +5.
2. Connect the pin labeled GND to GND.
3. Set your DMM to read VDC.
4. Connect the black lead to the GND.
5. Connect the red lead to the pin labeled AN.
6. Turn the power on.
7. Move your hand in front of the sensor; as you do, the voltage will
change. The closer you are, the lower the voltage produced; the farther
you move away, the higher the voltage produced.
FIGURE 23A.2 MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1 with pins labeled.

Adding the Sensor to Your Robot

You are now ready to attach the Maxbotix LV-EZ1 sensor to your robot.
Grab your robot and let’s get to work.
Materials:
Your robot
Double-sided tape
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder Maxbotix LV-EZ1 sensor
Small breadboard
Jumper wire
Instructions: Arduino
1. Use double-sided tape to secure the small breadboard to the front of the
robot.
Use the photo to see that all you need to do is use the jumper wire to
directly connect the Arduino GND to GND, 5V to 5V and A0 to AN.
Adding a Power Switch

To make it easy to power your robot on and off, it’s time to connect a
single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch between the battery and the power
input on the Arduino Microcontroller.
FIGURE 23A.3 Ultrasonic Rangefinder connected for testing.

Here are the steps:
1. On the 9V-to-barreljack adapter cable, working from the end that has
the battery connector, strip off approximately 6 inches of the outer insu-
lation, exposing the red and black wires.
2. Determine where you want to place your switch, making sure to leave
plenty of ground clearance between your robot’s base and the running
surface.
3. Attach your switch to your base. Bring the black wire to the switch leads
to see where to make your cut.
4. Cut the black wire and strip off enough of the black insulation to make
your connections.
5. Solder the wires to the switch lead.
Planning and Writing the Code

Let’s first plan out what we want to do and create a flowchart of what
we want to happen.
This flowchart may seem very simple, but as you work on more compli-
cated programs, you will find that using a flowchart helps to produce bug-
resistant, if not bug-proof, programs. You can use proper flowchart symbols
if you wish, but even a list of steps will help you accomplish your goals.
FIGURE 23A.4 Flowchart for the robot.

Arduino Code
The code for your Arduino is as follows:
When the analog input reads a value of less than 6, one of the wheels
will reverse direction causing the robot to spin until the analog input reads
greater than 6, then the robot will start moving forward again.
FIGURE 23A.4 Flowchart for the robot.

FIGURE 23A.5 Completed robot.
Letting Your Robot Roam

Now it’s time to load the programming to your computer and let your
robot roam free in the world. First, make sure the power switch is off on the
robot. Connect the Micro USB cable from your computer to your Netduino
and press the F5 key to load the code onto the robot. After it is done load-
ing, disconnect the USB cable, place the robot on the floor, flip the power
switch, and watch your robot go!

CHAPTER
23B
NETDUINO: ADDING
SENSORS TO YOUR ROBOT
In This Chapter
●● Attaching an ultrasonic range finder to your robot
●● Setting up the power switch
●● Coding for collision avoidance
●● Letting your robot go
O
nce the wheels are spinning under the control of your program,
you have successfully built a robot. But you can do so much more
with a combination of new programming and add-on sensors. This
chapter gets you going by adding a sensor that can detect objects and their
distance through the use of ultrasound waves.
Adding Collision Control

Your robot goes backward and forward, which is cool enough, but let’s
take it further. Let’s have it go forward until it senses an object. Then we can
have it turn and go the other way until it encounters something again. This
process is known as collision control.

We will be using the MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder to tell the bot

when it’s within a certain distance from an object. You will use that infor-
mation combined with instructions written in C# code to perform these
actions.
The Ultrasonic Range Finder

First you need to understand what the range finder does and how it
works. We are using an LV-EZ1 Ultrasonic Rangefinder from MaxBotix,
Inc. Download the data sheet for the range finder from MaxBotix’s website
at www.maxbotix.com.
The range finder works by sending out a 42kHz ultrasonic sound
wave and then calculates the time it takes for the sound wave to be re-
flected back based on the speed of sound. Connect the range finder to
your Netduino microcontroller using the analog output pin labeled AN
on the sensor.
For every inch it measures, it produces a signal to the microcontroller
in increments of 10mV from 0 to 255 inches. So if you are 10 inches away
from an object, the signal would be 100mV. By sensing the signal, you can
calculate the distance and give instructions accordingly. You can view this
action by using your breadboard and a DMM.
FIGURE 23B.1 The LV-EZ1 Ultrasonic Rangefinder by MaxBotix.

Netduino: Adding Sensors to Your Robot • 293
Lab 23-1: Sensing Distance

In this lab, you will see how the sensor detects distance from an object
and the output it supplies as you read it on the DMM.
Materials:
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1
Breadboard
5V power supply
Jumper wire
DMM
Instructions:
1. Connect the 5V power supply to the pin labeled +5.
2. Connect the pin labeled GND to GND.
3. Set your DMM to read VDC.
4. Connect the black lead to the GND.
FIGURE 23B.2 MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder LV-EZ1 with pins labeled.

5. Connect the red lead to the pin labeled AN.

6. Turn the power on.
7. Move your hand in front of the sensor; as you do, the voltage will
change. The closer you are, the lower the voltage produced; the farther
you move away, the higher the voltage produced.
Adding the Sensor to Your Robot

You are now ready to attach the Maxbotix LV-EZ1 sensor to your robot.
Grab your robot and let’s get to work.
Materials:
Your robot
Double-sided tape
MaxBotix Ultrasonic Rangefinder Maxbotix LV-EZ1 sensor
Small breadboard
Jumper wire
100μF capacitor
100Ω resistor
Instructions:
1. Use double-sided tape to secure the small breadboard to the front of the
robot.
2. Use the following diagram to make connections between the motor
shield on your robot, the breadboard, and the sensor. Add the sensor
to the breadboard so that the sensing side is facing forward (the circuit
board will be facing the rear). The sensor will insert directly onto the
breadboard. The connections between the breadboard and the motor
shield should be made with jumper wire. Notice the placement of the
100μF capacitor and the 100Ω resistor.

FIGURE 23B.3 Connection diagram for sensor; connections to be made on the small breadboard.
Adding a Power Switch

To make it easy to power your robot on and off, it’s time to connect a
single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch between the battery and the power
input on the Netduino Microcontroller.
Here are the steps:

1. On the 9V-to-barreljack adapter cable, working from the end that has
the battery connector, strip off approximately 6 inches of the outer insu-
lation, exposing the red and black wires.
2. Determine where you want to place your switch, making sure to leave
plenty of ground clearance between your robot’s base and the running
surface.
3. Attach your switch to your base. Bring the black wire to the switch leads
to see where to make your cut.
4. Cut the black wire and strip off enough of the black insulation to make
your connections.
5. Solder the wires to the switch lead.
Planning and Writing the Code

Let’s first plan out what we want to do and create a flowchart of what
we want to happen.

FIGURE 23B.4 Flowchart for the robot.
This flowchart may seem very simple, but as you work on more compli-
cated programs, you will find that using a flowchart helps to produce bug-
resistant, if not bug-proof, programs. You can use proper flowchart symbols
if you wish, but even a list of steps will help you accomplish your goals.
Now we can add code to provide collision avoidance. Insert this code
just below the comment line “//write your code here” but above the PWM
lines:
AnalogInput a5 = new AnalogInput(Pins.GPIO_PIN_A5);
This code creates a new analog input named a5 and assigns it to analog
pin 5. Now, add this code below the last output motor line:
int i = a5.Read();
if (i > 20)
This will read the input and, if the value is greater than 20, the robot
will move forward. If the value is less than or equal to 20, the “else” state-
ment will kick in. This reverses one of the motors, which will make one
wheel reverse and cause the robot to spin away from the object until the
input value is once again above 20. When it reaches 20, it will return to
normal forward motion.
Here’s the full code for your robot so far:
// write your code here
AnalogInput a5 = new AnalogInput(Pins.GPIO_PIN_A5);



int i = a5.Read();
if (i > 20)
while (true)
{
Motor1.Write(true);
Motor2.Write(true);
}
else
{
Motor2.Write(true);
}
}
Letting Your Robot Roam

Now it’s time to load the programming to your computer and let your
robot roam free in the world. First, make sure the power switch is off on the
robot. Connect the Micro USB cable from your computer to your Netduino
and press the F5 key to load the code onto the robot. After it is done loading,
disconnect the USB cable, place the robot on the floor, flip the power switch,
and watch your robot go!
FIGURE 23B.5 Completed robot.

CHAPTER
24
USING RASPBERRY PI IN
YOUR ELECTRONICS
PROJECTS
Getting to know and configuring your Raspberry Pi V3
In This Chapter
ll Setting up your Raspberry Pi with an OS
ll Adding Inputs and Outputs (I/O) to your Pi
ll Using the Python command shell
ll Programming with Python on the Pi
ll Programming a button in Python
ll Controlling an LED with the button
N
ow that you have learned how to work with your microcon-
troller, why would you want to work with a Raspberry Pi? Each
has its advantages, and you want to choose the right tool for
the right job, but it may come down to your own preferences for a pro-
gramming and operating environment. A microcontroller is designed
more for embedded applications that require less power, but many
projects would benefit from the c apabilities that come from using a

full-computer programmable in languages such as Python, Java, C, C++, or

Perl. Or perhaps, someone with a programming background would prefer
to work in a more familiar environment. In this chapter, we will get you
started with working with Raspberry Pi for e lectronics projects by learning
how to connect it to various inputs and outputs (I/O).
Setting up Your Raspberry Pi with an OS

Your Pi is a small computer and will need an operating system (OS).
For the labs in this book we will be using Raspbian. This is a version of
Debian LINUX made for the Raspberry Pi and it includes everything you
will need to write the programs using the Python integrated development
environment (IDE).
An easy way to get started is to purchase a Pi that includes a Micro SD
card with the Raspbian OS already installed and ready to use. A good o ption
is the starter kit from Adafruit kit which comes with everything you will
need for all the labs in this section.
For all of these labs, you will also need a keyboard, mouse, and monitor.
You can connect the Pi to the keyboard and mouse with USB connectors
and your monitor with an HDMI connector.
https://www.adafruit.com/product/3058
We made one change to this configuration by choosing a differ-
ent GPIO extension board. We made this change because we found
the ribbon cable placement was hard to
work with using the one that comes with the
starter kit. We used a “T”-shaped one from
Sunfounder.
https://www.sunfounder.com/40-pin-gpio-
extension-board-for-raspberry-pi-b-and-
rapsberry-pi-2.html
We will not cover configuring your own
OS on a Micro SD card as the options vary
depending on the OS you have on your home
PC (MS Windows, Mac OS, or LINUX, which Figure 24.1 ÒTÓ-shaped GPIO
all can be used). extension board.

Using Raspberry Pi in Your Electronics Projects • 301
We do recommend checking out all the different Pi OSs available as the

choices to find the one most well-suited to your preferences.
https://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads/
The Pi uses a HDMI port for video out and USB for keyboard and
mouse connections.
Figure 24.2 Connections for the Raspberry Pi 3.
The Micro SD card is inserted into a slot on the underside of the Pi.
Figure 24.3 SD card slot.

For power, the Pi uses a MicroUSB connection (the Adafruit kit in-
cludes a power supply). This is a very common connection-type and one
nice thing about this is it makes easy to connect a battery to power your Pi.
We have found that a simple external battery pack used for charging mobile
phones is a great option.
Adding Inputs and Outputs (I/O) to Your Pi

In this book, when the labs refer to needing a Raspberry Pi 3, this means
a complete set-up. This includes a Pi power supply, monitor, mouse, and key-
board. An internet connection can be helpful, but is not needed for the labs.
Materials:
1 Raspberry Pi 3, connected to your keyboard, mouse and monitor.
1 ribbon cable
1 GPIO
1 LED (any color)
1 47Ω resistor
2 jumper wires
1 breadboard
The Raspberry Pi 3 has 40 I/O pins. We will be using a GPIO connected
to a breadboard to perform the labs in this section.
1. Connect the ribbon cable, being careful to align the cable with pin one
on the Pi and pin one on the GPIO. The ribbon cable will have a colored
stripe on one side to indicate the connection to pin 1.
Figure 24.4 Ribbon cable connection.

