Research – systematic and a logical process

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research – research gives teachers and also policy makers important knowledge
to use in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well informed teachers are able to use and
integrate the most authoritative research findings.

This research involves decision related to:

1. Education Policies
2. Curriculum
3. Effective teaching-learning process
4. Even those involving research

Teacher as a Researchers – research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for teachers and
students too.

The Scientific Method by Dewey

1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis – tentative answer to the research “educated guess”
3. Collect and analyze data – “experimental research” – describing data and characteristics about subjects and
phenomenon you are “studying”
4. Formulate conclusion – after analyzing the data you formulate your conclusion
5. Apply conclusion to the original data – compare your conclusion to your original hypothesis to find out your original
hypothesis is correct or not. If your hypothesis does not jibe reject your original hypothesis. If the finding and conclusion
affirm your hypothesis

Research Design/Data-Gathering Techniques

Research Description Strength Weakness

Design
Case study Depth look of individual Information about individual Need exercise caution
fears, hope etc. that helps Judgement of unknown reliability
psychologist understand
person’s development
Correlational Determines associations Useful because the more Not involve the manipulation of
Study strongly two events are factors
correlated the more we can Not dependable to isolate cause
predict one from another
Experimental Cause and Effect The only true and reliable Limited to what is observable,
relationship method of establishing cause testable and maniputable
Manipulation one and effect Failure to achieve randomization
variable to another Experimentation to human is
subject to a number of external
influences

Naturalistic Natural settings Allows the researchers Difficult to determine the exact
Observation directly observe the subject cause of a behavior and
in the natural setting experimentation cannot control
outside variables
Longitudinal Single group over a Allows them to record and Expensive and time consuming
period of time usually monitor developmental The longer the study last the
several years trends more subjects drop-out
Subject can bias the outcome of
a study
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 Cross-sectional Individuals of different
ages are compared at one
time
Sequential Combined cross-sectional
and longitudinal to learn
about life span
development. New group
of subject is assessed at
each grade levels
Action Research Reflective process of
progressive problem
solving
The research does not have
to wait for the individuals to
grow up or become older
Allow them to record and
monitor developmental
trends.
Provides information that is
impossible to obtain
Create changes and gain
information on process
Uses different methods
Stakeholders are included
throughout research
No information about how
individuals change or about the
stability of their characteristics
Complex and expensive and time
consuming
Takes place to one organization
only at particular time
Potential conflict of interest

Data-Gathering Technique
1. Observation – can be made either laboratories or materialistic settings
2. Physiological Measures– certain indicators of children’s development such as among others (heart rate, hormonal
levels, bone growth, body weight and brain activity etc)
3. Standardize tests – prepared test that assess individual’s performance in different domains. Consistent manners
4. Interview and questionnaires - asking participants to provide information about themselves
5. Life-History Records – records about lifetime chronology of events and activities (data records)

Ethical Principles – to serve the genuine principles of the research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical principles
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research (AER)
2. Ethical standards of Research with Children
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research (APACR)

Key points on Ethical Principles of National for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about research in which they may participate including
possible risks and benefits “informed consent”
3. Children’s question about the research should be answered in a truthful manner and in ways that the children can
understand
4. There should be respect of privacy.

Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers – proven that teacher have everything to gain and nothing to
lose
1. teachers who have been involve in research may become more reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching
2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in
classroom
3. teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching and self-
transformation
4. engaging in teacher research at any level may lead of rethinking and constructing what it means to be a teacher
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers that learning to teach is
inherently connected to learning to inquire

Sigmund Freud – Psychosexual Development/ Psychoanalytic Theory

Erogenous Zones – pleasure areas
Fixation – if needs “erogenous zone” not meet along the area
1. Oral Stage (birth-18months) – mouth – oral pleasure – too much or too little can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral
Personality. If they fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating people
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2. Anal stage (18-3yrs old) – anus – eliminating and retaining feces.
Fixation is Anal Retentive - obsession with cleanliness; Anal Expulsive – messy and disorganized
3. Phallic Stage (3-6yrs old) – genitals – children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
Oedipus Complex – castration anxiety - Boys
Electra Complex – Girls
Fixation – sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak and confused sexual identity
4. Latency (6 to puberty) – sexual urges remain repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and
academic skills. Boys relate more with boys and girls relate more with girls.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards) – “genitals” sexual urges are once again awakened. Adolescents focus their sexual
urges towards the opposite sex peers.

