Journal of the

Indian Roads Congress

Volume : 79 - 2 ● April - june, 2018 ● ISSN 0258 - 0500

Indian Roads Congress

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 Paper No. 675

ANALYSIS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AT UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

Dr. Satish Chandra1 Dr. Mithun Mohan2

ABSTRACT
Road accidents and associated fatalities in India have risen over the years and has reached a condition
where approximately 17 lives are lost in an hour. Accident statistics identified driver's fault as the major
contributor towards accidents on Indian roads. This study checks whether driver behaviour could feature
as the main reason behind accidents at unsignalized intersections in India. A comparison is drawn between
critical gaps on the basis of data collected at unsignalized intersections from India and USA. Maximum
likelihood method was used in the estimation of critical gaps. Critical gaps of cars at an intersection in
India were compared with those of a similar intersection in USA and with the values given in Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM). Further, critical gaps for motorized two-wheelers were also estimated. It was
found that at intersections of similar geometry, critical gap of cars for various movements in India were
much less than in USA and this difference was in the range of 20-31%. Critical gaps of cars executing
different movements at Indian intersections were consistently lower (up to 57%) than the base values
given in HCM. Motorized two-wheelers, which were involved in majority of accidents at intersections,
had even lesser critical gaps than cars. Lesser critical gap of Indian drivers in comparison to their
western counterparts indicates their aggressive and risk taking behaviour, which often leads to road
accidents. Thus, it is not very surprising to have drivers’ fault as the major reason for accidents in Indian
intersections.

1. INTRODUCTION For the left hand driving conditions, as observed in

Intersections are the locations where traffic from India, a vehicle should yield to those coming from its
different directions would meet and proceed to the right.
same or different direction. Since vehicles from However, rules of priority and lane discipline are not
different approaches interact with each other, conflicts fully respected in India and vehicles on the major
are quite common at intersections and hence rules street are often made to slow down due to forceful
regarding the allocation of right of way are essential entry of minor street vehicles. The functioning of
to avoid conflicts. Two-Way Stop Controlled (TWSC) two-way and all-way stop-controlled intersections are
intersections are formed by crossing of two roads more or less similar under the Indian context. Right
having different priorities. At these intersections, of way is often allotted through mutual consent and
movements of lower priority should yield to those of this often results in accidents. In 2015, the major share
higher priority and the priority is established by the of accidents that took place at Indian intersections
installation of stop signs on minor street approaches. occurred at unsignalized ones and the authorities have
1
Director, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, Email: satisfce@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MES College of Engineering, Kerala. Email: mithun.iitr@gmail.com

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 5

 Paper No. 675
associated drivers fault as the main reason behind
these accidents1. The current research is an attempt
to understand the behavioural aspects involved in the
traffic operation at unsignalized intersections and their
potential towards the occurrence of accidents.
2. ACCIDENT SCENARIO IN INDIA
Being a signatory of the Brasilia declaration, India
had pledged to reduce the number of road accidents
and fatalities by 50% by the year 2020. However,
the recent road accident statistics1 revealed a 2.5%
increase in the number of accidents from 2014 to 2015,
with 4.6% increase in the number of accident fatalities
and 1.4% increase in number of injured. Number of
accidents related fatalities reported in 2015 rose to
an alarming figure of 17 fatalities per hour. Drivers’
fault was claimed to contribute towards majority of
accidents (77.1 %) that occurred on Indian roads and
62.2% of these resulted from over-speeding. Fault of
drivers towards accidents is further supported by the
fact that adverse weather conditions has only led to
32.3% of the total accidents.
Based on the comparison provided by NHSTA2, many
developed countries including USA are placed higher
when it comes to the number of persons killed per
100,000 population. According to this report, there
has been a continuous reduction in fatalities related
to road accidents in USA from 2006. In 2014, the
number of accident fatalities reported in USA was
32,675, which was 0.7% less than the previous year.
Fatalities per 100,000 population was 10 in US as
against 11 in India3.
In India, about 49% of the total accidents on Indian
roads occurred at intersections (1) where different
traffic streams compete for the same road space. While
the access to the conflict area is cyclically allocated
through traffic signals at signalized intersections,
unsignalized intersections operate through a set of
priorities assigned to different movements. Due to
loose regulatory system, priority rules are not strictly
followed on Indian roads and right of way is allocated
through mutual consent. Movements of higher
priority are often forced to slow down and headways
between major street vehicles are often modified due
to the forceful entry of minor street vehicles4. The
lack of movement priorities and failure of drivers to
abide by the rules has made unsignalized intersection
6 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
in India unsafe for traffic operations. As shown in
Fig. 1, unsignalized intersections have contributed to
79% of the total accidents that occurred at intersections
during 20151.
Fig. 1. Accidents at Indian Intersections Based on
Type of Control
3. CRITICAL GAP
Traffic operations at a TWSC intersection occur
through gap acceptance process and a vehicle in the
non-priority stream should wait for suitable gaps
in the major traffic stream to complete the desired
manoeuvre. Gap is the time interval between two
successive vehicles measured from the rear end of the
leader to the front end of the follower across a line
of reference. The minimum gap between consecutive
vehicles in the major traffic stream which is acceptable
to a minor street driver is termed as the critical gap.
This parameter is found to be dependent on the speed
of major street traffic, time of the day, intersection
geometry, gradient of approach, type of subject
movement and delay5, 6, while it is independent of
the flow in conflicting streams7, 8. Normally, a driver
would reject all gaps which are less than the critical
gap and will accept the rest.
Since critical gap is a parameter which cannot be
measured in the field, researchers have employed
different techniques to ascertain the mean critical
gap of drivers executing a particular movement at a
TWSC intersection. The list of techniques employed
to arrive at critical gap value dates back to the 50’s
when Raff9 introduced the concept of critical lags.
Over the years, methods based on different theoretical
considerations were proposed by researchers with the
 Paper No. 675
occupancy time method10 being the latest addition to
the family of techniques. Each of these methods has
its advantages and disadvantages, but the one aspect
that all researchers agree upon is that the critical gap
of a driver lies between the maximum rejected gap
and the accepted gap.
The present study uses the Maximum Likelihood
Method (MLM), proposed by Troutbeck11, to estimate
critical gaps at unsignalized intersection. This is one
of the most popular methods which was employed
by several researchers and also features in the latest
edition of highway capacity manual12. MLM assumes
critical gap to follow log-normal distribution and the
log-likelihood function of critical gap lies between
accepted gap and maximum rejected gap as given by
Eq. (1), where Fa and Fr are the distribution functions
of accepted (ag) and maximum rejected gaps (rg). The
mean and standard deviation of critical gap can be
obtained by maximizing this log-likelihood function.
∑ (1)
For a driver, critical gap refers to the region of
maximum uncertainty in decision making. While a
cautious driver tends to reject all gap which are less
than critical gap for a movement, an aggressive driver
may even accept these smaller gaps. Researchers
have found that the tendency of drivers to take risk
and accept smaller gaps increases with the increase
in delay and finally ends up accepting shorter gaps13,
14
. However, others15 found driver’s aggressiveness to
arise mainly from personal attitude and not due to
waiting. Although presence of aggressive drivers tend
to increase the capacity of movements, they present
a serious threat to the safe operation of unsignalized
intersections as the acceptance of a shorter gap always
occurs at the expense of safety.
Table 1. Details of Selected Intersections
Location Type Major Street
Maumee City, Ohio, USA 4-legged
Meerut, India 4-legged
Faridabad, India 3-legged
Dwarka, India 3-legged
Trivandrum, India 4-legged
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 7
4. STUDY LOCATIONS
This study was undertaken to check if characteristics
of Indian drivers are responsible for the higher number
of accidents that occur at unsignalized intersections.
Critical gap, estimated through MLM, was used as
the measure of effectiveness. Data were collected
through video recordings at unsignalized intersections
which were located on straight sections of highway
having roads intersecting at the same level and free
from the influence of pedestrians and bus stops. Data
were collected for a period of four hour under pleasant
weather conditions. Intersections chosen for this study
were from different parts of India and one intersection
in Ohio, USA was used for comparison. Details of
the intersections considered in this study are given in
Table 1.
5. CRITICAL GAP AT SELECTED
INTERSECTIONS
Critical gaps for various vehicle types executing
different manoeuvres at selected unsignalized
intersections were estimated using MLM. From Table
1, it can be seen that Intersection-1 and Intersection-2
were of similar type and the critical gaps of these two
intersections could be used for comparing the driver
behaviour. Due to homogeneity of traffic in USA,
the sample size requirement of MLM for all vehicles
other than standard passenger cars could not be
satisfied. Hence, critical gaps of cars were only used
for comparison and its results are given in Table 2.
Mean critical gaps for different movements were
comparatively low at Intersection-2 and difference
between critical gaps at the two locations is as high as
31%. As the intersections selected for comparison were
of the same geometry, the difference in critical gap is
likely due to the aggressive nature of Indian drivers as
they tend to accept smaller gaps in comparison to their
counterparts in the US.
Minor Street Adopted Nomenclature
4-lane 2-lane Intersection-1
4-lane 2-lane Intersection-2
4-lane 4-lane Intersection-3
4-lane 4-lane Intersection-4
2-lane 2-lane Intersection-5
 Paper No. 675
Table 2. Comparison of Critical Gap at Intersections in India and US

Movement (as per left side driving) Critical Gap (s)

Intersection-1 Intersection-2 % difference
Right Turn from Major 5.75 3.99 30.61
Through on Minor 5.35 4.28 20.00
Right Turn from Minor 5.99 4.24 29.22

Table 3 shows the comparison of critical gaps of cars at intersections. Except for the correction to intersection
different intersections against the base value of critical geometry, all adjustments to base value of critical
gap given in HCM12. The percentage differences in the gap provided in HCM are positive and hence these
value of critical gap from HCM are given in parentheses. differences might increase further while considering
The mean critical gaps for different movements are much the final critical gap. This comparison provides further
lower than those given in HCM at all of the selected evidence for aggressiveness of Indian drivers.
Table 3. Comparison of Critical Gaps for Cars in India and US

Critical gap (s)

Configuration of
Location Right Turn from Right Turn from
Major Street Through on Minor
Major Minor
HCM (2010) 4.10 6.90 7.50
3.99 4.24 4.28
Intersection-2
(2.68%) (38.55%) (42.93%)
4 lane 3.11 2.94
Intersection-3 -
(24.15%) (57.39%)
2.38 3.40
Intersection-4 -
(41.95%) (50.72%)
HCM (2010) 4.10 6.50 7.10
2 lane 2.57 2.99 3.12
Intersection-5
(37.32%) (54.00%) (56.06%)

At 4-legged intersections (Intersection 2 and 5), critical Table 4. Critical Gap of Motorized Two-wheelers at
gap of through movement was higher than that of right Selected Intersection
turn from minor indicating that through movements
had the least priority at Indian intersections. Field Critical gap (s)
observations also showed the same as through
movements were found to be comparatively difficult Location Right Right
Through
Turn from Turn from
to execute than right turn from minor. Critical gap for on Minor
Major Minor
motorized two-wheelers were found to be still lower
than those given in Table 3. Aggressive nature of two-
Intersection-2 3.29 3.38 4.36
wheelers at unsignalized intersections in India was
observed by other researchers also16. Critical gap of Intersection-3 2.71 2.97 -
two-wheelers executing various movements at the
selected intersections are given in Table 4. Smaller Intersection-4 2.23 3.14 -
size and better acceleration capability enable these
drivers to accept smaller gaps, but quite often put Intersection-5 2.32 2.68 2.78
them at the verge of accidents.