The breadboard we used has numbers running down the sides. Try to
align the pins of the GPIO with the numbers on your breadboard. This
should make it easier to not confuse the I/O pins.
Figure 24.5 Breadboard alignment. Figure 24.6 Pin 1.
2. Connect one end of a jumper wire to a 3V3 pin and the other end of the
jumper wire to one side of a 47Ω resistor. Connect the other side of the
resistor to the long leg (anode) of the LED.
3. Connect a jumper wire to a GRND pin and the other end to the short
leg (cathode) of the LED.
4. Connect the ribbon cable to the Pi interface board.
5. Power on the Pi by connecting the MicroUSB power supply.
The LED should light up. If it doesn’t, check your jumper connections
and the resistor value.

Figure 24.7 Completed circuit. (Note this image, 24.8, 24.11, and 24.13 were created using the open source
tools available from fritzing.org)

Using the Python Command Shell

Next, we will make a change from the previous circuit.
Move the jumper wire from the 3V3 pin to GPIO17.
The LED should no longer be on. If it is, check your wiring c onnections.
Figure 24.8 Circuit with GPIO17 connection.

Figure 24.9 Choosing Python 3(IDLE).
Now we get to use the Pi as a computer. From the home screen,

choose the Raspberry icon in the upper left hand corner then choose
“Programming” then “Python 3(IDLE)”.
The Raspberry Pi uses IDLE instead of IDE, Integrated

DeveLopment Environment or Integrated Development Learning
Environment.
WATTAGE TO THE WISE
At the “>>>” prompt, start typing the following, and press “Enter” after
each line:
from gpiozero import LED
led = LED(17)
Now we will turn on the LED. At the “>>>” prompt type the following,
and press enter after each line:
led.on()
The LED should now be on. If it isn’t, check your connections.

led.off()
The LED should now be off.
Programming with Python on the Pi

The major difference between programming for a Microcontroller and
the Pi is that the IDE is running on the Pi. This makes debugging and
testing much quicker as there is no upload to the controller.

The circuit remains the same as above. Let’s write some code.
From your Pi screen, start a new file by selecting the Raspberry icon
in the upper left hand corner, then choose “Programming ,” and then
“Python 3(IDLE).”
Now choose “File>New File.”
In the new window, choose “File>Save As.”
Give the file a name. Lets use “blink.py.”
Click “Save.”
In the open window type:
from gpiozero import LED
from time import sleep
led = LED(17)
while True:
led.on()
sleep(1)
led.off()
sleep(1)
Figure 24.10 Code for blink.py.
Now choose “File>Save.”

Press the F5 key to run the program.
The LED should start blinking on and off
To end the program on your keyboard, press Ctrl + C.
Programming a Button in Python

Working from the circuit above, connect a jumper wire from GPIO12
to one leg of the button. Leave the LED connected (but we won’t use it in
these next steps).

Connect a jumper wire from GND to the leg next to the one you just
used.
Figure 24.11 Adding a button to the circuit.

From your Pi screen, choose the Raspberry icon in the upper left hand
corner, then choose “Programming ,” and then “Python 3(IDLE).”
Give the file a name. Let’s use “buttonHello.py.”
Click “Save.”
from gpiozero import Button
button = Button(12)
button.wait_for_press()
print('button pressed')
Now choose “File>Save.”

Press the F5 key to run the program.
You should see in the Python Shell window “button pressed.”
Figure 24.12 Button pressed in the Python Shell window.
Controlling an LED with the Button

Let’s combine the button and have it control the LED.
From your Pi screen, choose the Raspberry icon in the upper left hand
corner, then choose “Programming ,” and then “Python 3(IDLE).”
Give the file a name. Let’s use “ButtonLEDblink.py.”
Click “Save.”

Figure 24.13 The circuit with button and LED.


from gpiozero import LED, Button
from time import sleep
led = LED(17)
button = Button(12)
button.wait_for_press()
led.on()
sleep(3)
led.off()
Press the F5 key to run the program. When you press the button, the
LED will turn on for 3 seconds and then turn off. Pressing the button will
do nothing.
Going Forth
There are lots of fun projects online and in books and magazines. A great
resource for next steps is RaspberryPi.org. With a little more research and
tweaks, you can adapt your robot from the previous chapters to be driven by
your Pi or take on all of the possibilities your electronics knowledge paired
with this powerful little computer provide.

CHAPTER
25
CYBERSECURITY AND THE
INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)
FOR ELECTRONICS PROJECTS
T
he next step for many electronics projects is adding the im-
mense opportunities made possible by connecting your proj-
ects to the Internet. Your project can become part of the In-
ternet of Things (IoT). The functionality of your device can enable
you to monitor whatever you are sensing, give commands remotely,
or interact with people or devices anywhere.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the community of devices that

connect to the Internet, allowing the devices to communicate with
other connected devices and allowing for upload and/or download
DEFINITION
of data. These devices are less likely to have a reliance on human-
controlled communication. Instead they are involved in sensing,
collecting, transmitting, and receiving data.
The Security Challenge

As designers, we must consider the responsibility we hold as we
add our devices to the IoT. There are dangers of our devices getting
taken control of by bad actors or compromised devices. Our devices
could be damaged, perform damaging actions, or join a group of
compromised devices in attacking other resources on the Internet.
We need to consider risk in everything we do in our designs. It
is a similar process in addressing other safety concerns. We wouldn’t

design a flamethrower robot without considering safety. There are many

commercially available products that have not taken the very real risks of
compromise into consideration during their design process.
The areas of risk are as follows:
■■ Privacy of the data gathered by the device—From seemingly harmless
data on how much your plants need watering to the location of your
wallet in your home, there may be unconsidered risks to the data being
freely accessible. Your dried-out plants might indicate that you are on
vacation and your home is empty. If someone enters your home and
can locate your wallet, you may have given a roadmap to your cash and
credit cards.
■■ Control of your device—If your IoT device is able to accept commands
via the Internet, then a bad actor (even a bored actor poking around
the Internet) might execute commands that will damage your device or
perform actions that it is able to perform.
■■ Adding your device to a botnet—Your device could be added to a group
of devices that have their powers redirected to attacking other IoT de-
vices or human-controlled devices connected to the Internet. Even de-
vices with more limited computing power can do great damage—from
overloading a website in a DDoS attack or as a malware delivery device.
A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is an attack of multiple

users (whether human-controlled or IoT devices) attempting to connect to
DEFINITION
the resources of a website or other server, service, or network with the aim
of disabling the availability of that target.
Controlling the Risk

Asking the questions while you are designing your device can help to
prevent complications after the problem becomes real. Consider the fol-
lowing ways to mitigate the security risk for your device. You can harden
each to prevent the loss of data, privacy, or control.
■■ Access—Prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to your
device, from simply the data being leaked to the complete control of
your device.

Cybersecurity and the Internet of Things (IoT) for Electronics Projects • 315
■■ Function—If your device can perform functions after commands over

the Internet, are there functions that are very dangerous if not con-
trolled? For example, a flamethrower robot is something that you would
have incredibly tight controls for, including—and up to—NOT connect-
ing it to the Internet.
■■ Updates—The IoT currently has multitudes of IoT devices that were
deployed but are not being updated with current security settings. Many
are from businesses that are no longer in existence. This is a matter
of threat above the control of individual designers, but it is the ethical
thing to do to not contribute to this problem by connecting your device
to the IoT without considering security.
Resources for Securing Your Device

The first and most important question is “Does my device need to be
connected?” After that, it is a matter of controlling remote access to your
device. The smart use of passwords is essential. Implementation of 2FA
(two-factor authentication), if supported, is always recommended. 2FA
means that in addition to a password, a user must confirm the log-in via
an authenticator that provides a unique code for each log-in. The authen-
ticator can be generated using an authenticator app, text message, email,
or hardware authenticator. This is an extra layer of protection in case of
password compromise or stored passwords on a device that is not in your
possession.
Many microcontrollers are not connectable to the Internet right out
of the box, so whichever module you add to enable WiFi will have its own
security system. When choosing a module, ensure that there are some se-
curity features. Some will rely on you connecting to a home network that is
secured by a firewall.
A firewall is a network security device that provides security on incoming

and outgoing network traffic typically between an internal network and the
DEFINITION
Internet.
Ensure that your network firewall is secured well and receiving up-
dates. Again, the most important thing is not to use default passwords. Most
home and small business users rely on the Internet Service Provider (ISP)’s
hardware. Contact your ISP for information on how to configure network
security systems.

Some devices, like a Raspberry Pi, provide the information pages for
setting up security
(for example, https://www.raspberrypi.org/documentation/configuration/
security.md)
FIGURE 25.1 Securing your IoT device.
Security Is All of Our Responsibility

The responsibility to ensure that we think about security as a user and
now as a designer of devices that join the IoT is essential to the health of
the Internet. We must be aware of the threats of damage to our devices, and
the threat of our device doing damage to other devices and the vulnerability
of either or both. Where all those interests overlap is the cybersecurity risk.
FIGURE 25.2 Assessing risk for your IoT device.

Cybersecurity and the Internet of Things (IoT) for Electronics Projects • 317
More information on IoT security is available at the National Institute

for Standards and Technology’s (NIST) Cybersecurity for IoT Program
page.
https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/nist-cybersecurity-iot-program
While this information is focused more on the industrial level of IoT
design, for any maker of IoT devices, it explains that security should not be
an afterthought. It should be part of the design process from the beginning.
The authors of NIST’s Considerations for Managing Internet of Things
(IoT) Cybersecurity and Privacy Risks (NISTIR 8228, https://csrc.nist.gov/
publications/detail/nistir/8228/final) emphasize that there are three high-
level risk mitigation goals:
1. Protect device security, i.e., prevent an IoT device from being used
to conduct attacks.
2. Protect security of data, including personally identifiable informa-
tion; and
3. Protect individuals’ privacy.
1. What does IoT stand for?

2. When we talk about access in an IoT device, we refer only to access to
the control of the device. True/False.
3. Once a device is connected to the IoT, it is the responsibility of the
device creator to ensure that it is updated to remain secure. True/
False.
4. Define DDoS.
5. Name the three high-level risk mitigation goals according to NIST.

APPENDIX
A
GLOSSARY
accelerometer a sensor that measures acceleration relative to free fall.
actuation force the force required to throw the actuator.
actuator a mechanical system that controls a device or system.
algorithm a mathematical formula.
alloy is a combination of two metals.
alternating current (AC) electron flow in both directions alternating
between forward and backward. It also has changes in polarity.
alternator an AC electrical generator.
ampere a coulomb of current that moves through a point in one s econd.
amplifier a circuit or device that increases a signal.
amplitude the measurement of the distance of any point of the wave
that is above or below the center or mean line.
analog describes systems that are continuous as opposed to stepped.
An analog signal can be represented by a wave and not individual, uncon-
nected points.
anode an electrode that receives current.
armature the rotating arm in a brushed motor that interacts with the
stator to create a torque on it.
assembly language a low-level programming instruction that uses
symbols to represent the machine code.
Basic Electronics_CH26_Appendix A.indd 319 5/27/2020 1:14:54 PM

atom the smallest unit of each element.

battery a power source that uses chemical energy to produce and store
electrical energy.
bias refers to the direction of the voltage, either forward or reverse.
binary-coded decimal a method of depicting decimal values by as-
signing a binary value to each of the decimal digits.
binary system a base-2 numbering system, with two digits: 1 and 0.
bit a binary digit.
Boolean algebra a system that applies classical logic to mathematical
operations.
breadboard a reusuable solderless circuit board.
brushed motor a type of motor that uses brushes as contacts.
bug is an error in programming that causes unintended consequences.
To debug a program is to find errors and correct them.
bus in electronics, the electrical connection between components; in
computing, the transfer system of information between components.
byte eight bits.
capacitance the ability to store charge.
capacitors an electrical component that can store charge (electrons).
catalytic capable of causing or accelerating a chemical reaction.
cathode an electrode that current flows out of.
central processing unit (CPU) an element of a computing system
that performs instructions.
checksum a method of error protection that compares transmissions
to a stored algorithm.
chip in electronics, an integrated circuit that is embedded on a
material.
circuit a pathway that allows current to flow through components.
circuit breaker a reusable component that protects against short
circuits.