Freud’s Personality Components

1. Id – “pleasure principle” child is born with the ID. ID plays the vital role in one’s personality. It focuses immediate
gratification or satisfaction
2. Ego – baby turns into toddler-pre school – relates more with the environment. Reality principle- aware that others
also have needs to be met
3. Super Ego – (near the end of the preschool years or the end of the phallic stage) – persons moral aspect –
The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong

Topographical Model
Unconscious – most of what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are not
available to us at a conscious level. He believes that most that influence to us is the unconscious level.
Conscious – all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small
part of who we are
Subconscious – this is the part that we can reach if prompted but not on our active conscious. Below the surface bit
hidden

Piaget – Cognitive Development or Piagetian tasks – framework “genetic epistemology”

Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. Schema – cognitive structures by individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
2. Assimilation – fitting new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema.
3. Accommodation – This is the process of creating new schema
4. Equilibration – natural need to understand – achieving proper balance of assimilation and accommodation
Cognitive Disequilibrium – when experiences do not match our schemata(schema) or cognitive structures

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development (5 Stages)

Stage 1. Sensori-Motor Stage (0 – infancy) – focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
Object Permanence – the child knows that the object still exists even when out of sight

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7yrs old) – intelligence is in intuitive in nature- child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend. Ever close to symbols
Symbolic Function – ability to represent objects and events
Egocentrism – child only see his point of view and everyone also has his same point of view
Centration – tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspect.
Ex. One aspect of the glass of water
Irreversibility – inability to reverse their thinking.
Ex. They can understand 2+3=5 but 5-3=2
Transductive reasoning – pre-operational child type of reasoning that neither inductive nor deductive
Ex. The child knows its evening because her mom already at home at 6pm

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Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage (8-11yrs old) – ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concreate
objects
Decentering – ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer limited
to one aspect or dimension
Reversibility – follow certain operations can be done reverse
Conservation – certain properties of objects like numbers, mass, volume or area do not change even if it
changes in appearance. Knows that water is still the same
Seriation – order or arrange things in series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

Stage 5. Formal Operational Stage (12-15yrs old) – thinking becomes more logical – solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize
Hypothetical Reasoning – ability to come up to different hypothesis. Gather data in order to make a final
judgement
Ex. What if questions
Analogical Reasoning – perceive the relationship in one instance and the use that relationship to narrow down
possible answers to another similar situation or problem
Ex. United Kingdom is to Europe can now answer that Philippines is in Asia
Deductive Reasoning – think form general role to a particular instance or situation
Ex. All countries near the North Pole has cold temperature therefore Greenland has a cold temperature

Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development (8 Stages)

 Psychological - psycho – relating to mind, brain and personality
 Social – External relationships and environment
 Erikson’s theory was influenced by Sigmund Freud but extended the theory cultural and social aspects
 Epigenetic Principle – Boeree explains – says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our
personalities in eight stages.
 Psychosocial Crisis – two opposing emotional force “contrary disposition”
 Syntonic – positive disposition
 Dystonic – negative disposition
 If a stage manages well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength
 If we don’t do well, we may develop maladaptation’s and malignancies
 Malignancy – too little of the positive and too much of negative
 Maladaptation – too much of the positive and too little of negative
 Mutuality – effect of generations on each other, specially among families and particularly between parents
 Generativity – disposition with in one crisis stages

Stage 1 – Trust vs Mistrust - (1 -1 ½yr old) -goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity of
mistrust
Trust - Maladaptation – Sensory Maladjustment – overly protective of the child (over trusting)
Mistrust - Malignancy – Withdrawal – depression, paranoia and possibly psychosis
Virtue – if proper balance is achieved – “hope”

Stage 2 – Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18mths – 3-4yrs old) – goal to develop independence “firm but tolerant”
self control and self esteem -
Autonomy – Maladaptation – impulsiveness – a sort of shameless willfulness
Shame and Doubt – compulsiveness – the compulsive person feels as of their entire being rides on everything
they do and so everything must be done perfectly.
Virtue – will power and determination

Stage 3 – Initiative vs Guilt – (3-4to 5-6yrs old) – goal is positive response to the world’s challenges taking
responsibilities, learning new skills and feeling purposeful. Time to play and not formal education. Moral judgement