8 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 675
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The present study was undertaken to verify the claim that
the driver’s fault is the major contributor to accidents at
unsignalized intersections in India. Critical gap refers to
the region of maximum uncertainty in decision making
and the aggressiveness of drivers while executing
various movements at unsignalized intersections was
evaluated in this study using drivers’ critical gap as
the measure of effectiveness. The maximum likelihood
method, proposed by Troutbeck, was employed in this
study for estimation of critical gap.
The study was based on data collected at unsignalized
intersections from different parts of India and
one intersection from USA. Though the traffic
conditions were different at intersections 1 and 2,
they have very similar geometric layout and hence
difference in critical gap among these two locations
will be solely due to driver behaviour. Estimated
critical gaps was much lower at Intersection-2 and
the difference with respect to similar movements at
Intersection-1 was as high as 31%. This difference
is attributed to the aggressiveness and risk taking
tendency of Indian drivers while travelling through
the intersection. Critical gaps of cars executing
different movements at selected unsignalized
intersections from India were compared with
the base value of critical gap given in US-HCM.
Critical gaps at Indian intersections were quite low
and showed substantial difference from the values
given in HCM. This further provides evidence that
drivers in India are aggressive in comparison to
their counterparts in the USA. Also, the estimated
critical gap of motorized two-wheelers were found
to be much lower than that of cars. The risk-
taking behaviour of drivers, coupled with better
acceleration and manoeuvrability of motorcycles,
enable them to accept shorter gaps. This figure is the
reflection of non-adherence to prescribed movement
priorities at unsignalized intersections and the risk
taking approach followed by the Indian drivers.
The analysis carried out in this study supports the
argument that drivers in India are indeed aggressive.
Lack of movement priorities and risk taking nature
of Indian drivers prompt them to accept smaller
gaps in the conflicting traffic stream. Researchers
found drivers to undertake risky manoeuvres
with the increase in waiting time. However field
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 9
observations revealed Indian drivers to accept
shorter gaps even when it was the first gap offered
to the driver. Entry of minor-street vehicles often
forces priority movement to slow down or even
stop. Thus, similar to the observations by Kaysi and
Abbani15, the aggressiveness of Indian driver does
not result from their waiting time, but is more likely
related to their attitude.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are extremely thankful to Professor Timothy.
J. Gates, Associate Professor, Michigan State
University, for providing the traffic data collected by
his team at Maumee intersection in USA. The financial
support received from CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi (Grant
no. CSR-678-CED) for traffic studies in India is also
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Road Accidents in India - 2015. Annual Report,
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
Government of India, New Delhi.
2. NHSTA (2016) Traffic Safety Facts, National Center
for Statistics and Analysis. U. S. Department of
Transportation, Washington. D. C.
3. IRF World Road Statistics 2015. International Road
Federation, Geneva.
4. Mohan, M. and Chandra, S. (2016) Influence of Major
Stream Composition on Critical Gap at Two-Way
Stop-Controlled Intersections. Proceedings of 95th
Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board,
Washington D.C.
5. Hamed, M. M., Easa, S. M. and Batayneh, R.
R. (1997) Disaggregate Gap-Acceptance Model
for Unsignalized T-Intersections. Journal of
Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 123(1): 36–42.
6. Tian, Z., Troutbeck, R., Kyte, M., Brilon, W.,
Vandehey, M., Kittelson, W. and Robinson, B.
(2000) A Further Investigation on Critical Gap and
Follow-Up Time. Proceedings of Fourth International
Symposium on Highway Capacity: 397–408.
7. Brilon, W., Koenig, R. and Troutbeck, R. (1999)
Useful Estimation Procedures for Critical Gaps.
Transportation Research: Part A Policy and Practice,
33(3–4): 161–186.
8. Troutbeck, R. (2014) Estimating the Mean Critical
Gap. Transportation Research Record, Journal of
Transportation Research Board, 2461: 76–84.
 Paper No. 675
9. Raff, M. S. (1950) A Volume Warrant for Urban Stop
Signs. Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Control,
Connecticut.
10. Mohan M and Chandra S (2017). Critical gap
estimation at two-way stop-controlled intersections
based on occupancy time data. Transpometrica Part
A: Transportation Science, 9935 (October):1–14.
11. Troutbeck, R. (1992). Estimating Critical Acceptance
Gap from Traffic Movements. Physical Infrastructure
Centre Research Report, Research Report 92–5,
Queensland University of Technology.
12. HCM (2010). Highway Capacity Manual. 5th ed.
Washington. D. C, National Research Council.
13. Polus, A., Lazar, S. and Livneh, M. (2003). "Critical
Gap as a Function of Waiting Time in Determining
10 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
Roundabout Capacity". Journal of Transportation
Engineering, ASCE, 129(5): 504–509.
14. Pollatschek, M. A., Polus, A. and Livneh, M. A.
(2002). "Decision Model for Gap Acceptance and
Capacity at Intersections". Transportation Research
Part B: Methodology, 36(7): 649–663.
15. Kaysi, I. and Abbany, A. (2007). "Modeling Aggressive
Driver Behavior at Unsignalized Intersections".
Accident Analysis and Prevention, 39(4):671–8.
16. Patil, G. and Pawar D. (2014). "Temporal and Spatial
Gap Acceptance for Minor Road at Uncontrolled
Intersections in India". Transportation Research
Record, Journal of Transportation Research Board,
2461: 129–136
 Paper No. 676

SALIENT ATTRIBUTES OF OPEN GRADED FRICTION COURSES

TOWARDS ENHANCED ROAD SAFETY IN HILLY AND
HIGH RAINFALL REGIONS OF INDIA

Abhinay Kumar1 Rajan Choudhary2 Sanjay K. Nirmal3

ABSTRACT/SYNOPSIS
Mortality and morbidity resulting from road traffic accidents is regarded as a major and pervasive public
health problem worldwide. In India itself, 413 precious lives are lost in road accidents every day, which amounts
to 3% of the GDP. On hilly and high rainfall regions lack of skid resistance and visibility forms a major cause
for road accidents. To mitigate such accidents it is highly desired to improve the drainability, skid resistance
and visibility while driving a motor vehicle. Open Graded Friction Courses (OGFCs) are a special type of
bituminous surfacings designed for high air void contents for quick drainage of rainwater, high skid resistance
and improved visibility, especially under wet weather conditions. Additional benefits offered by OGFCs
include: reduced potential for hydroplaning, reduced splash/spray, improved visibility of pavement markings,
reduced glare and pavement noise. This paper discusses in detail the different design and performance related
aspects of OGFC to acquaint the highway professionals of the country with this technology. The benefits
offered by OGFC, mix design, performance, construction practices, and worldwide applications are discussed
and imperatives are provided for its use towards enhancing the road safety in hilly and high rainfall regions
of the country. Paper also discusses the common challenges associated with OGFCs. To improve road safety in
heavy rainfall and hilly regions it is high time for India to gain experience with OGFC through construction
and monitoring of sections. Experience gained from field sections will provide an excellent opportunity to
formulate, and then continually refine and upgrade OGFC specifications and guidelines for India.

1. INTRODUCTION to heavy rainfall events (wet weather conditions).

Mortality and morbidity resulting from road traffic Predominantly hilly states such as Himachal
accidents is regarded as a major and persistent public Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, and the
North Eastern states (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
health problem in India. Road injury is one of the
Tripura, Sikkim, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, and
top four leading causes of death in India among
Meghalaya) registered 299 accidents in 2016 at sharp
persons of age group 15-49 years. In 2016 a total
curves and steep gradients resulting in 399 injuries
of 4,80,652 accidents occurred causing injuries to and 112 deaths. Further, poor light condition during
4,94,624 persons and 1,50,785 deaths. This translates night (most likely due to glare from the vehicle on
to 413 accident deaths every day and 17 deaths every opposite lane) caused 3833 accidents leading to 4477
hour (MoRTH, 2016). Although road accidents are injuries and 1631 deaths throughout the country in
multi-causal and multi-faceted, focus of the present 2016. In the same year, wet weather conditions caused
study is on accidents caused in hilly regions prone 54670 accidents leading to 55959 injuries and 17081
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Email: abhinay.kumar@iitg.ac.in
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Email: rajandce@iitg.ac.in
3
Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, Email: nirmalsanjay39@gmail.com