Glossary • 321
circuit diagram a pictorial description of an electronic circuit.

code (in computer programming) instructions in a program. Coding
means programming. Source code is the instructions in a particular lan-
guage; generally, it is not written in a user-level language.
coulomb a unit of measurement equal to approximately 6.25 × 1018
electrons.
combustible the capability to burn or ignite.
commutator a ring with gaps that makes the connections between the
power brushes and the armature in a brushed DC motor.
component an element in an electronic circuit; they can be passive or
active.
conductivity the tendency of a material to allow the free flow of
electrons.
conductor material that allows the flow of electrons.
conservation of energy is the principle that energy is never lost or
gained without the application of an outside force. Along with conservation
of mass, it is one of the fundamental laws of physics.
contact bounce the energy sent back into a circuit from the mechani-
cal force of contact being made.
conventional theory the early belief that current travels from positive
to negative.
crystalline structure structure in solids that have an orderly, repeat-
ing pattern.
cycle one complete evolution of a wave’s shape.
Darlington pairs two transistors sold as one with the leads arranged
as if they were one unit.
data sheet the instructions, schematics, and other technical informa-
tion provided by a component, circuit, or the device’s manufacturer.
daughterboard a circuit board that connects directly to the central
processing unit or motherboard.
decoder a circuit that decodes a signal from machine-readable code.

desoldering the process of removing solder.

dialect a form of a programming language specific to a particular pro-
gramming environment.
digital systems that are composed of discrete steps. A digital signal is
not a continuous wave, but a series of unconnected points.
diodes components that permit electric flow in a single direction and
act against flow in the opposite direction.
direct current (DC) electron flow that is unidirectional.
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is an attack of multiple
users (whether human-controlled or via IoT devices) attempting to connect
to the resources of a website or other server, service, or network with the
aim of disabling the availability of that target.
donor impurity a material that when added to a semiconductor causes
it to lose or gain electrons.
doping in electronics, adding impurities, usually to a semiconductor.
electric arc the transfer of current through a gas, not through a pre-
scribed circuit or conductive material but instead by creating a plasma.
Lightning is an example of an electric arc.
electricity the energy created by the movement of charged particles.
electrode a terminal or connector between a conductor and a nonme-
tallic part of a circuit.
electrolyte a substance that has free ions that can become conductive.
electromagnetic force the attractive force that exists between posi-
tive charge protons and negatively charged electrons.
electromotive force the “push” that gets the electrons jumping from
one atom to another, sending a current of electrical flow along the way. See
also potential difference, voltage.
electron theory current travels from negative to positive. This op-
posed conventional theory, which was the misunderstanding held by early
experimenters who mistakenly thought that current traveled from positive
to negative.
electronics the study of electron flow (electricity) and the devices that
control electron flow to perform work.

Glossary • 323
electrostatic force the force that bonds the protons and the electrons
of an atom.
element the most basic unit of each distinct type of matter.
encoder a circuit that represents a signal in machine-readable code.
engineering notation scientific notation that uses powers of 10 that
are divisible by 3 to coordinate with metric prefixes.
EPROM electrically programmable read-only memory.
farad a unit of measurement equal to the charge in coulombs required
to raise the voltage across the capacitor by one volt.
firewall a network security device that provides security on incoming
and outgoing network traffic, typically between an internal network and the
Internet.
flux a chemical used to clean oxidation from components prior to
soldering.
forward error correction a method of error protection that sends
redundant transmissions.
frequency the number of complete cycles in a given amount of time.
function generator an instrument that creates waveforms and signals.
fuse a single-use component that protects against short circuits.
gain the increase in a signal.
gravitational force the measure of acceleration relative to free-fall.
gauge is a wire’s thickness, and determines the amount of current (am-
perage) a wire can carry. It is measured at the wire’s diameter and doesn’t
include the insulating covering.
heat sink a device that assists in cooling by increasing the surface area.
Hertz equal to one cycle per second.
hexadecimal a base-16 numbering system; it has the digits 0–9, plus
A–F.
I-type semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor, meaning that it
is a material that has excited electrons even when no dopant is introduced;
instead, the electrons are excited through thermal excitation or by crystal-
line defect when a current is applied.

induction the production of voltage as a conductive material travels

through a magnetic field.
insulators materials that resist the flow of electrons.
integrated circuit (IC) a miniaturized circuit that rests on a semicon-
ductor base, also known as a chip.
Internet of Things (IoT) the community of devices that connects to
the Internet allowing the devices to communicate with other connected
devices and allowing for upload and/or download of data. These devices are
less likely to have a reliance on human-controlled communication. Instead,
they are involved in sensing, collecting, transmitting, and receiving data.
inverter a circuit or device that converts DC to AC.
Joule’s First Law derived from Ohm’s Law, the formula that relates
power, voltage, and current: P = V × I.
junction is each particular meeting of wire and component along a
circuit.
logic gate a circuit that performs a logical function.
logic probe a device that indicates the binary state of a circuit.
machine code/language programming instructions understandable
by the central processing unit of a computer.
magnetometer a sensor, also known as a digital compass, that senses
orientation relative to magnetic north.
matter all physical objects; everything that has mass (measurable stuff)
and volume (measurable occupation of space) is matter.
mechatronics a scientific field that synthesizes mechanical and elec-
trical engineering, electronics, and control theory.
microcontroller (MCU or μC) a self-contained embedded computer.
microphone a transducer, or sensor, that detects sound waves and con-
verts them to an electrical signal.
microprocessor an integrated circuit that serves as the CPU for a
computer.
mixed signal a circuit or device that uses analog and digital signals.
neutron a subatomic particle that doesn’t carry an electrical charge.

Glossary • 325
nibble four bits.

noise is any unwanted interference with a signal. Noise sources can be
natural, due to the natural interaction of electromagnetic fields, or man-
made—from motors, fluorescent lights, radio or radar transmissions, wire-
less signals, and numerous other sources.
nonvolatile memory memory that is stored even when power is not
supplied.
N-type semiconductor a semiconductor that has been doped to have
an excess of negative charge.
nucleus the central part of an atom that contains the protons and
neutrons.
Ohm the level of resistance that allows the one volt of electromagnetic
force to move one ampere across two points on a circuit.
Ohm’s Law the basic formula relating voltage, current, and resistance:
V = I × R.
operand a quantity that has a mathematical or logical operation per-
formed on it.
oscilloscope a tool that depicts the waveforms produced by electrical
current, both AC and DC. It allows you to analyze quickly the voltage and
wave characteristics of the current.
oxidation a chemical reaction between a material and oxygen; or the
process of an atom losing electrons.
parity bit a bit that is used to check for errors in transmission that re-
lies on whether the value is odd or even.
peak amplitude is the point of the wave that is farthest from the mean
line; it can be positive (above the mean line) or negative (below the mean
line).
period the amount of time to complete one cycle.
periodic table of elements a pictorial description of the known
elements.
phase a synchronous relationship between two waves.
phase shift adjustment to the relationship between two waves.

photodiode a diode that converts light energy into electrical current.

photoresistor a resistor that is reactive to light energy.
piezoelectricity electric charge created in certain materials (usually
with a crystalline structure) when pressure is applied.
polarity an electrical charge (negative or positive).
pole a setting on a switch.
potential difference the “push” that gets the electrons jumping from
one atom to another, sending a current of electrical flow along the way. See
also electromotive force, voltage.
potentiometer a component that acts as a voltage divider to control
the amount of signal that flows through a circuit.
power voltage multiplied by current.
primary battery a battery that is non-rechargeable after the depletion
of its stored energy.
proton a subatomic particle that carries a positive electrical charge.
p-type semiconductor a semiconductor that has been doped to have
an excess of positive charge.
radiation refers to all energy emitted in rays or waves. Higher-fre-
quency waves are known as ionizing radiation. These waves are energetic
enough to separate electrons from atoms, creating ions.
RAM random access memory.
reading in computing, retrieving data.
rectifier a circuit or device that converts AC to DC.
relay a switch that uses an electromagnetic field to control the opening
and closing of a circuit.
resistance the tendency of a material to resist the flow of electrons.
resistors basic electronic components that increase the resistance of a
circuit.
robotics the study of robots, their construction, and control.
ROM read-only memory.

Glossary • 327
rosin is a pine tree resin that has been used as flux for many hundreds
of years for its ability to reduce friction.
scientific notation a system that represents decimal numbers as a
product of the numbers 1 through 9 multiplied by a power of 10.
secondary battery a battery that can be recharged after depletion.
semiconductors materials, generally with crystalline structures, that
are in the middle range of materials as to conductivity or resistance.
sensor a device that feeds back a signal or indication to represent a
measurement.
shell the area around the nucleus where the electrons travel.
signal is information communicated through electromagnetic
ethods.
m
sine wave (also called a sinusoidal wave) is the shape that results from
plotting the mathematical equation y = sin(x). The sine wave is the shape
that occurs most often in ocean waves, sound waves, and light waves.
solder a metal that is melted to form connections between wires and
components.
soldering iron a tool used to melt solder to form connections between
wires and components.
source code the lowest human-readable programming instructions.
stator a stationary magnet used to provide a magnetic field in a motor.
switch a component or device that opens or closes a circuit.
thermistor a resistor that is reactive to temperature.
throw a contact that completes a circuit.
tolerance the percentage in possible variation from the stated value.
torque rotational force; a twisting force around an axis or pivot point. It
is sometimes referred to in mechanical engineering as moment or moment
of force.
trace a wire set into a circuit board.
transducer a device that converts one type of inputted energy into an
output of another type of energy.

transformer a device that can either “step up” or “step down” voltage
in AC through the operation of mutual induction.
transistor an electronics component that amplifies signals or acts as a
switch in a circuit.
truth table a chart of the possible outcomes in a logical decision de-
pending on the inputs.
universal memory the goal of developing memory that is both afford-
able to produce and energy-efficient. It should be fast, nonvolatile, and
resistant to magnetic interference.
valence band/valence shell the outermost electron shell of an atom.
varistor a variable resistor that is designed to protect circuits from ex-
cessive voltage.
volatile memory memory that is lost when power is not supplied.
voltage the “push” that gets the electrons jumping from one atom to
another, sending a current of electrical flow along the way. See also electro-
motive force, potential difference.
voltaic cell a chamber that is composed of two half cells that facilitates
the chemical reaction that produces electrical energy in a battery.
watt a unit of measurement equal to one volt pushing one amp of
c urrent.
waveform a graphical depiction of a signal across the x and y axes to
describe its features.
wetting in soldering, the process of reducing the surface tension to
ease the flow of solder.
writing in computing, storing data in memory.