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 Initiative – maladaptation- ruthlessness (sociopathy or extreme ruthless)– heartless or unfeeling or without
mercy
Guilt – malignancy – inhibition – inhibited person does not try things because “nothing venture, nothing lost”
nothing to feel guilty about and afraid to start and take a lead. Fear they will be blamed
Virtue – courage – a sense of purpose

Stage 4 – Industry vs Inferiority (6-12yrs old) – tame and imagination -dedicate themselves to education and learning
the social skills their society requires them
Industry – maladaptation – narrow virtuosity
Inferiority – malignancy – inertial or inferiority complex
Virtue – competency -keep sensibly humble

Stage 5 – Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence -18-20yrs old) – goal is to achieve ego identity “who am I”
Society should provide social passage – certain accomplishment and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the
child
Psychosocial Moratorium – little time out go on vacation, study
Identity – maladaptation - fanaticism – a fanatic believes his way is the only way
Role Confusion – malignancy – repudiation – is to reject their membership in the world of adult
Virtue – fidelity – loyalty and ability to live by a society

Stage 6 – Intimacy vs Isolation – (18-30yrs old) – fuzzier than in the adulthood stages
Intimacy – maladaptation – promiscuity – become intimate too freely and easily without any depth to intimacy
Isolation – malignancy – Exclusion – tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship and community and
develop hatefulness in compensation with one’s loneliness
Virtue – love – being able to put aside differences and antagonisms through “mutual devotion”

Stage 7 – Generativity vs Stagnation (middle twenties – late fifties) – generativity is the extension of love into the
future and stagnation is self-absorption, caring for no one the stagnant person stop to be a productive member of
society
Generativity – maladaptation – overextension – no longer allow themselves for rest and relaxation
Stagnation – malignancy – rejectivity- no longer participating in the society
Virtue – capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of your life

Stage 8 – Integrity vs Despair (late adulthood or maturity) - ego integrity

Integrity – maladaptation – presumption – presumes ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old
age. He does not respect the ideas and views of the young
Despair – malignancy – disdain – contempt of life. One’s own or anyone’s. The person becomes very negative
and hate of life
Virtue – wisdom – healthy children will not fear death

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development – Moral Delimas

1. Preconventional Level – moral reasoning based on the consequence/result of the act, not on the whether the act
itself is good or bad
Stage 1 – Punishment/Obedience – motivated by fear of punishment. He will act order to avoid punishment
Stage 2 – Mutual Benefit - motivated to act by the benefit that one my act later – you scratch my back ill scratch
yours
2. Conventional Level – moral reasoning based on the conventions or “norms” of society. This may include approval of
others, law and order
Stage 3 – Social Approval – motivated by what others expect in behavior (good boy, good girl) the person acts
because she values how she will appear to others. He will give importance on what people will think or say

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 Stage 4 – Law and Order – one is able to act in order to uphold law and order. The person will follow the law
because it is the law
Stage 5 – Social Contract – Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the
common good.
Stage 6 – Universal Principles – Development of one’s conscience. Having set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself

Vygostsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory – scaffolding

Piaget’s – Individual in focus – universal stages of cognitive development/ not give emphasis on language
Vygostsky – social focus – emphasize cultural factors in cognitive development/ stress the role of language

Social Interactions – Piaget – more individual / Vygotsky – social

Cultural factors - Piaget – universal stages of cognitive development / Vygotsky – wide range of experiences
Language – Piaget – did not emphasis on language / Vygotsky – learners can use language to know and understand the
world and solve problems

Zone of Proximal Development – when the child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately
proficient at it. So alone she may perform at a certain level of competency (Zone of Actual Development)
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – competent adult or more a advanced peer the child can perform at a higher level
of competency

Bronfrenbrenner’s Ecological Theory – BioEcological System

1. Microsystem – layer nearest to the child directly interacts with. (one’s family, school and neighborhood)
Bi-directional influences – the child affects the behavior of the parents
2. Mesosystem – connection between the child’s microsystem. Link and interactions between parent and teacher)
3. Exosystem – bigger social system in which the child does not function directly. (city government, mass media and
workplace)
4. Macrosystem – outermost part of the child environment. (cultural values, beliefs, laws and costums)
5. Chronosystem – element of time (pattern of stability and change)
No longer nature vs nurture but nurturing nature
Role of Schools and Teachers – instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force of a child’s
development. This theory helps teacher look into every child’s environmental system in order to understand about the
child. The teacher can contribute stability over long-term relationships but only to support