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 11

 Paper No. 676
deaths in the country (MoRTH, 2016). Wet weather
conditions result in the lack of skid resistance and lack
of visibility, and significantly influence the occurrence
of road accidents (Singh, 2017). The problem is
especially relevant in hilly regions where sharp curves
and steep gradients are a common road feature. Lack
of skid resistance on these curves is a major cause of
road accidents.
In the situations discussed above, it is notable that the
accumulation of rainwater on the pavement surface
causes the skid resistance to decrease, and further
compromises driver’s visibility due to presence of
water film and splash and spray of water by vehicles.
It is highly important to prevent accumulation of
water on the pavement surface in order to mitigate
such accidents. This can be achieved by adopting
special types of pavement surfacings that offer high
permeability and subsequent quick drainage of water.
Making the pavement permeable is a novel and a non-
conventional paradigm from the traditional concept of
having a waterproof pavement surface. Open Graded
Friction Courses (OGFCs) are a particular type of Hot
Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixes that contain only a small
portion of fine aggregate, creating a pavement with a
relatively large percentage of air voids. The presence
of the larger percentage of internal air voids provides
OGFC a relatively high porous structure which helps
in quick and effective removal of surface water from
the pavement (Kandhal and Mallick, 1998; Kandhal,
2002; Alvarez et al., 2011; Choudhary et al., 2017).
It improves drainage by allowing water to drain
vertically into the porous layer and then flow laterally
within the porous layer until it exits the pavement
through a daylighted edge. The absence of water
from the surface in wet weather conditions increases
the skid resistance and reduces splash and spray. The
presence of the air voids also help in absorbing the
noise generated from the tire-pavement interaction
and leads to quieter pavements. As a wearing course,
a thin layer of OGFC (20 to 50 mm) is generally
placed over a conventional impermeable pavement
surface.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The objective of this paper is to present a general
overview of OGFCs to acquaint the highway
professionals of the country with this technology.
The mix design, performance, construction
practices, advantages offered and worldwide
12 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
applications of OGFC are discussed and imperatives
are provided for its use towards improving the road
safety aspects in hilly regions of the country prone
to heavy rainfall.
3. DESIGN OF OGFC MIXES
Similar to other bituminous mixes, the selection of
appropriate materials (aggregates, binders, additives)
and proportioning of individual components is the
key to high performance and service life of OGFC
mixes. The OGFC mix design involves four main
steps:
1. Selection of Materials
2. Selection of Aggregate Gradation
3. Determination of Optimum Binder Content
4. Mixture Performance Evaluation
3.1 Selection of Materials
Materials needed for OGFC mix include aggregates
(coarse, fine, filler), asphalt binder, and stabilising
additives (fibres). Since OGFC is used as a wearing
course on high-speed high-trafficked facilities, it is
desirable that the aggregates are angular and should
possess high resistance to abrasion, crushing, and
polishing. The aggregate should have at least 95
percent one-fractured face and 90 percent two-
fractured face. Fractured faces ensure high internal
friction between the aggregates. Flaky and elongated
particles are also generally limited to 10 percent and
20 percent corresponding to the maximum to minimum
dimension ratios of 5:1 and 3:1, respectively. Note
that the ratio of 3:1 is commonly used in India. Fine
aggregate should have a low clay content or high sand-
equivalent value of more than 45 percent. It is also
quite common to use hydrated lime to impart strong
resistance against water damage (stripping).
A minimum binder content is needed to ensure
thick film over the aggregates to reduce aging,
disintegration, stripping, and ravelling. An upper
limit on binder content assures a minimum air
void content, reduces tyre-pavement noise, and
inhibits binder runoff (draindown) during mixing,
transportation and laying of the mix. To meet these
requirements, research and experience has shown
that the unmodified binders may not be suitable for
OGFC mixes. The general tendency in recent years
has been to use modified binders. It is believed
that modified binders increase the life of OGFC by
improving the cohesion and adhesion of the mixes
 Paper No. 676

and by forming thicker films around the aggregates
that controls draindown and embrittlement due to
aging. In comparison to typical asphalt film thickness
of 4-6 micron achieved in dense-graded mixtures, an
OGFC requires 8-11 micron asphalt film thickness on
an average (FHWA, 1990). Binders recommended for
OGFC are two performance grades stiffer than the
ones normally used under a given environment and
traffic condition (Kandhal, 2002).
Certain inorganic and organic fibre additives are also
added in the attempt to control binder draindown.
For example, cellulose fibres (a type of organic fibre)
derived from paper reduce binder drain down by
absorbing and stiffening the binder. The non-fibre
components of the cellulose fibre act as additional
filler and further obviate the drainage of binder from
the mix. Fibres are typically used in proportions of
0.2–0.5 percent by weight of the mix with 0.3 percent
being the most common dosage.
3.2 Selection of Aggregate Gradation
OGFC gradations are predominantly gap-graded
(single particle sized) to allow for higher percentages
of air voids by eliminating the fine material. Selection
of aggregate gradation for OGFC mix is based on
fulfilment of stone-on-stone criterion. The criterion
ensures that the traffic loads are borne by the coarse
granular skeleton through their interconnected contact
points to provide resistance against permanent
deformation and disintegration. The stone-on-stone
requirement is met when voids in coarse aggregate
(defined as the fraction retained on 4.75 mm sieve)
in compacted OGFC mix (referred as VCAmix) are
less than voids in the coarse aggregates found by dry
rodded test (referred as VCAdrc). Dry rodded test is
conducted on coarse aggregates as per AASHTO T19
to determine the dry rodded density. The VCAdrc is
then calculated using Eq. (1):
Gmb = bulk density of compacted OGFC mix;
PCA = proportion of coarse aggregate in the mix
(percent). Different trial aggregate gradations (gap-
graded) are selected and evaluated for stone-on-stone
contact criterion. Finally selected gradation should
meet the stone-on-stone criterion and provide high
air voids. Various agencies have prescribed different
gradation bands for OGFC mixes. Table 1 shows
recommended gradation bands by some agencies.
Fig. 1 shows the OGFC gradation recommended by
ASTM D7064.
3.3 Determination of Optimum Binder Content
(OBC)
OGFC mixes are prepared with the selected
aggregate gradation at four to five binder contents in
increments of 0.5 percent. Uncompacted specimens
are also subjected to binder draindown test and
theoretical maximum specific gravity determination.
For compacted specimens, a compaction effort of
50 gyrations or 50 blows of Marshall compactor on
each face is usually used. The compacted specimens
are then subjected and evaluated for bulk density,
abrasion loss in unaged and aged conditions, and
permeability. The OBC is selected based on the
outcomes of the results of these tests. Each of the
test methods is discussed briefly in the following
sections.

(1)

where, GCA = bulk density of coarse aggregate;

γw = unit weight of water;
γs = dry rodded density of coarse aggregate
(AASHTO T19).
Now, VCAmix is determined from Eq. (2):

[ ] (2)
Fig. 1 Recommended OGFC gradation (ASTM D7064)

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 13

 Paper No. 676
Table 1. Recommended OGFC Gradations by Different Agencies

Sieve ASTM NAPA US US US US FHWA Europe

(mm) D7064 (2002) (Alabama) (Connecticut) (Florida) (South (1990)
(2013) Carolina)
19.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 - 100
12.5 85-100 85-100 85-100 95-100 85-100 85-100 100 90-100
9.5 35-60 35-60 55-65 - 55-75 55-75 95-100 35-60
4.75 10-25 10-25 10-25 20-35 15-25 15-25 30-50 10-25
2.36 5-10 5-10 5-10 5-19 5-10 5-10 5-15 5-10
0.075 2-4 2-4 2-4 1-5 2-4 0-4 2-5 1-4

Binder draindown test: The test consists of placing a
loose mix in a wire basket over a plate of known weight.
This assembly is then placed in a forced air draft oven
for 1 hour at 15 °C above the mixing temperature. After 1
hour, the weight of assembly is measured. Draindown is
calculated (in percent) from the ratio of weight of drained
material to the weight of original material. ASTM D6390
specifies the procedure for performing the draindown
test on an uncompacted OGFC specimen. Fig. 2 shows
an OGFC binder draindown test under progress.
Air voids content: Bulk density of the compacted OGFC
specimen (Gmb) and theoretical maximum specific gravity
(Gmm) are the two inputs required to compute the air void
content (Eq. 3):
Gmm  Gmb
Air Voids (%)  x 100 (3)
Gmm
Fig. 2 OGFC Binder Draindown Test
Gmm is computed as per the guidelines of ASTM D2041
(Rice specific gravity procedure) or using ASTM D6752
(automatic vacuum sealing method). Determination of
Gmb of OGFC specimens using the water-displacement
method is not suitable as it is difficult to correctly
determine the saturated surface dry weight. The vacuum
method or dimensional analysis are the alternative
methods recommended for calculating the Gmb. A
minimum requirement of air voids in the range of 15 to
25 percent is followed in different countries.
Durability evaluation using Cantabro abrasion test:
The test is conducted on a compacted OGFC specimen by
subjecting it to abrasion testing in Los Angeles machine
without the charge of steel balls where it is rotated
different number of revolutions (usually 300) at a rate of
30–33 rpm. Abraded specimen is then removed, cleaned
and weighed. The difference (loss) in the weights is then
used to calculate percent abrasion loss. High air void
content makes OGFC vulnerable to increased aging that
may lead to ravelling. To determine the effect of ageing
test is then performed on aged OGFC specimens also.
Hence in OGFC mix design, the durability is evaluated
after subjecting the specimens to an accelerated aging
protocol. The accelerated aging procedure usually
consists of placing the specimens at 60°C for 7 days in a
forced air-draft oven. Cantabro test is then performed on
these aged specimens at ambient temperatures (usually
25°C). Fig. 3 shows an OGFC specimen before and after
Cantabro abrasion test.
Permeability test: Some specifications place
permeability as an optional test in OGFC mix design
to evaluate the functional performance of OGFC
related to its drainability. Falling head concept based
on Darcy’s Law is generally used for determination of
the one-dimensional hydraulic conductivity coefficient
(or permeability) on saturated OGFC specimens. A
minimum requirement of permeability for these mixes
is 100 m/day.