APPENDIX
B
TIMELINE OF ELECTRONICS
1600 British scientist William Gilbert first uses the word electricity.
1660 Otto von Guericke invents the first electrostatic generator.
1729 Stephen Gray experiments with the concept of the conductivity
of electricity.
1745 While working at Leiden University, Pieter van Musschenbroek
invents the first storage device (a capacitor) for static electricity, the Leyden
Jar (sometimes spelled Leiden).
1747 William Watson creates a circuit that carries the current from
a Leyden Jar. He also adds lead foil to the inside of the jar to increase its
capacity. Benjamin Franklin discusses his ideas about electrical fluid com-
posed of particles. Henry Cavendish measures the conductivity of different
materials.
1750–1752 Benjamin Franklin develops the lightning rod; he explains
that lightning is electricity.
1800 Alessandro Volta invents the first electric battery and shows that
electrical current can travel through wires.
1820 The electromagnet is invented by D. F. Arago.
1820–1821 Charles Babbage proposes a Difference Engine, which is
to be a massive steam-powered mechanical calculator. He later proposes
the Analytical Engine, which uses punch-cards based on the Jacqard loom.
1821 Michael Faraday invents the first electric motor.
1826 Georg Simon Ohm introduces his law: V = IR.
Basic Electronics_CH27_Appendix B.indd 329 5/27/2020 1:15:49 PM

1831 Faraday publishes his principles of induction by electromagne-

tism, generation, and transmission.
1842 Ada Lovelace Byron publishes her analysis of Babbage’s ideas and
lays the foundations for computer programming theory.
1854 George Boole publishes his mathematical ideas, which will form
the basis for Boolean algebra.
1878 Edison Electric Light Company is founded.
1879 The first commercial lighting system is installed in Cleveland,
Ohio; it uses arc lighting. Thomas Edison introduces his incandescent lamp.
1882 The first hydroelectric power station opens in Wisconsin.
1886 William Stanley introduces an alternating current (AC) electric
system, and the work of Frank Sprague develops the technology to use a
transformer system to make long-distance AC transmission possible. The
Westinghouse Electric Company is founded.
1888 Nikola Tesla invents the rotating field AC alternator.
1893 Tesla addresses the Franklin institute in Philadelphia and explains
the theory of radio communication. Westinghouse demonstrates an elec-
tricity generation and transmission system at Chicago’s World Exposition.
1896 Guglielmo Marconi develops the first practical radio system.
1897 The electron is described by J. J. Thomson.
1904 John Ambrose Fleming invents the thermionic valve, the first
radio tube diode.
1906 Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest develop the amplifier
tube, the triode.
1907 De Forest invents the vacuum tube electric amplifier, the
Audion.
1912 Ewin Armstrong introduces the regenerative feedback amplifier
and oscillator.
1920 The first news program is broadcast on radio in Detroit.
1922 Entertainment broadcast radio is launched in England.
1928 Philo Farnsworth presents the first public demonstration of elec-
tronic television.

Timeline of Electronics • 331
1937 Claude Shannon publishes his paper laying the basis for the ap-
plication of binary numbers to switches in electronic circuits, which be-
comes the basis of digital circuit design.
1940 Bell Labs demonstrates the Complex Number Calculator, which
is able to perform calculations over the telephone line.
1941 Konrad Zuse creates the Z3 computer in Berlin. It is destroyed
in a 1943 bombing raid. The Bombe computer is developed from a Polish
design by the British. It is used by the Allied forces to decrypt Nazi war
communications.
1945 John von Neumann outlines the structure of a stored-program
computer, the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (ED-
VAC). It introduces the ideas for the binary system and leads the way for
digital computing.
1947 William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell
Labs invent the transistor. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC) is developed at the University of Pennsylvania.
1948 Freddie William and his colleagues invent the Random Access
Storage Device.
1949 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) is in-
troduced at Cambridge University. It uses subroutines stored on punched
paper tapes and thus is the first practical stored-program computer. It is the
realization of the EDVAC idea.
1950 Engineering Research Associates sells its ERA 1101 (the first
commercially produced computer) to the U.S. Navy. The National Bureau
of Standards constructs two large computers (the SEAC and the SWAC) to
test components. The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) is
the first to use all-diode logic.
1951 Another early commercial computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, is re-
leased. The UNIVAC I built by Remington Rand is sold to the U.S. Census
Bureau.
1953 International Business Machines (IBM) releases its model 701,
the first electronic computer.
1954 Texas Instruments sells the first consumer transistor radio, the
Regency TR1. IBM releases the IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator, the
first mass-produced computer.

1956 The IBM 305 hard disk is released. It can store 5MB.
1958 NEC builds the NEAC 1101, Japan’s first electronic computer.
1959 A germanium-based integrated circuit is patented by Jack Kilby.
Robert Noyce develops a silicon-based integrated circuit. IBM introduces
the 7000 series mainframes—transistor–based computers.
1960 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) students write the
first computer videogame on Digital Equipment Corporation’s (DEC)
PDP-1.
1961 IBM releases the 1401 Data Processing System.
1962 The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOS-
FET) is invented by Steven Hofstein and Frederic Helman. It is cheaper,
smaller, and uses less power than earlier transistors.
1964 Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) is in-
troduced. IBM releases the System/360 mainframe computer. It introduces
the concept of expandability and the use of peripherals.
1965 Robert Lucky of Bell Labs invents the automatic equalizer. Gor-
don Moore publishes the paper that popularizes the idea that integrated
circuits will be able to be twice as complex (that is, that they could be com-
posed of twice as many components) year over year for at least 10 years.
This comes to be known as Moore’s Law.
1966 Hewlett-Packard introduces a general-purpose business com-
puter that supports several computer programs, including BASIC and IBM
Mathematical Formula Translating System (FORTRAN).
1968 Seymour Cray designs the CDC 7600, from CDC, which uses the
idea of peripheral processors working together with a central processing
unit. Doug Engelbart develops a word processor, a collaborative applica-
tion, and an early hypertext system.
1969 A team at MIT and the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) creates the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET); it introduces the concept of data transfer through packets ac-
cessible to multiple machines. ARPANET laid the basis for future systems
that would develop into the Internet. Bell Labs introduces UNIX. Dynamic
random access memory is invented by Robert H. Dennard.

Timeline of Electronics • 333
1971 Ted Hoff and his team at Intel release the first commercial micro-
processor, the Intel 4004. Kenbak-1, the first kit-based personal computer,
is introduced. Bill Gates and Paul Allen develop a computer traffic-analysis
tool.
1972 Hewlett-Packard releases the HP-35, a scientific handheld cal-
culator advertised as “a fast, extremely accurate electronic slide rule.” Atari
releases Pong for the arcade.
1973 Intel releases the Intel 8080, used in the MITS Altair 8800.
1974 Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) develops the Alto,
which uses a mouse for input and can be linked in a small network. Never
sold, it was given to universities for research and development. Bob Kahn
and Vinton Cerf introduce a set of ideas that would become the Internet,
and their paper includes what is considered the first use of the term Inter-
net.
1975 The Altair 8800 is released. It is sold by mail order as a kit and
uses Altair BASIC (developed by Paul Allen and Bill Gates) as its software
language. The Intel 8048 is the first commercially available chip with both
random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) on the same
chip.
1976 Steve Wozniak designs the Apple I.
1977 The Commodore Personal Electronic Transactor (PET) is intro-
duced. It arrives fully assembled and is easy to operate. The Apple II is
released; it can be attached to a color TV to produce color graphics. Radio
Shack sells 10,000 TRS-80s in the first year; it is the first computer designed
for the computer novice.
1978 International Packet Switched Service (IPSS) is launched by the
British Post Office, Western Union International, and Tymnet.
1979 Usenet is established as a Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP) link be-
tween the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill and Duke University.
Compuserve becomes the first public e-mail service for personal computer
users.
1980 Built-in Self Testing (BIST) circuit boards are introduced. Com-
puserve offers real-time chat. Many bulletin board systems (BBS) are
launched, offering online access to other users. The Institute of E
lectrical

and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) publishes the first standards for

Ethernet.
1981 IBM releases its personal computer (PC), which runs on Micro-
soft’s MS-DOS.
1982 The Commodore 64 is released. Having sold more than 22 mil-
lion units by 1993, it is the world’s best-selling single computer. Transmis-
sion Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is established as AR-
PANET’s standard.
1983 Apple’s Lisa is released; it is the first personal computer that runs
a graphical user interface. Compaq releases the first clone of an IBM PC.
1984 Phillips and Sony introduce the CD-ROM. Optical storage be-
gins to replace magnetic storage for some applications.
1989 Tim Berners-Lee lays the groundwork ideas of the World Wide
Web.
1990 The first Ethernet switch is released by Kalpana.
1993 Atmel releases a microcontroller with flash memory.
1997 IBM produces a copper-based chip, which requires less electric-
ity and generates less heat to allow for up to 200 million transistors on a
single chip.
1998 Bell Labs introduces the concept of a plastic transistor that is
printable.
2003 Intel introduces the PXA800F, a microprocessor that combines
both computer processes and cellular processes on a single piece of silicon.
2009 The first touch-screen flexible e-paper was developed by a team
from Arizona State University and E-Ink.
2009 Professor Derek Lovely and a team at University of Massachu-
setts at Amherst engineer a strain of Geobacter bacteria that can produce
electric power from mud and wastewater at eight times the normal rate.
2010 MIT research team led by Rahul Sarpeshkar develops a new chip
that mimics the way the human ear processes signals.
2011 A team at IBM demonstrates a graphene transistor than can
be manufactured using technologies previously used for silicon device
fabrication.

APPENDIX
C
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONICS
In This Appendix
ll Basic Operations and Symbols
ll Multiplication
ll Division
ll Scientific Notation
ll Engineering Notation
ll Order of Operations
ll Solving Equations
ll Binary Numbers
D
o you remember sitting in algebra class and wondering, “When will
I ever use this?” Now’s the time. Electronics gives practical use to
many of the math skills you learned in school. In this appendix, we
freshen up a few concepts so you’re ready to put the basic math of electron-
ics to use.
Basic Operations and Symbols

Most of the math you use in electronics is simple multiplication, divi-
sion, and solving simple algebraic questions. Before you start crunching
numbers on your calculator, take a few minutes to review how to read the
Basic Electronics_CH28_Appendix C.indd 335 5/27/2020 1:16:13 PM

symbols in a formula, learn about exponents, review order of operations,

and then learn about binary numbers.
Multiplication
Multiplication can be represented in a variety of ways using different
symbols. The following equations represent multiplying X times Y:
X×Y
XY
X•Y
X(Y)
In this book, we generally use the X × Y format.
Division
Division is usually represented in one of the following ways:
X÷Y
X/Y
In this book, we use the X / Y format.
Scientific Notation
Using scientific notation makes it much easier to solve equations with
incredibly large or incredibly small numbers.
To express a large number in scientific notation, follow these steps:
1. Determine the coefficient. The coefficient is the single digit at the be-
ginning of the number followed by a decimal point and then any num-
bers that precede the zeroes. For example, the coefficient of 4,560,000
would be 4.56.
2. Count the number of decimal spaces that follow the first digit. This is
the power of 10. Our example is 10 to the sixth power, which is written
as 106.

Mathematics for Electronics • 337
3. Finally, express your number as the coefficient times the power of 10.
So, our number expressed in scientific notation is 4.56 × 106.
For extremely small numbers, you can use negative powers of 10:
1. Determine the coefficient. Look for the first significant digit—that

is, the first nonzero number. If you are trying to express the number
–.00000000056, the coefficient is 5.6.
2. Count the number of decimal spaces that precede and include your first
significant digit—in this case, 10 to the negative 10th power, or 10–10. It is
negative because you are moving to the right of the decimal point.
3. Express the number as the coefficient times the power of 10, which
is 5.6 × 10–10. Notice that it is the power of 10 that is negative, not the
coefficient.
Engineering Notation
In engineering and electronics, most practitioners use engineering no-
tation. Engineering notation sticks to exponents in multiples of 3: 10–3, 100,
103, and 106. This keeps the numbers in line with the metric prefixes such
as milli-, kilo-, and mega-. To express the number 24,000, use 24 × 103 as
engineering notation instead of 2.4 × 104 in scientific notation.
Order of Operations
When presented with an equation, it is important to know where to
start. This is called order of operations. If you don’t follow the proper se-
quence, you will not get the right answer. If you are feeling a little rusty on
these concepts, be sure to double check before proceeding.
First, you solve anything that is in parentheses. This is often called solv-
ing parentheses from the inside out. By solving, we mean doing any ad-
dition, multiplication, or solving of a fraction. Some equations may have
parentheses and brackets surrounding those.
Solve the innermost set first.
Second, solve any exponents.
Third, perform any multiplication and division, from left to right.
Fourth, perform any addition and subtraction, from left to right.