14 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 676
Fig. 3 An OGFC specimen Before and After
Cantabro Abrasion Test
Determination of OBC: Selection of OBC for an OGFC
mix design with selected aggregate gradation consists of
identifying the minimum binder content at which all the
stipulated requirements are satisfied. The requirements
of various properties for OGFC as per ASTM D7064
are shown in Table 2. Some remedial measures may be
necessary if the stipulated requirements are not being
met. If abrasion loss is too high, binder content may
have to be increased or the modifier used may have to be
changed. If draindown is too high, fibre dosage or fibre
type can be adjusted. If air voids are on the lower side,
the aggregate gradation may be adjusted or the binder
content reduced.
Table 2 Requirements for Selection of OBC for OGFC
Mixes (ASTM D7064)
Criteria Requirement
Air void content min 18 percent
Durability: Unaged abrasion loss max 20 percent
Durability: Aged abrasion loss max 30 percent
Binder draindown max 0.3 percent
Permeability min 100 m/day
3.4 Mixture Performance Evaluation
Moisture susceptibility evaluation is the most common
and important performance test conducted on OGFC
mixes. Modified Lottman method or Tensile Strength
Ratio (TSR) test can be used to evaluate moisture damage
resistance of OGFC mixes following the AASHTO T283
with usually some modifications in the procedure as
described below:
• Five freeze/thaw cycles are used in lieu of one
cycle.
• Partial vacuum of 660 mmHg for 10 minutes is
applied to saturate the specimens.
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 15
• Specimens are kept submerged throughout the
freeze/thaw cycles to maintain the saturated
conditions.
A minimum TSR value of 80 percent is considered the
acceptance criterion for moisture susceptibility same as
in case of dense-graded mixes (IRC 111). Use of other
tests such as loaded wheel testers, bending beam fatigue,
and static creep has also been reported for OGFC
performance testing (Cooley et al., 2009). These mixes
have shown adequate and comparable performance with
respect to the dense graded mixes.
4. OGFC CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
The construction practices for OGFCs have only minor
differences than the practices used for dense-graded
asphalt mixtures. The pavement layer immediately below
the OGFC wearing course must be a structurally-sound
dense-graded layer to protect the remaining pavement
and other layers from the damaging effect of ingress of
water. Ruts in the underlying layer may inhibit lateral flow
and cause water to pond in the ruts, promoting separation
of the OGFC from the underlying layer (FHWA, 1990).
OGFC may be manufactured in either drum or batch type
asphalt plants. Quality control needs to be exercised on
aggregate grading to ensure sufficient void space for
the flowability of water. Since OGFC is prone to binder
draindown, it is usually not recommended to store the
mix for a longer period. OGFCs are not subjected to in-
place density requirements, rather the compaction effort
should be just enough to ‘seat’ the mix on the underlying
dense pavement layer. Two passes with a 10-tonne static
steel wheel roller are generally sufficient for this purpose
(Lavin, 2003). Pneumatic rollers are not advised due
to high probability of mix pick-up by the tyres of the
roller. Care should be taken to avoid over-compaction
as this may damage the coarse aggregate skeleton. High
air void content and the lack of fine aggregate causes
OGFC mix to cool rapidly. Therefore, it is recommended
to complete placement and compaction of the mix before
the temperature falls below 80°C (Lavin, 2003). The edge
of OGFC mat should be daylighted on the shoulder of the
underlying dense layer. Furthermore, it is important to
ensure that the edges of the OGFC mat are not obstructed
so that unhindered lateral flow of water can occur.
5. BENEFITS OF OGFC
OGFCs, in comparison to dense-graded bituminous
mixes, offer various widely accepted benefits on
highways. Some principal advantages associated with
OGFCs are discussed below:
 Paper No. 676
5.1 Drainability
The presence of high and interconnected air voids in
the mixture allow surface water to quickly drain off
the pavement. OGFC mixtures typically have air voids
greater than 15 percent, and as high as 25 percent just
after the construction (Alvarez et al., 2006). The water
flows vertically down through the OGFC thickness and
then flows laterally where it exits through a ‘daylighted’
edge. Studies have also shown that OGFC reduces the
concentrations of pollutants from stormwater run-
off. Hydraulic property of OGFC is measured as its
permeability, and it primarily depends on air void
content in the mix among several other factors like layer
thickness, pavement longitudinal and transverse slope,
and intensity of rainfall (Stanard et al., 2007).
5.2 Improved Wet Weather Skid Resistance
Frictional resistance of a pavement is a very important
aspect influencing the road safety. Pavement surfaces
should be designed in such a way that they have adequate
skid resistance, especially in wet weather conditions.
Research in US, France, and Canada has shown that
OGFC layers with rougher surface texture along with a
high percentage of air voids help to improve frictional
properties and skid resistance and significantly reduce
the accidents especially under wet weather conditions.
Frictional resistance of a pavement also decreases with
increase in vehicle speed. In many studies it is found that
the rate of decrease of friction for a unit speed (termed
friction gradient) for an OGFC surface is considerably
lower than dense-graded surfaces (Kandhal, 2002).
Fig. 4 shows carriageway of a dense-graded pavement
surface during a rainfall event. It can be observed how
water continues to stay on the pavement and thereby
reduces the skid resistance. Provision of an OGFC layer
will not allow the water to stay on the surface.
Fig. 4 Water Stays on a Dense-Graded Pavement During Rainfall
16 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
5.3 Reduced Splash and Spray
During rains, water stands on the surface of dense-graded
hot mix asphalt (HMA) wearing layer. As vehicles pass
over the pavement surface, water is splashed or thrown
into the air in the form of mist (spray). The existence of
the splashed or sprayed water reduces visibility severely
and is major safety concern while driving at night in
hilly regions. The problem is particularly frustrating
for motorists travelling behind trucks/buses. OGFC
eliminates the droplets of water caused by vehicles
passing over the roadway because water infiltrates
into the voids of the pavement. A study performed in
the UK reported 95 percent reduction in water spray
while travelling about 10 feet behind a truck (Putman,
2012). Fig. 5 shows splash and spray generated from a
dense-graded pavement surface that also results in poor
visibility. Provision of OGFC will avoid splash and spray
by ensuring complete drainage of water.
Fig. 5 Splash and Spray on a Dense-Graded Pavement
During Rainfall
5.4 Reduction in Glare
On smooth surfaces like dense-graded layers, the
reflection from headlights looks similar to a mirror from
a distance and causes glare in the eyes of the driver. The
situation becomes adverse when water is also present
on the pavement surface and becomes a hazard to road
safety. As OGFC surfaces dissipate water quickly, the
wet weather visibility is significantly improved and glare
is reduced. It also allows the driver to better identify
pavement markings, especially at night, during wet
weather and/or during fog. There is no doubt that such
reduction in glare from vehicle headlights is a significant
contribution to road safety.
5.5 Reduction in Hydroplaning
Hydroplaning (also called aquaplaning) occurs when
a layer of water builds up between tire and pavement
surface. This layer of water breaks the contact between
 Paper No. 676
the tire and road. When this occurs, the vehicle will not
respond to braking or steering by the driver and this may
be extremely hazardous. As OGFC surface provides
adequate drainage through interconnected air voids, no
continuous film of water is available to break the bond
between the tire and pavement surface. Additionally, the
higher macrotexture provided at the pavement surface by
OGFC layers creates small channels for dissipation of
water as vehicles pass over the pavement. Fig. 6 shows
the formation of ‘sheet’ of water on a dense-graded
surface during a rainfall event. On carriageways without
a median (common feature in hilly regions), the situation
causes headlight glare at night.
Fig. 6 Presence of a ‘Sheet’ of Water in Wet Weather
Condition
5.6 Increased Road Safety
Use of OGFC enhances safety on highways through
aforementioned advantages of improved wet-weather
skid resistance, reduction in glare, and reduction in
hydroplaning, splash and spray. A Japanese study
conducted by Association of Japan Highway in 1996
showed that the wet weather accidents could be decreased
by 80% with use of OGFC surface compared with dense-
graded pavement. A road accident study conducted in
France showed 52 occurrences of accidents on a highway
during 1979–1985. After placement of an OGFC on the
same section of the highway, no accident was reported
during 1985–1999 (Putman, 2012).
5.7 Reduction in Tire-Pavement Noise
Movement of vehicle tyres forces away the air in front
of the contact area between tyre and pavement, while it
sucks the air behind the contact area. High frequency
noise is generated from this air pumping action. The noise
reduction potential of OGFC surfaces is predominantly
due to high total air void content that enables sound
absorption and thus minimizes tire-pavement noise.
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 17
Reduction in tyre noise makes driving more pleasant and
less tiring (Nicholls, 1998). The noise reduction relative
to dense bituminous mixes is generally of the order of 3
dBA (dry conditions) to 8 dBA (wet conditions), where
4 dBA reduction in noise level is comparable to a 50
percent reduction in noise pollution as the decibel scale
is logarithmic. OGFC is accepted as the most effective
noise reducing road surfacing (Nicholls, 1998).
6. OGFC IMPLEMENTATION IN THE WORLD
OGFCs have been in the use since the 1950s (Kandhal,
2002; Lavin, 2003) as surface layers in countries like the
US, Japan, the UK, Malaysia, Australia, South Africa,
Europe, and New Zealand (Qureshi et al., 2015). Various
US states (such as Oregon, Washington, California,
Nevada, Arizona, Florida, etc.) have been using OGFC
since the 1970s for its excellent performance for safety,
drainage, and durability. The Netherlands started to use
OGFCs in the early 1980s, and by 1990 more than 80
percent of their road network was paved with OGFC. It
has also been the preferred choice for airport pavements
in Switzerland since 1972 (Qureshi et al., 2015). In the
UK, the main reason for widespread use of OGFC was to
prevent hydroplaning on airfield runways and to reduce
traffic noise on roadways. Austria promoted the use of
OGFC to reduce the disturbances caused by traffic noise
in areas where residential spaces lay in proximity to the
main highways. OGFC usage in France and Italy has
proved to be highly durable on heavily trafficked road
sections. Recycling of OGFCs has also been successfully
attempted, as reported in studies from Italy and the
Netherlands (Nicholls, 1998). OGFC is used on either a
flexible or a rigid pavement during reconstruction or as
an overlay.
7. IMPERATIVES FOR THE USE OF OGFC IN
INDIA
OGFC has been successfully implemented across the
globe in a range of climatic regions ranging from hot
to cold and dry to wet. Hilly regions of the North East
India receive high intensity rainfall throughout the year.
Roads in hilly regions are at much greater risk of road
accidents on account of wet weather, challenging terrain,
lack of skid resistance on sharp curves, and vehicle
hydroplaning (a phenomenon in which a sheet of water
builds up between the pavement surface and the vehicle
tire, making it difficult to steer and apply brakes). These
factors escalate further at night due to headlight glare
from the vehicles approaching from the opposite lane.
Use of OGFCs will maximise the pavement macro-
 Paper No. 676
texture/skid resistance, and will reduce splash, spray,
and risk of hydroplaning. The authors believe that the
advantages offered by OGFC are sufficient to adopt
them as road surfacings especially in rainy and hilly
regions of India, such as the North Eastern states
(Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Sikkim, Nagaland,
Mizoram, Manipur, and Meghalaya), parts of Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
8. CHALLENGES AND THEIR RESOLUTION
In the early decades of OGFC implementation (1960s
and 1970s), the mixtures were designed using empirical
methods using unmodified binders. The use of unmodified
binders resulted in poor OGFC performance and many
agencies prohibited its use (Abadie, 2013). However,
lessons were learnt and significant improvements were
made in selection of materials and gradations for OGFC
during the 1990s. A vast majority of agencies reporting
good performance of OGFCs use modified binders and
comparatively coarser gradations (Kandhal and Mallick,
1999).
Ravelling/Disintegration: Interconnected voids of
OGFC help water to drain quickly but also accelerate the
aging process as air can pass through the structure. As a
result, OGFC may show signs of revelling and shoving,
especially at locations with heavy turning movements
such as intersections and ramp terminals (FHWA, 1990).
In 1999, a survey of US Departments of Transportation
(DOTs) indicated that the agencies that reported good
durability of OGFC mixes had used modified asphalt
binders (Kandhal and Mallick, 1999). Use of modified
binders increases the resistance to disintegration, aging
and stripping by forming thicker asphalt films over the
aggregates. Nielsen (2006) reported that most countries
employing OGFCs preferred modified binders for better
mix durability while avoiding binder draindown. Now-
a-days, most of the OGFC mixtures are fabricated with
these binders produced by addition of polymers or crumb
rubber from waste tyres.
Clogging: As pavement life pursues, entry of dirt and
debris may choke the OGFC layer and eventually reduce
its permeability. Clogging can be easily addressed with
recent advancements made in this direction. De-clogging
operations constitute an essential component of general
maintenance activities for OGFCs. Cleaning of OGFC
can be performed with a fire hose, high pressure cleaner,
or a specially manufactured equipment vehicle (Kandhal,
2002). It must, however, be recognised that de-clogging
procedures may not completely restore the original
18 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
OGFC permeability (Pattanaik et al., 2017; Suresha et
al., 2010).
Stripping: Apparently, the OGFC layer does not seal
the underlying dense layer against moisture intrusion,
making the layer prone to moisture induced damages.
This is dealt with use of an anti-stripping agent (e.g.
hydrated lime) and checking the designed mix for
stripping tendency through tensile strength ratio (TSR)
testing.
9. CONCLUSIONS
Open graded friction course (OGFC) is an HMA mix
specially designed to have high air void contents for
quick drainage of water from the pavement. Key benefits
of OGFC are: improved skid resistance, reduced potential
for hydroplaning, improved wet weather friction,
improved road safety, reduced splash/spray, reduced
pavement noise levels, reduced glare, and improved
visibility of pavement markings. The objective of this
paper was to present an overview of OGFCs and covered
OGFC mix design, performance, construction practices,
and imperatives for its widespread use towards improving
the road safety aspects in hilly regions of the country
prone to heavy rainfall. A good design and construction
practice is the key to enhanced performance of OGFCs.
Experience gained in other countries indicated that the
durability of OGFCs is good enough as a surface course
on heavy traffic areas, and the service life is comparable
to the conventional dense-graded asphalt concrete. The
cost of OGFC may be slightly higher than conventional
dense-graded surfacing, likely due to the requirement of
high quality coarse aggregate, modified binder, and other
additives. However, it must also be understood that many
advantages offered by OGFC, such as improvement in
road safety and driving comfort, are rather difficult to be
quantified financially.
It is high time for India to gain experience with OGFC
that will entail joint efforts from both academia and
the industry. Field sections of OGFC can be laid and
monitored for evaluation of their short-term and long-
term performance. Dedicated research efforts and
experience gained from field sections will provide an
excellent opportunity to develop and continually refine
and upgrade OGFC specifications and guidelines for
India.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
by Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of
 Paper No. 676
India. The authors express sincere thanks to Prof. Prithvi
S. Kandhal (Associate Director Emeritus, National
Center for Asphalt Technology, Alabama, USA) for his
thoughtful inputs, encouragement and help.
References
1. AASHTO T 19M/T 19 (2009). Standard Method of
Test for Bulk Density (“Unit Weight”) and Voids in
Aggregate, American Association of State Highway and
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2. AASHTO T 283 (2014). Standard Method of Test for
Resistance of Compacted Asphalt Mixtures to Moisture-
Induced Damage, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials.
3. Abadie, C. (2013). Evaluation of Open Graded Friction
Course (OGFC) Mixtures. FHWA/LA.13/513, Louisiana
Department of Transportation and Development,
Louisiana, USA.
4. Alvarez, A. E., Martin, A. E., and Estakhri, C. (2011).
A Review of Mix Design and Evaluation Research for
Permeable Friction Course Mixtures. Construction and
Building Materials, 25(3), 1159-1166.
5. Alvarez, A. E., Martin, A. E., Estakhri, C. K., Button,
J. W., Glover, C. J., and Jung, S. H. (2006). Synthesis
of Current Practice on the Design, Construction, and
Maintenance of Porous Friction Courses, Report No.
FHWA/TX-06/0-5262-1, Texas Transportation Institute,
Texas, USA.
6. ASTM D2041 / D2041M-11 (2011). Standard Test
Method for Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity
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7. ASTM D6390-11 (2017). Standard Test Method
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Uncompacted Asphalt Mixtures, ASTM International,
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8. ASTM D6752 / D6752M (2017). Standard Test Method
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 Paper No. 677

Bridge cum Bandhara– An urgent need of time

C. P. Joshi1 Dr. R. K. Ingle2 S. S. Bhonge3 S. S. Sahutre4 M. I. Shekh5

ABSTRACT
Maharashtra has tradition of constructing Bridge Cum Bandhara (BCB), where bridges are used for dual
purpose i.e. crossing the river and also to create limited water storage. They are popular as they can serve dual
purpose of crossing as well as a water storage structure. Such structures have been used to tap post monsoon
flow to create storage not exceeding 3.50 m.
There is urgent need of time to save and utilize the after monsoon water that would have been flown away. In
most part of the state the steams run dry only a short period after the end of monsoon. In many areas artificial
water is supplied by tankers just after monsoon. It is urgent need of time to plan and extend the purpose of
bridges infrastructure to harness the water. New projects as well as existing bridges can be extended to tap
the water with suitable necessary arrangements. Administrative reforms shall be planned to elevate the water
availability of arid areas. The Bridge cum Bandhara (BCB) can be a water storage structure can be used
for ground water recharge, irrigation, and drinking or industry purpose. Because of percolation of water to
ground below, it acts like a reservoir where evaporation loss is minimal.
To create awareness and ease of construction for such structures, simple and ready to use standard type plan
for BCB are prepared by PWD Maharashtra. It can be used for the site condition for bridge site where rock
is available at shallow depth. The Type plan can be used for new bridge projects as well as to convert existing
bridge into water harnessing structures.

1. INTRODUCTION that would have been flown away from the area with
Bridges cum Bandhara is a dual purpose bridge structure, suitable retaining structure. The nalla is being crossed
which fulfils both the requirements such as crossing as at many places during its course by fast growing road
well as water retaining motive. In most parts of the state, infrastructural network. The bridge crossing on the
the streams run dry after only a short period after the end stream can be suitable point to tap and save the water
of monsoon. which can be used when it is required.
The water table is getting lower and lower due to large BCB structures have been used to tap post monsoon flow
numbers of bore wells being dug and exploited. Also to create storage not exceeding 3.50 m. They are ideal
drinking water for cattle becomes scarce. structure for following situations.
There is persistent demand from people’s representatives a. To tap post monsoon flow to create storage up to
for taking up Bridge cum Bandhara works on large scale. 3.5 m. The storage is created by fixing needles/
gates between bandhara piers to tap last flow.
There is urgent need of time to save and retain the water
b. Stored water is used for drinking and irrigation.
1
Secretary ( Roads), PWD Govt of Maharashtra and Vice President, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
2
Professor, VNIT Nagpur. Email: rkingle@rediffmail.com
3
Superintending Engineer, Designs Circle (Bridges), PWD, GOM. Email: bhongess@gmail.com
4
Executive Engineer, Designs Division (Bridges), PWD Aurangabad.
5
Assistant Engineer, PW Region Aurangabad, GOM.