Solving Equations
Electronics involves a lot of equations where you need to use basic al-
gebra to solve an equation to find the value of a variable. There are several
steps to follow when you are solving for a variable.
1. First, combine like terms. If you have a set of values of resistance, for
instance, you should combine them. 120Ω + 220Ω should be simplified
as 340Ω.
2. Next, isolate the variable you wish to solve for. If you want to solve for I
(current) in this equation:
5V = I / 220Ω,
you need to isolate the variable I. In this case you can multiply each side
by 220 to isolate I, as follows:
220Ω × 5V = I / 220Ω × 220
220Ω × 5V = I
I = 220Ω × 5V
I = 1100A
One important note, however, is that when working through electron-
ics equations the various units of measure (Ω, V, and A, for example) aren’t
variables. We don’t want to treat them as if the letters are variables to be
solved. You want to leave them in the equation to keep your units straight.
3. Last, substitute your answer into the original equation and check that it
works.
Binary Numbers
Binary is called a base-2 system, which means that each of the place
numbers represent a power of 2. (The decimal system is a base-10 number-
ing system. Binary has 2 digits—0 and 1—; decimal has 10—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, and 9.) Working from the right, the first place is held by 20, which is
2 × 0, so 0. The next place working from right to left is the 21, which is the
identity of 2, so just 2. Next, 22, which is 2 × 2, so 4. 23, which is 2 × 2 × 2, so
8. This continues infinitely with each place moving to the left representing
a further power of 2.

Mathematics for Electronics • 339
The binary system was used in several ancient traditions, including the
Indian, the Chinese (yin as 0 and yang as 1), the Ifà tradition of West Af-
rica, and in medieval geomancy (divination through the use of rocks, sticks,
and sand) in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. In each system, binary
numbers could serve as symbols to represent a range of values, and each
was formalized so that practitioners could have a uniform way of reading
the symbols.
Each binary digit, called a bit, is a power of 2. To represent the number
1 in the decimal system as a binary number, you would write 01, the num-
ber 2 in decimal is 10 in binary.
One easy approach to convert decimal numbers to binary is to look at
a chart, such as the one included in this section, that has the values of the
powers of 2. Look for the largest power of 2 that will go into that number
without going below 0, put a 1 in that place, then with the remainder go to
the next power of 2, and see if it is large enough to subtract that number.
If it is, enter a 1 in that place, if not, enter a 0, and then do the same until
you have no remainder, entering 0s in any places between your 1s and the
decimal point.
For example, let’s convert the number 9 into binary. 23 or 8 is the largest
power of two that can be subtracted. So, we know that the first 1 we can en-
ter is in the fourth place from the right. 1XXX. 9 – 8 = 1, so our remainder is
1. 22 or 4 is the next power of 2. As you cannot subtract 4 from 1, you would
enter a zero in that place. 10XX. Next, 21 is 2. Again, you cannot subtract
2 from 1, so add another 0. 100X. The last digit would be 1, so the decimal
value 9, is 1001 in binary.
There are eight bits in a byte. A kilobyte is 210 or 1,000 bytes. When
speaking of computer memory storage a kB is actually 1,024 bytes.
The following table lists some decimal values written in binary form:
Decimal 23 (8) 22 (4) 21 (2) 20 (0) Binary
equivalent Value
0 0 0 0 0 0000
1 0 0 0 1 0001
2 0 0 1 0 0010
3 0 0 1 1 0011
4 0 1 0 0 0100
Continued

Decimal 23 (8) 22 (4) 21 (2) 20 (0) Binary

equivalent Value
5 0 1 0 1 0101
6 0 1 1 0 0110
7 0 1 1 1 0111
8 1 0 0 0 1000
9 1 0 0 1 1001
10 1 0 1 0 1010
11 1 0 1 1 1011
12 1 1 0 0 1100
13 1 1 0 1 1101
14 1 1 1 0 1110
15 1 1 1 1 1111

APPENDIX
D
CAREERS IN ELECTRONICS
In This Appendix
ll Training for a Career in Electronics
ll The Hobbyist and Curious Self-Taught
ll Electronics Technician
ll Electronics Technologist or Engineer
ll Graduate Level Electronics Engineer
ll Career Fields
ll Computers and Information Technology
ll Automotive and Transportation
ll Construction and Building Maintenance
ll Biotechnology
ll Manufacturing
ll Legal
ll Entertainment, Broadcast Media, and Visual Arts
Training for a Career in Electronics
T
here are four general levels of electronics study, each opening up
different career paths.
Basic Electronics_CH29_Appendix D.indd 341 5/27/2020 1:16:37 PM

The Hobbyist and Curious Self-Taught

General knowledge of electronics and the ability to learn on your own
opens many doors. You can teach yourself how to safely repair your own
electronics around your home, build and share your projects with groups
of other like-minded hobbyists, and even use components to make new
inventions.
By understanding electronics, you can be a more educated consumer
and share your knowledge and passion with your community. As a jour-
nalist or analyst, you can have greater understanding of how things work,
enabling you to see the potential in new developments. By keeping up with
industry news, you can perhaps even use this knowledge to become a better
investor by seeing potential in new start-ups or technologies before the rest
of the pack catches on.
Electronics Technician
Electronics technicians train in a community college or technical school
environment. They learn professional approaches to manufacturing, test-
ing, repairing, and maintaining equipment from the household consumer
level up to the most advanced technologies across many disciplines. The
emphasis is on hands-on and experiential learning, but they should also
have a solid grasp of the theory behind electronics.
To keep current, electronics technicians should be aware of new devel-
opments and technologies through industry publications or further study.
Using the same skills and curiosity as the self-taught, an electronics techni-
cian can bring a lot of value to almost any sort of industry. Being flexible and
curious ensures a long-lasting career and avoids obsolescence.
Electronics technicians should emphasize science and math in their
high school programs with special attention to physics and algebra.
Electronics Technologist or Engineer

Students who undertake the four years of study leading to a Bachelors
of Science in Electrical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, or Comput-
er Engineering work primarily on building a theoretical understanding to
the design and operation of electronic devices. This training enables them

Careers in Electronics • 343
to better analyze the performance of electronic systems and to design solu-

tions to address the needs of industry. Electrical engineers can also work in
sales, project management, or as consultants.
Those who want to pursue a career as an Engineer or Technologist
should take advantage of all of the math courses available to them in high
school to prepare for the further study of math in college. Four years of sci-
ence is also needed, including chemistry and physics.
Graduate Level Electronics Engineer

People with a Master’s degree or Doctorate degree in electrical or com-
puter engineering focus on finding new ways to solve problems and to move
the science of electronics forward by developing new technologies.
Students at this level compete against the best talent from around the
world. They must have excellent academics and a creative mind.
Career Fields
You can put your knowledge of electronics to use in the following fields.
Computers and Information Technology

Electronics and computers go hand in hand. Careers in the field of
Information Technology (IT) might involve specializing in computer repair,
in networking, or in computer support (which requires knowledge of both
software and some electronics).
If you want to pursue a career in IT, you should major in either infor-
mation technology, computer science, or computer engineering. The field
of computer science in most colleges and universities concentrates on the
theories of problem solving, algorithms in math, artificial intelligence, and
computer languages. Computer engineering is the hardware-oriented field
of study. It deals with the components, circuits, and networks linking com-
puters and how they function and communicate.
Knowledge of electronics helps you to “think like a computer” so you
know both the power and the limitations of a computer’s processing ability
so that you can be a better programmer.

Many high schools offer courses in computer science and IT. You can
also gain a lot of knowledge through independent study, courses taught at
training centers and community colleges, and by hands-on experimenta-
tion. You can gain certifications that establish your mastery of a particular
subject to help you establish your proficiency to potential employers.
Automotive and Transportation

All cars manufactured today are a combination of mechanical and elec-
tronic elements. Being a gear-head now requires an understanding of the
electronics that drive a modern engine. Even if you want to upgrade your
car’s audio system, you need to know your amps from your watts and be able
to read a schematic.
Communication and control systems on bots, ships, and trains are all
reliant on electronics, and the field of avionics encompasses the electronics
necessary to communicate, navigate, and display information for airplanes,
jets, satellites, and spacecraft.
Construction and Building Maintenance

Whether in personal homes or on corporate campuses, electronics are
involved in security, climate control, and driving the systems that make
buildings work. Training to be an HVAC technician, security profession-
al, construction equipment operator, or many other construction/building
maintenance careers require study of electronics. Home or facility auto-
mation is an area that is seeing electronics ingenuity creating whole new
market segments for inventors and entrepreneurs.
Biotechnology
The field of biotechnology combines technology and medicine. Wheth-
er maintaining or designing monitors, lab equipment, surgical devices, or
even bionics that replace organs or structures, electronics are essential to
this fast-growing field. Inventors with all levels of training have really ex-
panded what is possible, and their creativity and knowledge can be highly
rewarding both in financial terms and in improving the quality or length of
life.

Careers in Electronics • 345
Manufacturing
In manufacturing, electronics are used not only in the final product but
also in the many processes used to create that product and get it to market.
Whether using robotics to perform a highly detailed manufacturing step or
to track inventory in a plant, electronics allow for more efficient methods
of producing more advanced products and lowering the production costs of
products.
Legal
To act as a patent attorney, one needs to have a technical grounding in
a particular field in addition to the training to be an attorney. People work-
ing in this specialized field create, protect, and defend the rights of those
who hold patents on their intellectual property and defend inventors from
unjustified claims of patent infringement.
To become a patent attorney, an advanced degree is usually required
paired with a law degree. Because of the specific educational require-
ments to be a patent lawyer, there is significant demand for those who are
qualified.
Entertainment, Broadcast Media, and Visual Arts

Whether filling an auditorium with the sound of a few musicians or
broadcasting breaking news from a remote location, knowledge of elec-
tronics is essential in almost every aspect of entertainment and broadcast
media. Using new tools to generate new sounds, music producers are of-
ten experts in using electronics to manipulate sound waves. The process of
broadcasting a satellite signal from a television studio or a city square thou-
sands of miles away relies on the skills of trained technicians. Advances in
electronics and computer processing make movie monsters come alive and
3D images tower above audiences. Even fashion designers and fine artists
are incorporating elements of light and sound waves into their creations.

APPENDIX
E
RESOURCES
In This Appendix
ll Shopping Resources
ll Microcontroller Sources
ll More Specialized Resources
ll Information Resources
O
ne of the most enjoyable aspects of working with electronics is be-
ing part of a community of electronics hobbyists. The new wave
of electronics aficionados call themselves “Makers,” and you will
find communities of Makers both online and in your own towns. Here is
a shopping list for all of the items used in the labs. The parts for the robot
project are listed in those chapters. The list below features items that can
be purchased from general retailers and those that are likely to be found
only at electronics specialty sources. We encourage you also to check your
local area to see if there is a specialty shop nearby. Those stores are likely to
have well-trained staff and fellow customers who can be a terrific resource
for advice, project ideas, and networking events.
Basic Electronics_CH30_Appendix E.indd 347 5/27/2020 1:18:28 PM

Flashlight bulb
9V battery
AA battery
Jumper wire
Masking Tape
Wire cutters
Wire strippers
Screwdriver set
Lamp with magnifying glass
Pliers
Tweezers
Scientific calculator
Logic Probe
Oscilloscope (optional)
Digital multimeter
Breadboard
Solder 60/40
Soldering iron
Solder sucker
Solder wick
Flux
Heat Sink
Clip leads
Function generator
Ground strap
Ground mat
Fire extinguisher Class C type

Resources • 349
2-SPST switches
2 lamps
Red LED
10Ω resistor
8-100Ω resistors
16-270Ω resistors
8-390Ω resistors
8-470Ω resistors
560Ω resistor
100KΩ resistor
1MΩ resistor
Photocell
0.01 µF capacitor
0.047 µ capacitor
10 µF electrolytic capacitor
100 µF electrolytic capacitor
2-220 µF electrolytic capacitors
25Ω rheostat
2N222 NPN transistor
4 or 8 DIP switch
7448 decoder
Common cathode 7 segment display
555 timer
7490 decade counter
1/4 inch mono jack
LM386 op amp
8 pin socket
5 KΩ potentiometer

2-9V battery connectors with leads

8Ω speaker
perf board
This is a kit orderable from Jameco (see below):
DC variable power supply kit 20626(JE215) from Jameco
Shopping Resources
Electronics specialty stores:
Adafruit Industries
www.adafruit.com
Taking inspiration from the Lady Ada Lovelace Byron herself, Adafruit
Industries is more than a store. There are forums, videos, and kits from
the very basic to 3-D printing supplies. They also support skills building
through the Adafruit Academy that connect to badges available for achieve-
ments in electronics, science, and engineering.
DigiKey
www.digikey.com
Aimed more directly at the professional market, this large online store
also has significant education resources and has an active newsroom and
social media presence.
Jameco Electronics
www.jameco.com
Jameco is a great resource for electronics for the hobbyist, the student,
and the professional. It offers a very broad range of products including
brand names, as well as more affordable components.
eBay
www.ebay.com

Resources • 351
This online marketplace connects you to worldwide sources. Often, it

provides the best pricing on electronics parts and robot bases/platforms
and motors.
Raspberry Pi
https://www.raspberrypi.org/
The portal to all things Pi. Forums, downloads, educational videos, and
more are available from this British based educational foundation.
Sparkfun Electronics
www.sparkfun.com
Sparkfun is more than a site that sells electronics components; it de-
scribes itself as a site that believes in “Sharing Ingenuity.” The site includes
a blog, informational videos, and comments from other customers on spe-
cific products that they sell.
Galco.com, Parts-Express.com, Mouser.com, Parallax.com; Pololu.
com; and Allelectronics.com are other stores to explore for a range of parts.
Microcontroller Sources:
Arduino Microcontrollers
www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Hardware
Home to the Arduino microcontroller community.
Microchip
www.microchip.com
Manufacturer of the PIC controllers.
Secret Labs
www.netduino.com
This is the site for the manufacturer of the microcontroller we use in
the robot in the book.