20 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 677
c. It enhances the ground water which then is available
for irrigation as well as for drinking water.
d. Surplus percolated water out of irrigation activity
again joins the river which is tapped and reused for
irrigation.
e. Such stored water can be used for artificial
recharging the nearby bore wells as well as open
well to augment ground water.
The water is stored within the river banks hence does not
require additional land acquisition and hence the scheme
can be popular.
2. Evolution of suitable type Plans
for Bridge cum bandhara (BCB).
Various parts of Maharashtra state like Aurangabad,
Jalna, Solapur, Latur, Beed and few districts from
Vidharbha region etc are in drought prone area due to
scanty rainfall. The rivers and Nallas in these regions get
dried after rain is over in 6 to 12 hours. There is need
to provide water to people for farming and their cattle’s
with available water resources. PWD Maharashtra have
constructed many bridges on number of rivers/nallas and
infrastructure many bridges are under construction. If
the utility of these structure is extended to harness the
monsoon water, that will be a great social contribution
for the department.
Currently the domain of authority of storage of water
is solely belongs to Irrigation and Water Resource
Department. Further there is lack of availability of ready
to use guidelines / drawing that can be easily implemented
by field officers from PWD department.
Field officers are unaware of the suitable site for bridge
cum bandhara. Therefore it is decided to prepare
guidelines and standard drawings for the reference of
field officer. This will create awareness among field
officers to construct the water harvesting structure.
This structure can be used to utilise the store water so
also it will raise the depleted ground water storage by
providing ground water recharge. The reports referred
in the reference (1, 2) can be used as guidelines for
construction of Bridge cum Bandhara. A typical Bridge
cum bandhara is shown in Fig. 1.
One of the most benefit of bridge cum bandhara is the
structure requires no additional land acquisition and
the approaches of bridge structure can utilised to retain
water in the vicinity.
2.1 Type Plans have been Prepared for Following
Situations.
a. Construction new bridge cum bandana when rock is
exposed and storage targeted up to 3.5 m
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 21
b. Converting existing bridge into Bridge cum
Bandhara when rock is buried
c. When rock is exposed with storage up to 3.5 m
d. When rock is buried with maximum depth of 5 m
with storage up to 3.5 m
e. No rock but storage up to 2.5 m
Fig. 1 Typical Bridge cum Bandhara
2.2 The Followings are Main Objectives of the
Construction of Bridge cum Bandhara.
2.2.1 Water retaining structure
The primary aim of BCB is to store the after monsoon
flow of water and to use is for long time. This requires
some special site conditions such as availability of non-
porous rock / soil, impervious banks.
The water is stored when there is availability of water and
it is utilised according to the need of people particularly
in the most arid months of March to May.
2.2.2 Ground Water recharge structure
When there is pervious soil / sandy soil / fissured rock
is available at bridge site the retaining structure can be
used for ground water recharge. This will contribute to
elevate the ground water availability of entire area in the
vicinity. This water can ultimately utilised by the society
in vicinity.
Ground water can also be enhanced by recharging the
bore wells with necessary arrangement as stated earlier.
3. Measures to taken for
implementation of BCB
infrastructure.
To overcome the water scarcity in the notified water
scares areas following measures shall be adopted by
implementing authorities.
3.1 For all minor bridges where rock is exposed or
rock is available up to 3.00 m below bed the BCB shall
 Paper No. 677
be proposed or added to bridge irrespective of the norms
of cost or minimum storage.
3.2 Minimum Clearance (between FSL of BCB to
soffit of Bridge) in case of submersible bridge shall
not be less than 2 m and that for high level bridge it
shall not be less than 3 m. However, this requirement
can be relaxed with provision of Automatic gate system
for BCB. If automatic gates are provided, the minimum
clearance may be at least 1.00 m.
3.3 As floating trees & debris can endanger the bridge
structure, debris arresters can be provided on upstream
side of the bandhara.
3.4 Very high level bridge (RTL – bed level > 10 m)
may not be considered as suitable for BCB proposal on
account of difficulty of removal and resetting of gates
from bridge top. However, in such cases arrangement for
removal and placing of needles can be made from the
bed of the river.
3.5 The maintenance and repair of BCB and also
placing of needles in position at appropriate time and
removing the same before monsoon at present done by
Irrigation Department. The maintenance and repairs
of bridge portion will be done by P.W.D. Hence forth
the contractor who constructs the BCB will take the
responsibility of operation and maintenance bandhara for
next 10 years from completion. He will be separately paid
annually for this task of O&M by making provisions in
Tender. Now-a-days many NGOs and Village Panchayats
are coming forward and taking responsibility of O&M.
3.6 Sometimes while upgrading the road, geometrical
improvements, existing stretch is abandoned. Such or
any abandoned stretch of road with bridge can be used to
convert it by BCB.
3.7 New as well as existing bridge can be converted
to water storing structure on the same principle; K.T.
Weir can also be used or converted are to be explored by
Irrigation department in consultation on with P.W.D.
3.8 PWD has assigned target to each P.W. Division to
construct new BCB/converting existing bridge to BCB.
The Superintending Engineers of territorial Circles
therefore were requested to ensure at least five works in
each District is started every season. Latest development
in policy towards BCB is, OMGSY and NH departments
agreed to execute BCB works from their own funds. Also
CEOs of Zilla Parishads are given the target number of
BCBs to be constructed.
3.9 Committee may be formed under chairmanship of
District Collector to construct BCB and shall ensure that
maximum proposals of BCB be started to combat water
22 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
shortage.
3.10 For converting an existing bridge into a BCB,
complete cost of Bandhara and allied work involving
protection of bed on downstream side or deepening
of bed un up stream to increase the storage should be
included in the Bandhara estimate. The Public Works
Department should formulate such a proposal to accord
administrative approval to the same and complete the
work. The entire expenditure in carrying out the work
in such case should be borne by the Public Works
Department.
3.11 Whenever Bandhara work is proposed by the
Irrigation Department (which is within cost norms of
Irrigation Department) on or nearby any plan road, the
concerned officer of Irrigation Department should consult
the officer of the Public Works Department to explore
the possibility of providing BCB structure. In case the
proposal is found to be feasible the project should be
prepared by the Irrigation Department in consultation
with the Public Works Department. Administrative
approval for the same should be accorded by the
Irrigation Department and execution of such a structure
and the entire expenditure of the same should be borne
by the Irrigation Department.
3.12 Use of type plan available with department for
constructing BCB is useful. Type plans is prepared by
Design Circle (Structural Design wing of PWD) for new
proposal as well as for converting existing bridge to
BCB.
3.13 Wherever, a new bridge is proposed by P.W.D,
consultation shall be made with Irrigation Department to
explore the possibility of taking the work of BCB.
3.14 Issues with existing gates in MS are summarized
below.
a. In MS-fabricated gates,-Weight is – 70 kg -100 kg
b. Short life -being in MS getting rusty over period of
time.
c. Due to polluted water getting corroded / eroded
very fast.
d. Due to heavy weight removing and fixing
cumbersome.
e. Storage problem.
f. Chances of theft due to resale value.
g. Repairs & maintenance every year for year for 30%
qty
h. Cost of replacement of 30% qty = @200 lacks in
every circle.
i. Heavy water loss from interface of two gates as its
matching is lost due to rusting and wear and tear.
 Paper No. 677
j. More serious problem noticed was theft of MS
gates and selling in scrap market, which is putting
whole department’s staff under problem
It was suggested to go for FRP material and have many
fold advantages over the existing material.
Durable.
Cost effective
Longer life.
Prevention from loss & theft
Chemically resistance
Light weight.
Easy to operate and store.
In recent years the Glass reinforced Plastics is catching
the most of the areas where it has replaced MS material
due to above advantages.
FRP is fiber reinforced plastics. Mixture of Glass Fiber
materials and Resin which gives high strength laminate
and having advantages such as light weight, Stronger in
impact strength, chemically resistance, ease in placing
and removing and can be moulded in any shape and
colour.
Proper rubber gasket between two needles /gates
horizontally at interface of needle/gate and interlocking
between two needles /gates insures proper fitment and
desired water tightness.
Last but not the least there is acute need to work together
to construct BCB by Irrigation department and P.W.D.
Two departments cannot work separately and joint work
will help the State to improve on the situation of water
storage.
4. Evolution of suitable type Plans
for Bridge cum bandhara (BCB).
The type plans are evolve through rigours analysis and
calculations. Many institutions have work to develop the
ready to use drawings on this issue. The guidance and
support of Shri P. L. Bongirwar, Retired Secretary, PWD,
GOM and Dr R.K. Ingle, Professor, VNIT, Nagpur has
helped lot in development of policy for BCB.
PWD Designs Circle prepared type plan for a situation
where impervious rock available at shallow depth.
a. The type plan can be used for new proposal and to
convert existing bridge into a BCB.
b. The type plans are prepare for various depths of
foundations, water velocity, water storage height etc.
c. The pier and weir is designed for a maximum
storage depth of 3.0 m above the bed level for the
assumed depth of foundation up to 4.0 m bellow the
bed level.
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 23
d. The stability of Bandhara weir is checked for
overturning, sliding, maximum / minimum pressure
for following conditions.
i. No water no gates
ii. Earthquake force with Water upto 1.5 m
heights with gates
iii. Water up to full storage level with gates
iv. No gates and flood at HFL
5. Following parameters are
considered while preparing the
standard type plans for BCB
a. Storage depth from 1.5 m to 3.0 m
b. Depth of foundation from 1 m to 4 mc.
c. Velocity of water at bandhara pier top 3.0 m/
sec and 4.5 m/sec at RTL (for submersible
bridges).
d. Clear span between bandhara piers is from
2.0 m to 3.0 m
e. Span of main bridge considered 5.0 m &
10.0 m
6. Loading conditions
a. All possible loading as per IRC:6-2017
b. Triangular uplift at the base for Gate closed
condition.
c. 100% Buoyancy effect.
d. 20° variation in moving water.
7. Geo-technical studies to design the foundation
of the structure and various other parameters also are
required to be carried out. The average cost norms for
water storage structures of the irrigation department of
the concerned state need to be taken into consideration
while proposing a bandhara based scheme. It has been
observed that the cost of Bandhara is 1.25 to 1.50 Lakhs
per running meter depending upon the type of foundation
and the depth of storage if the slope is 1:500 or less and
this fits into the norms of Maharashtra government for
minor irrigation.
8. Apart from constructing a totally new BCB, there
is ample scope of converting the existing bridges into a
BCB provided the site meets various criteria as outlined
in the report. At present there are various defunct
bridges (Fig. 2)/culverts available on highways due to
construction of new bridges. Most of these bridges are of
smaller spans with masonry/PCC piles. Such abandoned/
defunct bridges can also be used for being converted into
bandhara.
 Paper No. 677
Fig. 2 Old Defunct Bridge
9. Bandhara are typically recommended to be
constructed in various parts of India that are underlain
by hard strata. Locating a site underlain by alluvial
formations such as sand etc may not be successful
because of two main reasons: seepage losses of
impounded water to the downstream side and non-
availability of sufficient river embankment height for
water impounding.
10. It was noticed that the maintenance of the
gates of the BCB as well as removing and re-fixing
the gates was an issue. Because of this, some BCBs
may become dysfunctional or may not perform
to its full efficiency. It is thus recommended that
suitable arrangements for this needs to be made at the
appropriate level like forming the beneficiary group
to look after the maintenance of the BCB. Another
suggestion is to outsource the maintenance as well as
removal and re-fixing of the gates which appears to
be viable solution.
11. Small rivers and nallas get dried up after rain
is over in next 6 to 12 hours. Hence small CD works
like structures like pipe culverts slab drain, KT weir
etc can also be converted in bandhara structure by
using ferrocrete or precast concrete panels of elliptical
shape or parabolic shape or semi-circular that to at very
reasonable cost of Rs 15 thousands to 30 thousands per
rmt. They are small arch type structure on upstream
side. With construction of this type of small bandhara,
we can store water for entire three months at minimal
cost. Because of this large no of exiting CD works
can be converted in a storage structure and ground
24 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
water recharge. Majority of existing CD work do not
require height more than 2.5 m. this system do-not need
maintenance of gates and do not require putting and
removing of gates after monsoon.
12. Conclusion And observations
Following are the findings from analysis and preparing
standard drawings for BCB:
i. BCB shall invariably be provided where ever
possible.
ii. It shall be mandatory to investigate the possibility
of BCB at each and every new bridge proposal.
iii. Every existing bridge structure shall be thoroughly
investigated to convert it into water retaining
BCB.
iv. There shall be mutual coordination between
irrigation and PWD authorities to finalise the BCB
proposal. Without this it will be not possible to
undertake any BCB proposal
v. The type plan prepared can be used for new bridge
proposal as well as converting existing bridge
proposal into BCB.
vi. The Bandhara weir is a typical gravity structure,
can be constructed along with any bridge structure.
vii. Out of large no of CD works in the State, 80% of
them have height not more than 3 m and are very
good sites to convert them into water retaining and
ground water recharge structures.
viii. It is equally important to involve the community
like Village panchayats and NGOs in the entire
process of construction, Operation and maintenance
of BCB
References
1. Report on Success Stories of Water Conservation,
Rainwater Harvesting through Bridge-cum- Bandhara,
and Artificial Recharge to Ground Water, Multi-
disciplinary Technical Expert Committee, January, 2018,
Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation, Government of India
2. R & D Project on Development of Standardised Design
and Drawings of A Bridge cum Bandhara System
Submitted to Director Project-II, National Rural Roads
Development Agency 5th Floor, 15 –NBCC Tower,
Bhikaji Cama Place New Delhi -110066 Principal
Investigator Dr R K Ingle and Technical advisor Shri P L
Bongirwar
 Paper No. 678

Effect of Extended Dry Lean Concrete Base on Flexural

Stresses in Concrete Pavements

Swarna Suryateja1 Dr. M. A. Reddy2 Dr. B. B. Pandey3

ABSTRACT
Indian Roads Congress (IRC) design guideline for concrete pavement recommends Pavement Quality Concrete
(PQC) layer over a roller compacted concrete designated as Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) with a bond breaking layer
of 125 micron thick plastic sheet at the interface of DLC and PQC. IRC 58 also includes the design of bonded
concrete pavement in which the top high strength concrete slab is bonded to the Lean Concrete (LC) base. The
stresses in bonded or unbonded pavements are analysed considering that the edges of the DLC base and PQC slab
are in the same vertical plane. In Portland Cement Association (PCA) design method also, similar assumption
is made. However in actual construction the base extends beyond the concrete slab for the convenience of the
construction and stresses will be different for such conditions. The solutions for stresses in concrete pavements
with extended bases are not available, both for bonded and unbonded concrete pavements and the designer does
not have any idea of the margin of safety due to the extended DLC. In this paper, the stresses in a concrete
pavement with and without extended DLC/LC bases are computed by Finite Element Method (FEM) considering
both axle loads and temperature gradients across the depth of the concrete slab and Dry Lean Concrete (DLC).
Computation shows that the maximum flexural stresses in concrete pavements are reduced when extended DLC/
LC base is provided and thickness of PQC can be reduced or the life of the pavement will be greater for the same
thickness.

1. Introduction concrete pavements. Such pavements may develop lower

Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRT&H) flexural stresses resulting in a reduction in thickness
recommends that the DLC should extend by 750 mm concrete pavements or an extended life of the pavement
on each side of the concrete pavement though actual for the same thickness. The present paper gives the results
additional widening may depend upon the specifications of analysis of extended base layers for both traditional
of the paver. Extended base for concrete pavements unbonded and two lift bonded concrete pavements.
is necessary for running of paver wheels while laying
Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) layer as shown in
Fig. 1. In a two lift concrete pavements, both the PQC
layer and the lower lean concrete base also can be
constructed wet on wet by two slip form pavers one after
the other. Provision of an extended Lean Concrete (LC)
base may lead to the reduction in flexural stresses due
to a better support though such guidelines do not exist.
Most of the pavement analysis methodologies have not
addressed such issues in the analytical framework with Fig. 1 Extended Base for Concrete Pavements in Field
extended base system both in bonded and unbonded (https://www.fhwa.com)
1
Ex-Masters Student, Email: ssurya.547@gmail.com Department of Civil Engineering,
2
Professor, Email: manreddy@iitkgp.ac.in Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
3
Advisor, Sponsored Research and Industrial Consultancy and former Professor

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 25

 Paper No. 678
2. 3D FE Modelling of concrete pavement:
Huang (1993) used equivalent flexural stiffness concept
for the analysis of stresses in a two layer concrete
bonded pavements. The same concept is suggested
both in IRC:58-2011 & 2015 but this concept is not
applicable for finding interface stresses in bonded
concrete pavements. Suryateja et.al (2017) explained
the usage of Finite Element Method for the analysis
of bonded concrete pavements. The 3D FE model of
the slab was created in ANSYS 15.0, which is used to
model the combination of load and temperature effects
on the above-mentioned extended base condition. The
panel dimension is 3.5 m x4.5 m. The FE mesh and the
modeled pavement geometry are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Finite Element Model of Concrete Pavement
PQC and DLC/LC layers are modeled using solid brick
8 node (SOLID185) elements. The bottom layers made
up of granular subbase and subgrade were modeled as
a set of linear discrete springs (COMBIN14) forming
the Winkler foundation designated by the modulus
of subgrade reaction, k. in MPa/m. CONTA174 is
mainly used to model the debonding layer of plastic
sheet between PQC and DLC. The interface condition
between concrete slab and DLC base layers is generally
considered as smooth or rough. The smooth/ semi-
smooth condition is achieved in the field by spraying
bitumen, placing a plastic sheet, geotextile or a hot-
mix asphalt layer between pavement slab and the
DLC. When the concrete slab is cast directly over
the base, the condition between the two layers can be
considered as rough. The degree of bonding between
the two layers influences the coefficient of friction
at the interface. However, with a daily variation of
temperature, there may be a loss of contact between
the slab and the base as the concrete slab curls upward
or downward. CONTA174 is modeled between PQC
and DLC with an input of coefficient of friction.The
coefficient of friction between PQC and DLC with a
125 micron thick plastic sheet can be taken as as 0.70
(Maitra (2009)).
26 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
Finite element analysis was carried out to study the
effect of extended DLC layer in pavement system. A
layer pavement system is considered with a subgrade
of 5% CBR, and thickness of granular subbase, DLC
and PQC are taken as 150 mm,200 mm, and 200 mm for
analysis. The extended widths of DLC/LC were taken
as s 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 m for the stress computation.
Using IRC:58 charts, effective K-value for a system of
sub grade and subbase was found out to be 100 MPa/m.
Properties of materials considered for analysis taken
from IRC:58-2015 are shown in Table 1. Rectangular
tire imprints of size 240 mm x160 mm corresponding
to a single wheel load with different tyre pressures
were considered for the application of wheel loads of
different magnitudes on the slab. Two different critical
positions as specified in IRC:58 were considered for
the analysis of Top down and Bottom-up cracking.
Table 1: Properties considered for PQC and LC layers
Properties PQC DLC/LC
Modulus of Elasticity 30000MPa 13600MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.15 0.25
Coefficient of thermal 1x10-5/°C 1x10-5/°C
expansion
Reference temperature 35°C 35°C
Density 2400 kg/m 3
2000 kg/m3
Load in terms of pressure is applied on the same contact
area for different load combinations. Subsequently, the
contact pressures were varied from 0.65 to 1.30 MPa
as the load varies from 100 kN to 200 kN for a given
geometry. Flexural tensile stresses obtained from the
analysis are presented in Table 2. In bonded concrete
pavements, stresses in the lean concrete layer are critical
as found by Suryateja (2016). For unbonded concrete
pavements designed as per IRC:58, stresses in PQC are
critical.
3. Analysis & Results
The stresses in a concrete pavement for edge loading
for single axle loads with and without extended
DLC base are computed by Finite Element Method
considering both axle loads and temperature gradients
across the depth of the concrete slab and DLC applied
simultaneously
In this analysis, a thickness of (200 mm) was considered
for both the top and the bottom layers and k-value, wheel
loads, and temperature differential are varied. Stresses
from the analysis of bonded and unbonded pavements
are shown in Tables 2 and 3 respectively.
 Paper No. 678
Table 2 Stresses Due to Change in Width of Extended DLC Base in Bonded Concrete Pavements

Load Extended DLC on Each side(m) Extended DLC on Each side(m)

Temperature
Applied 0 0.25 0.50 0 0.25 0.50
considered
(kN) Maximum tensile Stresses PQC Maximum tensile Stresses DLC
120 0.363 0.221 0.204 0.713 0.592 0.563
Temperature
160 0.485 0.295 0.272 0.951 0.789 0.750
differential = 0°C
200 0.606 0.369 0.341 1.188 0.987 0.937
120 0.711 0.59 0.584 0.992 0.873 0.869
Temperature
160 0.833 0.659 0.652 1.230 1.070 1.060
differential = 9°C
200 0.922 0.729 0.721 1.590 1.270 1.240
120 0.943 0.844 0.836 1.180 1.060 1.070
Temperature
160 1.060 0.913 0.904 1.420 1.260 1.260
differential = 15°C
200 1.190 0.983 0.9725 1.650 1.450 1.450
120 1.180 1.100 1.090 1.360 1.250 1.270
Temperature
160 1.300 1.170 1.160 1.600 1.440 1.460
differential = 21°C
200 1.420 1.240 1.220 1.840 1.640 1.650

Table 3: Stresses Due to Change in Width of Extended LC Base in Unbonded Concrete Pavements

Load Extended DLC on Each side(m) Extended DLC on Each side(m)

Temperature
Applied 0 0.25 0.50 0 0.25 0.50
considered
(kN) Maximum tensile Stresses PQC Maximum tensile Stresses DLC
120 1.430 0.871 0.804 0.634 0.526 0.486
Temperature
160 1.930 1.174 1.082 0.844 0.700 0.646
differential = 0°C
200 2.440 1.486 1.373 1.060 0.881 0.814
120 2.310 1.917 1.897 0.571 0.503 0.497
Temperature
160 2.800 2.215 2.192 0.764 0.665 0.658
differential = 9°C
200 3.300 2.609 2.581 0.974 0.778 0.769
120 3.050 2.730 2.704 0.831 0.746 0.739
Temperature
160 3.420 2.946 2.917 0.882 0.783 0.775
differential = 15°C
200 3.910 3.230 3.195 0.930 0.817 0.809
120 3.620 3.375 3.344 0.991 0.911 0.903
Temperature
160 4.410 3.969 3.935 1.080 0.972 0.964
differential = 21°C
200 4.680 4.087 4.021 1.160 1.034 1.017

Fig. 3 Stresses in Bottom Layer with Change in Extended Base Width Fig. 4 Stresses in Bottom Layer with Change in Extended Base Width
@ 0°C Temperature Differential (Bonded Concrete Pavements) @ 9°C Temperature Differential (Bonded Concrete Pavements)

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 27

 Paper No. 678
Fig. 5 Stresses in Bottom Layer with Change in Extended Base Width
@ 15°C Temperature Differential (Bonded Concrete Pavements)
Fig. 6 Stresses in Bottom Layer with Change in Extended Base Width
@ 21°C Temperature Differential (Bonded Concrete Pavements)
From Fig. 3 to 6, it is observed that the flexural stresses
in both surface concrete layer and Lean concrete base
layers were reduced significantly as the width of the
extended base layers are increased from 0 to 0.5 m.
When greater widening of the base is done, there is little
effect on stresses.
4. Conclusions
From the analysis of stresses in a concrete pavement
with and without extended DLC/LC base computed by
Finite Element Method (FEM), following conclusions
are drawn.
28 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
 Flexural stresses in both surface concrete layer
and Lean concrete base layers were reduced
significantly as the width of the extended base layers
are increased from 0 to 0.5 m. Further, increase in
the width of extended base layers beyond 0.5 m has
no effect on stress in both the layers.
 Maximum flexural stresses both in bonded and
unbonded concrete pavements are reduced when
extended lean concrete base is provided. This will
result in a reduction of the thickness of concrete
pavement or a longer life for the same thickness.
 The extended base increases the margin of safety
from overstressing of PQC slab.
References
1. Huang, Y.H., "Pavement Analysis and Design", Second
Edition, 1993.
2. IRC:58-2011, "Guidelines for the Design of Plain
Jointed Rigid Pavements for Highways", Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
3. IRC:58-2015, "Guidelines for the Design of Plain
Jointed Rigid Pavements for Highways", Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
4 Lawrence KL., ANSYS workbench Tutorial Release 14.
SDC publications; 2012.
5 Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, MoRT&H,
5th Revision, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 2013.
6 Maitra, S. R., Reddy, K. S. and Ramachandra, L. S.,
"Experimental Evaluation of Interface Friction and
Study of its Influence on Concrete Pavement Response",
Journal of Transportation Engineering, 135(8), 2009,
pp.563-571.
7 Suryateja, S., Sridhar Reddy, K., Reddy, M. A., and Pandey,
B. B., "Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements Using
3D FEM. Transportation Planning and Implementation
Methodologies for Developing Countries" (TPMDC),
2016, Conference Proceedings, No. 151.
8 Suryateja, S., Reddy, M. A., and Pandey, B. B., "A
Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements".
Indian Roads Congress, Highway Research Journal Vol.
8 - No.1, January – June, 2017 issue, pp. 17-26
9 https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/images/
construction/curing1.jpg (August 2016) accessed on
17.09.2017
 Paper No. 679

APPLICATION OF FOAM BITUMEN IN ASPHALT PAVEMENT RECYCLING:

A CASE STUDY

Dr. Ambika Behl1 Dr. Siksha Swaroopa Kar2 M.N. Nagabhushan3 Prof. Satish Chandra4 Manoj Shukla5