More Specialized Resources:

Extech Instruments
www.extech.com
Extech is a manufacturer and supplier of test and measurement instru-
ments including the DMM we use in all of our projects.
Tamiya USA
www.Tamiyausa.com
If you want to explore more of the radio control (RC) hobby branch of
electronics, Tamiya has all of the controllers, models, parts, and RD vehi-
cles you could need. Sparkfun pointed us their way in recommending their
wheel assemblies and axles for building robots.
Information Resources:
San Jose State University’s Dr. Buff Furman’s Mechatronics Portal
www.engr.sjsu.edu/bjfurman/courses/ME106/mechatronicstutorials.
htm
Dr. Furman links to many online resources.
Microsoft Robotics
www.microsoft.com/robotics/
A portal site for Microsoft’s Robotics Developer Studio 4; it also in-
cludes case studies, tutorials, and links to robotics sources.
Data Sheet Catalog
www.datasheetcatalog.com
This site offers data sheets for just about everything.
Make: Online
www.makezine.com, www.makershed.com, and www.makerfaire.com
Make magazine’s tagline is “technology on your time.” This magazine
both inspires and reflects a renaissance of hands-on invention. The maga-
zine’s site offers podcasts related to the material covered in the magazine

Resources • 353
and the companion store, Makershed. It offers project kits, tools, and books.
Maker Faire is the in-person gathering of Makers and vendors held in the
Bay Area and New York each year with almost 100 more Mini and Featured
Maker Faires held around the world.
Society of Robots
www.societyofrobots.com
Roboticist John Palmisano’s site has materials for beginners through
much more advanced robot designers.

ANSWERS FOR
APPENDIX
F
ODD-NUMBERED
QUESTIONS
Chapter 1
1. negatively
3. ion
5. The physical characteristics and the temperature.
7. negative
9. Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and
Radon (Rn).
Chapter 2
1. The lamp
3. Any 3 of these: Chemical reactions, as in a battery, Electromagnetic
generators, Photovoltaic cells (solar), Generators that convert mechan-
ical energy to electrical energy, Friction, Thermoelectrical sources
5. electrons
7. 1.5V
9. 15W
Basic Electronics_CH31_Appendix F.indd 355 5/27/2020 1:18:45 PM

Chapter 3
1. constant
3. cycle
5. phase
7. closed, no
9. series
Chapter 4
1. gauge
3. wave form
5. breadboard
7. tin, lead
9. function generator
Chapter 5
1. Electrical shock can disrupt muscle contractions causing spasms or

tetanus, affect breathing or heart rate and cause burns both on the skin
and to internal organs.
3. Diagram should include all: a work area, a source of lighting, a source
of ventilation, power, storage, and key safety equipment.
Chapter 6
1. circuit
3. actuator
5. double
7. gravitational
9. key

Answers for Odd-Numbered Questions • 357
Chapter 7
1. fixed
3. this is in reverse, so 1, 5, × 106 which is 15,000,000 or 15 MA
5. ± 2
7. 3,7, × 100 or 37
9. False
Chapter 8
1. dielectric
3. True
5. Air, Hard Rubber, Glass
7. ±0.5
9. True
Chapter 9
1. negatively, neutrally, negatively

3. anode, cathode
5. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
7. False
9. intrinsic
Chapter 10
1. vacuum tubes
3. collector, emitter, base
5. False

7. amplifier
9. open switch
Chapter 11
1. True
3. half cells, electrolyte, separator
5. batteries arranged in series provide higher voltages to a circuit, bat-
teries arranged in parallel reduce the resistance of the batteries which
results in an increase in the overall current.
7. transformer, rectifier, smoothing, and regulator.
9. It is a power supply that draws power from two sources (AC mains and
battery) and can provide battery power if there is an interruption in
the AC mains power to ensure a near-instantaneous switch to prevent
damage or data loss.
Chapter 12
1. An alloy material used to connect items in a circuit

3. A tool that assists in heat escape by increasing the available surface
area
5. A material from pine trees that has been used as flux for many years
7. A tool that aids in the lifting of solder from a joint
9. Copper lines that form conductive paths on a circuit board
Chapter 13
1. LED
3. Resistor
5. Tapped secondary transformer/inductor
7. Diode
9. Potentiometer

Answers for Odd-Numbered Questions • 359
Chapter 14
1. high, low
3. more compact transmission size, less likely to be affected by noise
5. OR
7. NAND
9. XOR
Chapter 15
1. True
3. logic
5. 1
7. astable, monostable, bistable
9. Encoders
Chapter 16
1. sampled
3. 16
5. 0-9. A-F
7. stack data, dynamic
9. False
Chapter 17
1. A computer that is integrated into the operation of a device and isn’t

available for purposes outside of that device.
3. True
5. False

7. False
9. Any two folders: PIC, Atmel AVR, Intel 8051, Intel 8052, and BASIC
Stamp
Chapter 18
1. brushed DC
3. alternating
5. False
7. Hybrid
9. 50
Chapter 19
1. mercury thermometer, weather vane

3. transducer
5. Piezoelectricity
7. False
9. electrical
Chapter 20
1. transmitting, decoding
3. Noise
5. Peak
7. True
9. False
Chapter 25
1. Internet of Things
3. True
5. Protect device security, protect security of data, and protect
individuals’ privacy.

LAB VIDEOS, ANIMATIONS,
APPENDIX
G
AND SUPPLEMENTARY
VIDEO DIRECTORY
NOTE: There is no audio for the labs.
Lab 1-1: Controlling an LED with the Button

Lab 2-1: Constructing a Simple Circuit
Lab 4-1: Taking a DC Voltage Reading
Lab 4-2: Taking an AC Voltage Reading
Lab 4-3: Measuring Resistance
Lab 4-4: Measuring Current
Lab 6-1: SPDT Switch
Lab 7-1: Using Ohm’s & Kirchhoff’s Laws to Determine the Proper Resistor
Lab 7-2: Resistors in a Series Circuit
Lab 7-4: Voltage Division Using Fixed Value Resistors
Lab 7-5: Voltage Division Using a Variable Resistor
Lab 8-1: Charging Capacitance
Lab 9-1: Bridge Rectifier Animation
Lab 11-1: Making a Potato Battery
Lab 12-1: Soldering
Lab 12-2: Desoldering
Basic Electronics_CH32_Appendix G.indd 361 6/1/2020 1:54:31 PM

Lab 13-1: Power Supply Kit and Construction

Lab 14-1: AND Gate
Lab 14-2: OR Gate
Lab 15-1: Building a Decoder Circuit
Lab 15-2: 555 Timer with Different Resistor Values to Change Timing
Lab 16-1: Programming a Button in Python
Lab 16-2: Programming with Python on the Pi
Lab 16-3: Using the Python Command Shell
Basic Electronics_CH32_Appendix G.indd 362 6/1/2020 1:54:31 PM

INDEX
A American Society for Code

AC. See alternating current Information Interchange
accelerometers, 235 (ASCII), 192
AC generator, 29 ampere (A), 18
AC mains, 133 amp-hours (AH), 138
Active-High Voltage IC, 186, 187 amplifiers, work of, 125–126
Active-Low Voltage IC, 186, 187 amplitude, 27, 243
AC-to-DC power supply, 138–139 amplitude modulation, 246
AC-to-DC rectifier, 119 analog ICs, 185–186. See also digital
actuation force, 74 ICs
actuator, 74 analog memory storage, 206
AC voltage analog scope, 49
taking reading, 53–54 analog signal, 174
using waves to measure, 33–34 analog-to-digital converters (ADCs),
ADCs. See analog-to-digital 193
converters analog vs. digital, 174–175
address, data and, 208–209 AND gate, 181–182
adequate power, 64 truth table, 177
alcohol sensors, 237–238 anode, 107
algorithms, 207 Arduino code, 288–289
alloy, 148 Arduino IDE, 256–257
alternating current (AC), 26. See also Arduino microcontroller, 219,
direct current (DC) 220–221. See also Netduino
alternator. See AC generator microcontroller
Basic Electronics_CH33_Index.indd 363 5/27/2020 1:23:20 PM

364 • Index
connect to PC and work, 255–258 bit, 180, 339

identifying I/O pins, 273 BJTs. See bipolar junction transistors
powering, 270 BLDC. See brushless DC motors
software need for, 255 Boolean algebra, 175
armature, 226 operations of, 178
ASCII. See American Society for Boolean numbers, 175, 179. See also
Code Information Interchange binary numbers
assembly language, 218 bootloader, 220
Atmel AVR microcontroller, 219 boron doping, 10–11
atomic number of elements, 5 botnet, 314
atoms, and their structure, 3–5 breadboard, 56, 57, 152
automotive field, careers in break before make (BBM), 77
electronics, 344 breakdown, 115
avalanche diode, 116 breakdown voltage, capacitors, 106
bridge rectifier, 118, 119
B broadcast media field, careers in
backup generator, and UPS, 141 electronics, 345
bandpass filter, 248 brushed DC motors, 226–227
basic operations, mathematics in brushless DC motors (BLDC), 227
electronics, 335–336 bug, 185, 267
BASIC Stamp, 219 building maintenance, careers in
batteries electronics, 344
amp-hours (AH), 138 bus, 210
and energy production, 134–135 byte, 180
primary vs. secondary, 135
in series and parallel, 137 C
voltages in, 136 call 911, first aid for electrical shock,
BBM. See break before make 68
BCDs. See binary-coded decimals capacitance, 101
Bhatt, Ajay V., 217–218 calculating, 109
bias, 115 charging, 110–111
bi-metal switches, 78 capacitors. See also specific
binary-coded decimals (BCDs), 180, electronics components
191, 192 breakdown voltage/DC working
binary numbers, 179–180, 338–340 voltage, 106
biotechnology, careers in electronics, in circuit, 109
344 electrolytic, 107
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), nominal value and tolerance, 105
124–126 non-polarized, 107–108

Index • 365
polarized types, 106 checksum, 207

ratings, 104 chemical elements. See elements
relative permittivity, 103–104 circuit board holder, 59
tantalum, 107 circuit boards, 152–153
temperature coefficients, 106 circuit breakers, 38
transient time in DC RC circuit, circuit diagrams, 35–37
109–110 symbols for
variable, 108 Active-High IC, 188
work of, 101–103 Active-Low IC, 187
capacitors ratings, 104 battery, 134
carbon atom, 4 D flip-flop, 189
carbon-film resistor, 84, 86 diode, 116
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), LED diode, 119
first aid for electrical shock, 68 logic gates, 181
careers in electronics MOSFETs, 129
automotive and transportation, 344 non-polarized capacitor, 108
biotechnology, 344 Op-amp, 186
computers and information photodiode, 120
technology, 343–344 PNP BJT and NPN BJT
construction and building transistors, 126
maintenance, 344 polarized capacitor, 106
electronics technician, 342 555 timer, 190
electronics technologist/engineer, transformer, 140
342–343 Zener diode, 117
entertainment, broadcast media, circuits, 15–16, 35. See also currents
and visual arts, 345 capacitors in, 109
graduate level electronics engineer, decoder, building, 193–198
343 serial and parallel, 38–39
hobbyist and curious self-taught, short, 37–38
342 simple, constructing, 23
legal, 345 clamp-on lamps, 64
manufacturing, 345 clip leads, 59
training for, 341 closed circuit, 36
carrier signal wave, 246 CMOS. See complementary metal-
catalytic sensing, 237–238 oxide semiconductor
cathode, 107 code of programming, 218
CD-ROM, 210 CO2 (carbon dioxide) extinguisher,
central processing unit (CPU), 208, 60, 65
218 collision control, robot, 283, 291

366 • Index
color codes, resistors, 84–86 war of, 26–27

color sensors, 236–237 current-to-torque ratio, brushless DC
combustible sensing, 237–238 motors, 227
commutator, 226 cutting-edge FET, 129
complementary metal-oxide cycle, 27
semiconductor (CMOS), 186
high or low voltage, 187 D
components DACs. See digital-to-analog
microcontrollers (MCUs), 217–218 converters
of perf board, 199, 200 Darlington pairs, 127, 128
computers field, careers in data and address, 208–209
electronics, 343–344 daughterboard, 221
conductivity, 8 DC. See direct current
conductors, 9 DC voltage, taking reading, 52–53
examples, 8, 9 DCWV. See direct current working
conservation of energy, 89 voltage
construction field, careers in decoder circuit, building, 193–198
electronics, 344 decoders, 192
contact bounce, 80 decoding, signal, 242, 245–246
contacts of switch, 74 demodulator, 248
controllers, 229 desoldering, 157. See also soldering
conventional flow, 37 D flip-flop, 189
conventional theory, 7 dialects, 219
copper, as good conductor of dielectric constant, 104
electricity, 8 dielectric properties, 108
copper wire, 46 digital compasses. See magnetometers
coulomb, 18, 103 digital concepts, idea behind, 173–174
Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 18 digital ICs, 186–188
counters, 191 counters, 191
CPR. See cardiopulmonary encoders and decoders, 191–192
resuscitation 555 and 556 timers, 189–190
CPU. See central processing unit flip-flops, 188–189
crystalline structure, silicon, 10 mixed signal ICs, 193
currents, 17–18 digital multimeter (DMM), 50–52
alternating, 26 measurement
waveforms, 28 AC voltage, 53–54
direct, 25–26 current, 55–56
waveforms, 27, 34 DC voltage, 52–53
measuring, 55–56 resistance, 54–55

Index • 367
digital oscilloscope, 49 dual-inline-package (DIP) switch,

digital signal, 174 79–80, 196
digital-to-analog converters building a decoder circuit, 193–198
(DACs), 193
E
digital vs. analog memory storage, 206
diodes Edison, Thomas Alva, 26–27
avalanche, 116 EKG machines. See
handling, 120–121 electrocardiograph machines
LEDs, 119 electrical generators,
overview, 113–114 discovery of, 17
photodiodes, 120 electrical shock, first aid for, 68–69
Schottky, 117–118 electric arc, 78
semiconductor, See semiconductor electricity
diodes atoms and their structure, 3–5
work of, 114–115 circuits, 15–16
Zener, 116–117 conductors, insulators, and
DIP switch. See dual-inline-package semiconductors, 8–11
switch current, 17–18
direct current (DC), 25–26 electromotive force or
generation, 26–27 voltage, 16–17
waveforms, 34 electron flow vs. hole flow, 12
direct current working voltage electrons, 5–6
(DCWV), 106 flows, knowing, 67–68
Distributed Denial of Service Joule’s law, 20–21
(DDoS) attack, 314 Ohm’s law, 19
division, 336 power, 19–20
DMM. See digital multimeter resistance, 18–19
donor impurity, 10 valence shells, 7–8
dopant, 9 electrocardiograph (EKG)
doping, 9 machines, 28
boron, 10–11 electrochemical gas sensors, 238
phosphorus, 10–11 electrode, 107
.NET Framework, 261 electrolyte, 107
double-pole, single-throw electrolyte-oxide FET
(DPST), 75 (EOSFET), 129
DPST. See double-pole, single-throw electrolytic capacitors, 107
Dremel rotary tool, 47, 48 electromagnetic force (emf), 7
drill press stand, 47 electromagnetic spectrum, 242–244
dry chemical extinguisher, 65

368 • Index
electromagnetic switches/relays, 80 ready to work, 66

electromotive force (emf), 16, 17 safety equipment, 65–66
in batteries, 136 storage, 65
electron flow, 37 ventilation, 65
vs. hole flow, 12 workbench, 64
electronic communication electronics specialty items, 56–60
amplitude modulation, 246 electronics technician, careers, 342
basics, 241–242 electronics technologist/engineer,
electromagnetic spectrum, 242–244 careers, 342–343
encoding and decoding a signal, electrons, 5–6
245–246 electron theory, 8
frequency modulation, 246–247 elements, 4
infrared, 245 atomic number of, 5
microwaves, 244 emf. See electromagnetic force;
phase modulation, 247–248 electromotive force
radio waves, 244 encoders, 191–192. See also
rasterization, 248 decoders
ultraviolet, x-rays, encoding, signal, 241, 245–246
and gamma rays, 245 engineering notation, 337
visible light, 245 entertainment field, careers in
electronic components electronics, 345
capacitors, 101–111 environmental gas sensors,
diodes, 113–121 237–238
EOSFET. See electrolyte-oxide FET
resistors, 83–98
EPROM, 211
switches, 73–80
error detection, memory, 206–207
transistors, 123–130
essential hand tools, 45–47
electronic measurements, 21
essential instruments, 47–52
electronics, 3
essential safety items, 60
electronics shop, setup and safety
eutectic alloy, 148
adequate power, 64
claim your space, 64 F
clean, well-lit workshop, 63–64 Faraday, Michael, 17
electricity flows, knowing, 67–68 FEC. See forward error correction
first aid for electrical shock, feedback, and servo motor, 228
68–69 FETs. See field effect transistors
good work/safety habits, 66 field effect transistors
lighting, 64 (FETs), 127–129
neat and deliberate work, 66–67 555 and 556 timers, 189–191

Index • 369
fire extinguisher, 60, 65 H-bridge circuit, 230–231

firewall, 315 heat sink, 59, 152
fixed value resistors, 84 Hertz, 28, 243
voltage division using, 96–97 hexadecimal, 207–208
flash memory, 211 hole, 10
flip-flops, 188–189 hole flow vs. electron flow, 12
flux, 57, 58, 149–150 hybrid stepper motors, 228
flux bottle, 57, 58
I
FM stereo transmitter, building,
248–249 ICs. See integrated circuits
forward error correction (FEC), IDE. See integrated development
207 environment
frequency, 28, 243 induction, 17, 139
frequency modulation, 246–247 information technology, careers in
fuel cells, 138 electronics, 343–344
function generator, 60 infrared spectrum, 245
inputs/outputs (I/Os)
fuses, 38
adding to Raspberry Pi, 302–304
G microcontrollers, 217–218
gain, transistors, 127 pins, 273, 279
gamma rays spectrum, 245 Instruction Register (IR), 210
gauge of wire, 46 insulators, 9
G-force, 235 examples, 8
global positioning system (GPS) integrated circuits (ICs), 185
sensors, 238 analog, 185–186
graduate level electronics engineer, as counters, 191
careers, 343 digital, See digital ICs
gravitational force, 235 as encoders, 192–193
ground (antistatic) mat, 60 mixed signal, 193
ground (antistatic) strap, 60 integrated development environment
ground symbol (GND), 195 (IDE), 261, 300
guitar amplifier, building, 198–202 integrated development learning
environment (IDLE), 306
H Intel 8051 and 8052, 219
Hall, Edvin, 236 International Standard Book
Hall effect, 236 Number (ISBN) codes, 207
Hall voltage, 236 Internet of Things (IoT), 313
hand tools, 45–47 security
Harvard architecture, 216 challenge, 313–314

370 • Index
resources for, 315–316 logic, 175

risk control, 314–315 logic gates, 180–183
Internet Service Provider (ISP), 315 logic probe, 48–49
inverter, 180 LV-EZ1 Ultrasonic Rangefinder, 284,
ion, 7 285, 292, 293
ionizing radiation, 245 M
ion-sensitive FET (ISFET), 129
I/Os. See inputs/outputs machine code/language, 218
IR. See Instruction Register magnetic storage, 211
IR sensors, 237–238 magnetometers, 236
ISBN codes. See International mAH. See milliamp-hours
Standard Book Number codes make before break (MBB), 77
ISFET. See ion-sensitive FET manufacturing field, careers in
I-type semiconductor, 120 electronics, 345
MAR. See Memory Address Register
J mathematics in electronics
Joule’s law, 20–21 basic operations and symbols,
jumper wires, 59 335–336
junction, 89, 124 binary numbers, 338–340
division, 336
K
engineering notation, 337
keylock switch, 79 multiplication, 336
kilowatt, 19 scientific notation, 336–337
Kirchhoff’s laws, resistors, 88–89 solving equations, 338
determining, 91–92 matter, 4
knife switches, 78
MBB. See make before break
L MBR. See Memory Buffer Register
lagging wave, 33 MCUs. See microcontrollers
lamp with a magnifying glass, 45 MDR. See Memory Data Register
lead-free solder, 149 mechanical switches, 74
leading wave, 33 mechatronics, 229
LEDs. See light-emitting diodes memory
legal field, careers in electronics, 345 data and address, 208–209
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 119, 306 digital vs. analog, 206
controlling with button, 309–311 hexadecimal, 207–208
light sensors, 236–237 parity bits and other error
liquid flux, 57 detection, 206–207
LM386 op amp, pin assignments, 200 storage media, 211–212
load, circuit, 16 volatile and nonvolatile, 211

Index • 371
Von Neumann computer model, MOSFET. See metal-oxide-

209–210 semiconductor FET
writing and reading, 210–211 motor driver shield, assembling,
Memory Address Register ( 269–270, 275–276
MAR), 210 motors
Memory Buffer Register brushed DC, 226–227
(MBR), 210 brushless DC, 227
Memory Data Register (MDR), 210 H-bridge circuits to control,
memory registers, 210 230–231
MEMS. See micro-electromechanical pulse width modulation to control,
systems 229–230
mercury switches, 78–79 servo, 228
mercury thermometer, 233 stepper, 227–228
metal-film resistors, 86 multiplication, 336
metal-oxide-semiconductor FET multivibrators, 188
(MOSFET), 129 mutual induction, 139
metals, as conductors, 9 Mythbusters, 228
metric units, conversion of, 148–149
Microchip PIC microcontroller, 219 N
microcontrollers (MCUs), 215–217 NAND gate, truth table, 178
Arduino platform, 220–221 negative temperature coefficient, 106
components, 217–218 neon, as insulator, 8
for hobbyists use, 219 Netduino microcontroller, 219, 221
and microprocessors, 216 connect to PC and work, 262–266
Netduino platform, 221 downloading to, 266–267
open source hardware, 220 identifying I/O pins, 279
programming, 218–219 powering, 276–277
micro-electromechanical systems software need for, 261
(MEMS), 235 neutron, 3–5
microphones, 237 nibble, 180
microprocessors, vs. noble gases, 9
microcontrollers, 216 noise, 175
MicroUSB connection, 302 nominal value, capacitors, 105
microwaves, 244 non-polarized capacitors, 107–108
milliamp-hours (mAH), 138 nonvolatile memory, 211
mixed signal ICs, 193 NOR gate, truth table, 178
modem, 248 NOT gate, truth table, 176, 177
modulator, 248 NPN transistor, 124–125

372 • Index
N-type FET, 128 peak positive voltage, 33

n-type semiconductors, 10, 11, 114. peak-to-peak voltage, 33
See also p-type semiconductors perf board, components of, 199, 200
nucleus, 3, 9 period, 28
periodic table of chemical elements, 5
O permanent magnet servo motor, 228
ohm, 19 permittivity, 103–104
Ohm, Georg Simon, 18 phase, 32–33, 34
Ohm’s law, 19 phase modulation, 247–248
calculating resistance, 89–90 phase shift, 32–33
to determine resistors, 91–92 phosphorus doping, 10–11
open circuits, 36 photodiodes, 120
open/closed switches, 74 photoresistors, 87
open source hardware, 220 piezoelectricity, 235, 237
open source hardware piezoelectric sensors, 235
microcontrollers, 219 PIV. See peak inverse voltage
operand, 176 pliers, 47
Operating System (OS), setting up P-N diodes. See silicon diodes
Raspberry Pi, 300–302 P-N junction, 114
optical storage, 211 PNP transistor, 124–125
order of operations, 337–338 polarity, 25–26
OR gate, 182–183 of voltage source’s terminals, 36–37
truth table, 177, 178 polarized capacitors, 106
oscilloscope, 48–50 poles, 74–75
overhead fluorescents, 64 positive DC wave, creating, 164–165
oxidation, 149 positive temperature coefficient, 106
potato battery, making, 136–137
P
potential difference. See
parallel circuits, 38–39. See also series electromotive force (emf)
circuits potentiometer, 88, 95
batteries in, 137 power, 19–20
resistors in, 93–94 power ratings, resistors, 86
parity bits power rectifiers, 118–119
memory, 206–207 power source, 133. See also power
and other error detection, 206–207 supply
PCBs. See printed circuit boards amp-hours, 138
peak amplitude, 27 batteries and energy production,
peak inverse voltage (PIV), 115 134–135
peak negative voltage, 33 batteries in series and parallel, 137

Index • 373
potato battery, making, 136–137 programming a button in, 307–309

primary vs. secondary programming Raspberry Pi,
batteries, 135 306–307
voltages in batteries, 136
power supply, 133 R
AC-to-DC, 138–139 radiation, 245
getting acquainted with, 163–164 radio waves, 244
kit and construction, 159–161 random access memory (RAM), 211
positive DC wave, creating, Raspberry Pi
164–165 adding inputs and outputs (I/O) to,
powering on, 162–163 302–304
safety first, 162 controlling LED with button,
seeing caps and voltage regulators 309–311
in action, 165–166 programming a button in Python,
transformers, 139–141 307–309
uninterruptible power supply programming with Python on,
306–307
(UPS), 141
setting up with OS, 300–302
variable DC, 141, 166–167
rasterization, 248
prepping for soldering iron, 154
reading, writing and, 210–211
primary vs. secondary batteries, 135
read only memory (ROM), 211
printed circuit boards (PCBs),
receiver, 242
153–155, 161
rectifiers, 34, 114
and heat sink, 159 power, 118–119
placing items on, 154–155 relative permittivity, capacitors,
solder, 150 103–104
programming microcontrollers, relays, 80
218–219 resistance, 8, 18–19. See also
protective eyewear, 60, 65 electromagnetic force (emf)
proton, 3–5, 8 calculating, 89–90
p-type semiconductors, 10, 114 measuring, 54–55
pulse width modulation (PWM), resistors, 83
229–230 calculating resistance, 89–90
push-button switches, 77 color codes, 84–86
PWM. See pulse width modulation Kirchhoff’s laws, 88–89
Python in parallel circuits, 93–94
command shell, 305–306 power ratings, 86
integrated development reading the code, 85–86
environment (IDE), 300 in series circuits, 92–93

374 • Index
single in line (SIL), 87 scientific calculator, 47, 49

surface mount, 87 scientific notation, 336–337
symbols for, 84, 88, 93 screwdrivers, 47
using Ohm’s & Kirchhoff’s laws to secondary batteries, 135
determine, 91–92 semiconductor diodes, 114–115
variable, 87–88 light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 119
voltage division circuits, 95–96 photodiodes, 120
using fixed value resistors, 96–97 power rectifiers, 118–119
using variable resistors, 97–98 Schottky, 117–118
ripple counters, 191 silicon, 116
rms voltage. See root mean-square semiconductors, 9–11
voltage doping, 9
robot sensing distance, 284–285, 293–294
adding collision control, 283, 291 sensors, 233–234
adding power switch, 286–287, 295 accelerometers, 235
adding the sensor to, 286, 294–295 alcohol and other environmental
flowchart for, 287, 296 gas sensors, 237–238
letting roaming, 289, 297 digital compasses/magnetometers,
moving 236
adding speed control, 280–282 electronic, 234–235
assembling motor driver shield, global positioning system (GPS),
269–270, 275–276 238
assembling robot platform, light and color sensors, 236–237
273–274, 282 microphones, 237
programming to start and stop, series circuits, 38–39
270–273, 278–279 batteries in, 137
planning and writing the code, 287, resistors in, 92–93
295–297 servo motors, 228
shopping, 253–254, 259–260 7448 decoder, finding pin in, 194, 195
rocker switch, 79 Shannon, Claude, 173–174
root mean-square (rms) voltage, 33 shell, 5
rosin, 150 shop glasses, 60
rotary switch, 79 short circuits, 37–38
rotor, and sine wave, 29–30 preventing, 38
signals, 242
S decoding, 242, 245–246
safety equipment, 65–66 encoding, 245–246
sawtooth waveforms, 31, 32 signal-to-noise ratio, 242
Schottky diodes, 117–118 silicon diodes, 116
Schottky, Walter, 117 silicon, in crystalline structure, 10

Index • 375
SIL resistors. See single in line resistors storage, 65

simple circuit storage media, 210–212
constructing, 23 storage register, 189
diagrams, 35–36 sturdy glasses, 60
sine waves, 29–33 surface-mount PCB, 154, 155
single in line (SIL) resistors, 87 surface mount resistors, 87
single-pole, single-throw (SPST), surface tension, and flux, 149
74–76 switched-mode power supply
knife switch as, 78 (SMPS), 141–142
sinusoidal wave. See sine waves switches, 73
60/40 alloy of tin and lead, 148 bi-metal, 78
slide switch, 79 dual-inline-package (DIP), 79–80
smoothing the current, 102 electromagnetic, 80
SMPS. See switched-mode power inputs for binary values and their
supply digital output, 196
solar cells, 138 knife, 78
solder, 56, 148 mechanical, 74
lead-free, 149 mercury, 78–79
soldering, 147 poles and throws, 74–75
circuit boards, 152–153 push-button, 77
flux, 149–150 SPDT, 76
heat sink, 152 symbols, 73
prepping for, 154 symbols, mathematics in electronics,
printed circuit boards (PCBs), 335–336
153–155 synchronous counter, 191
technique, 156
soldering iron, 57, 58 T
preparing, 155 tantalum capacitors, 107
and tips, 150–151 temperature coefficients,
solder sucker, 57, 58 capacitors, 106
solder wick, 57 thermistors, 87
solving equations, 338 through-hole PCB, 153
source code, 218–219, 220 throws, 74–75
SPDT switch, 76 timers, 555 and 556, 189–191
SPST. See single-pole, single-throw toggle switch, 79
square waveforms, 31 tolerance, 84
stable atoms, 8 capacitors, 105
stack overflow error, 209 torque, 226
stator, 226 TPST switch. See triple-pole, single-
stepper motors, 227–228 throw switch

376 • Index
tracings, PCPs, 153 Unicode standards (UTF-8), 192

transducers. See sensors uninterruptible power supply (UPS),
transformers, 26, 139–141 141
transient protectors, 114 universal gates, 180
transient time of capacitors, in DC universal memory, 211–212
RC circuit, 109–110 Universal Product Codes (UPC), 207
transistors UPS. See uninterruptible power supply
amplifiers, work of, 125–126 USB connector, 217
amplifying current, 129–130
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), V
124–125 valence bands. See valence shells
under varying voltages, 126 valence electrons, 7
Darlington pairs, 127 valence shells, 7
field effect transistors (FETs), conductors, insulators, and
127–129
semiconductors, 8–11
gain, 127
variable capacitors, 108
overview, 123–124
variable DC power supply, 60, 141, 158
transmission, signal, 242
transportation field, careers in using, 166–167
electronics, 344 variable-reluctance–type servo
triangle waveforms, 32 motor, 228
triple-pole, single-throw (TPST) variable resistors, 87–88, 95
switch, 75 voltage division using, 97–98
troubleshooting, 163 varistor, 87–88
truth tables, 175–179 ventilation, 65
AND gate, 177 visible light spectrum, 245
logical operations, 177–178 visual arts field, careers
NAND gate, 178 in electronics, 345
NOR gate, 178 volatile memory, 211
NOT gate, 176–177 Volta, Alessandro, 135
OR gate, 177 voltage. See electromotive force (emf)
XNOR gate, 179 voltage division circuits, 95–96
XOR gate, 179
using fixed value resistors, 96–97
tweezers, 47, 48
using variable resistors, 97–98
two-factor authentication (2FA), 315
voltaic cells, 134
U Von Neumann computer model,
Ultrasonic Range Finder, 284, 292 209–210
ultraviolet spectrum, 245 Von Neumann, John, 209

Index • 377
W wire-wound resistors, 86
wall wart, 139 workbench, 64
watt (W), 19 writing and reading, 210–211
waveforms, 27–28 X
direct current (DC), 34
XNOR gate, truth table, 178, 179
Weller WLC 100, 57
XOR gate, truth table, 178, 179
wetting, flux and, 149–150
x-rays spectrum, 245
windings, transformers, 139
wiper, 88 Z
wire cutters, 46 Zener, Clarence, 117
wire gauge, 46 Zener diodes, 116–117
wire strippers, 46


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Basic

Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 1 5/27/2020 12:37:00 PM

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MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

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Publisher: David Pallai

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020937122

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Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 5 5/27/2020 12:37:00 PM

Chapter Review Questions  22

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Chapter 5: Shop Setup and Safety 63

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Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 8 5/27/2020 12:37:00 PM

Electrolytic Capacitors 107

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Chapter 11: Power Sources and Power Supplies 133

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Chapter 13: Constructing A Power Supply 159

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Lab 15-2: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 2 196

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Stepper Motors 227

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The Least You Should Know 250

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Adding the Sensor to Your Robot 286

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Appendix C: Mathematics for Electronics335

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HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 18 5/27/2020 12:37:01 PM

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Basic Electronics_Ch00_FM.indd 21 5/27/2020 12:37:01 PM

Basic Electronics_CH01.indd 1 5/27/2020 12:38:03 PM

Atoms and Their Structure

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Matter refers to any physical substance; in other words, matter is any-

Ever wonder about the difference between an electric-powered

A chemical element is pure matter consisting of only one type of atom.

FIGURE 1.1 A helium atom.

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FIGURE 1.2 The periodic table of elements.

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Number of Electrons in Various Elements

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Electromagnetic force (emf) is that attraction between positive and

In his pioneering work on electricity, Benjamin Franklin de-

Basic Electronics_CH01.indd 7 5/27/2020 12:38:04 PM

Today we know now that the opposite is true: Current travels

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

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Consider an atom of silicon, which has four electrons in its valence

Basic Electronics_CH01.indd 10 5/27/2020 12:38:05 PM

FIGURE 1.4 An n-type semiconductor formed by doping with phosphorus.

FIGURE 1.5 B dopant with three electrons in the valence shell.

Although the atomic qualities of a material are the most impor-

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shortens the distance needed for the current to travel compared

Electron Flow Versus Hole Flow

The Least You Need to Know

Chapter Review Questions 22

Chapter 5: Shop Setup and Safety 63

Electrolytic Capacitors 107

Chapter 11: Power Sources and Power Supplies 133

Chapter 13: Constructing A Power Supply 159

Lab 15-2: Building a Decoder Circuit, Part 2 196

Stepper Motors 227

The Least You Should Know 250

Adding the Sensor to Your Robot 286

Appendix C: Mathematics for Electronics335

c onnected to a lamp. A computer’s motherboard contains several much

of electrons. A coulomb (pronounced KOO-lum) is equal to approximately

Two examples of specialized oscilloscopes are the electrocardio