ABSTRACT
The asphalt paving industry is constantly exploring technological improvements that will enhance the material’s
performance, increase construction efficiency, conserve resources, and advance environmental stewardship.
There is a need for immediate attention towards the implementation of sustainable and environment friendly
pavement construction technologies. Recent advances in asphalt technology around the world have made cold
recycling an increasingly popular and cost effective pavement construction and maintenance technique. India
has also started adopting sustainable road construction technologies like warm mix asphalt, cold mix asphalt
and recycling of asphalt pavements. This paper presents the feasibility of producing high quality cold recycled
asphalt using foam bitumen for a heavily trafficked national highway of India. Foam bitumen stabilization was
used to rehabilitate the existing base layers of pavements incorporating thick asphalt layers, resulting in higher
percentages of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) in the mix. Energy conservation and reduction in GHG
emissions were also monitored during the construction phase.
1. Introduction pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides,
Rapid growth in industrial development and economy in carbon dioxides and sulphur dioxides. Many of the diesel
last two decades has demanded up gradation of existing engine emissions have been identified as carcinogenic,
road network in the country. A good road network is and harmful to the human health, even at occupational
a vital infrastructure requirement for rapid economic and environmental levels of exposure. For a lead of
growth. There is a huge road network in the country but 200 km (which is common in north India), it will
it is still inadequate to meet the accessibility and mobility require 18 million liters of diesel in transportation alone
requirements. Severe distresses that occurred in existing (Veeraraghvan and Mallick, 2010). Therefore, a serious
road network required that the bearing capacity of the attempt has to be made to develop and adopt alternative
existing pavements should be increased. technologies for road construction and maintenance to
reduce consumption of fuel and aggregates. Recycling
The conventional method of providing bituminous
of existing bituminous pavement materials to produce
surfacing on flexible pavements requires significant
new pavement material results in considerable savings
amount of materials and energy. Therefore, in order to
of material, money and energy.
reduce consumption of fuel and aggregates, pavement
recycling technology may be adopted for Indian roads One of the most energy efficient mechanisms for
(Reddy et al., 2013). Also, there is a problem of the rehabilitation of an asphalt pavement is cold in place
scarcity of aggregates, which forces truck delivery recycling (CIR). It involves recycling of asphalt
of materials from long distance. The use of diesel pavement without application of heat during the recycling
for running these trucks contributes to emission of process. CIR is carried out on site and generally uses

1
Sr. Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division, Email: behl.ambika@gmail.com
2
Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
3
Sr. Principal. Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division
New Delhi
4
Director
5
Principal. Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 29

 Paper No. 679
100 percent of the RAP (reclaimed asphalt pavement).
Bitumen stabilized materials (BSMs) incorporating
bitumen emulsion or foamed bitumen, have been used
globally over the last two decades to provide base layers
for many thousands of kilometers of road pavements
(Oluwaseyi, 2010 and Kandhal, 2011). The BSM
technology using foam bitumen is primarily applied on
rehabilitation projects using recycled materials in the
existing pavement. Foamed stabilization technique needs
less binder and water compared with other types of cold
mixing, therefore, the cost of transportation and asphalt
binder are reduced (Khalid, 2013 and Kar et al., 2018).
Foamed bitumen is a mixture of very hot bitumen and
water. It is produced by injecting water into hot bitumen
(160–180°C) which is supported by air. The volume of
water is between 2–5% of the volume of bitumen. When
the water contacts the hot bitumen, it rapidly changes to
steam and the volume of bitumen expands many times.
In this stage the foamed bitumen is produced, it contains
thousands of bitumen bubbles and then is ready to be
mixed with an aggregate (Thom, N., 2008).Many factors
Photo 1: Severe Rutting on NH 2
Photo 2: Pavement Condition
30 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
affect the strength and durability of foamed bitumen
treated materials, such as binder content, active filler
type and content, aggregate composition and gradation,
moisture content, compaction effort, and curing regime
(Fu et al., 2008; Fu et al., 2009; Jitareekul& Thom, 2009;
Nataatmadja 2001; Marquis, 2003, Kar et al., 2017).
This paper presents the feasibility of producing high
quality cold recycled asphalt using foam bitumen for a
heavily trafficked national highway in India.
2. NH-2 REHABILITATION PROGRAM
The subject project road passes through many important
cities/towns of historical, tourist, and commercial
interest on national highway number 2 (NH-2). The
section of the project road is part of national highway
which connects Delhi, the national capital to Kolkata.
The project road is about 85 kms in length. The road
section developed heavy distresses/defects and the
pavement was deteriorated severely and showing signs
of distress and premature failure, especially in the form
of severe rutting, cracks and deformation. Photo 1, 2 and
3 shows the condition of the distressed pavement.
Photo 3: Map Cracks
 Paper No. 679

3. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Field investigations like: test pit observations, coring
of bituminous mixes, classified traffic volume survey,
collection of milled material were taken up during
August 2016. Test pits were excavated right up to the
subgrade level to examine the construction quality of
constituent pavement layers including the earthwork/
subgrade. In-situ field densities of Subgrade soil,
Granular sub base (GSB) and Granular base course
(Wet Mix Macadam) were determined by sand
replacement method, as per IS standard test procedure.
As regards the field densities of Dense Bituminous
Macadam (DBM) and Bituminous Concrete (BC)
layers, a number of cores, from different locations, in
addition to the bituminous materials (chunks) collected
from various test pits, were sampled for the purpose of
detailed laboratory evaluation. The thickness of each
constituent pavement layers was measured at various
locations. Cores, chunk material and RAP material
were evaluated in detail in laboratory at CSIR-CRRI,
New Delhi
Table 1 Physical Properties of the Bitumen VG30
Based on field and laboratory testing results of the sub-
grade and the planned traffic design, if the pavement had
to be reconstructed, the conventional pavement design of
the whole pavement would be as follows:
Layer Specification Thickness,mm,
185 msa
Granular Sub Base (GSB)+ Granular 450
Base (WMM)
Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) 185
Bituminous Concrete (BC) 50
4. RAP MIX DESIGN USING FOAM BITUMEN
With the aim of recycling the existing pavement layers
and at the same time strengthening the aged and distressed
pavement, Cold in situ recycling using foamed bitumen
approach was considered. The milled (RAP) material
was evaluated in CRRI laboratory for RAP mix design.
Bitumen and Foam Characterization
VG-30 grade bitumen was used and its physical properties
are presented in Table 1.

S. No Test As per IS Results MoRTH

obtained specification
1 Specific Gravity at 27 °C IS 1202 1.01 0.99(min)
2 Ductility at (27 °C, cm) IS 1208 100+ 75(min)
3 Softening point, °C IS 1205 50 35-50
4 Penetration at 25 °C, 100g, 5 sec. 1/10th mm IS 1203 65 60-70
5 Viscosity, 60°C, poises, min ASTM D4402 2726 2500
6 Viscosity, 135°C, poises, min ASTM D4402 7.62 4.50
Injection of cold water and air with varying pressure into was observed at temperature of 180°C and at a foaming
hot bitumen produces foamed bitumen. This bitumen water content of 5%, which has been used for mix design.
foaming process is tested to find out optimum percentage Results show that expansion ratio increases and half-life
of foaming water content and bitumen temperature, for decreases with increase in water content.
producing best foam by gaining maximum ER (expansion Table 2 Optimum Expansion Ratio and Half Life at
ratio) and HL (half life). For obtaining the mix design, different Binder Temperature and Water Content
Wirtgen WLB 10S foaming equipment has been used for
foaming of bitumen at the prefixed set conditions of air Temperature Water
ER, (%) HL, (sec)
pressure at 500 kpa and water pressure at 550 kpa.The (°C) content, (%)
optimum water addition is chosen as an average of two 3 6 16
water contents required to meet minimum criteria of ER
≥ 8 and HL ≥ 6 seconds (as specified by TG-2, 2009; 170 5 12 15
Wirtgen, 2012). 7 16 8
Foaming experiment is conducted at two different asphalt
3 8 14
temperatures and three different water contents ranging
from 3 to 7% by weight of bitumen with an increment of 180 5 14 12
2%. Table 2 shows the ER and HL measured at varying
7 18 10
water contents ranging and temperature. The best foam

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 31

 Paper No. 679
Preparation of Foam Mix
Several agencies developed guidelines for mix design
of cold recycled foam mixtures, based on laboratory
tests, empirical formulae or past experience with
identical projects (TG 2, 2009; CalTrans, Wirtgen,
2012). The average binder content in milled RAP
material (combined BC and DBM) was found to be
4.0% by weight of total mix according to ASTM
D6307 test procedure. OPC cement grade 43 and
stone dust was blended with 80% of RAP material
by weight of total mix to meet the gradation
requirement of IRC:37-2012 (Figure 1). Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) of the untreated blended
materialswas determined using the moisture-density
relationships according to AASHTO T180 (2010).
This pre-wetting water content was added to get
better dispersion of foam in the mix. The sample of
minimum 10 kg of material was prepared and mixed
at particular Foamed Binder Content in Wirtgen
WLM 10 pug mill mixer.
Fig. 1 Gradation as per IRC:37-2012
Different batches of mix were prepared by varying the
foam bitumen content from 2.0% to 3% by weight of
aggregate. The main advantage of foamed mixes is that
it contains lesser binder content. This is almost 50%
less when compared with HMA.Upon mixing, samples
were prepared using marshal compactor. Compacted
mix was then cured for 72hrs at 40°C in an oven. Six
numbers of specimens were manufactured from each
batch in which three were tested for ITS dry and other
three for ITS wet after cooling them to 25°C according
to ASTM:D6931-12.
Compaction characteristics (maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content) of untreated bitumen mixes
were evaluated according to Modified Proctor Test.
With increasing moisture content, dry density values
increased to a maximum and then decreased. Maximum
dry density is obtained at 6% moisture content, which is
known as Optimum moisture content.
32 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
Performance Testing
To assess the durability and performance of bituminous
mixes of recycled foam mix, several laboratory tests are
conducted. Marshal samples were prepared and tested as
given below:
Dry and Wet Indirect Tensile Strength
Indirect tensile strength test is useful to evaluate
resistance of compacted bituminous mixture to cracking.
These specimens were tested for their tensile strength
at 250C. The failure load was recorded and the indirect
tensile strength (St) was calculated using equation (1)
(1)
Where, St is indirect tensile strength (kg/cm2), P is the
load (kg), d is the diameter in cm of the specimen; t is the
thickness of the specimen in cm. To check the moisture
resistance of foam mix, wet ITS was also obtained.
The conditioned specimens were placed in a water bath
maintained at 25°C for 24 hours before performing the
ITS.
Variation of the dry ITS and wet ITS values of foamed
mix at different foamed binder content are presented in
Fig. 2. As per IRC:37-2012, minimum requirement of
Dry ITS and Wet ITS is 225 and 100 kPa respectively.
With increasing the foam binder content, dry ITS value
increases up to certain extent and then further decreases.
At lower binder content, binder is just not sufficient to
provide proper lubrication during compaction. However
at higher binder contents, more lubrication provided
decreases the dry ITS.
Fig. 2 Variation of Dry and Wet ITS with Foam Bitumen Content
To identify whether the coating of bitumen binder
and aggregate is susceptible to moisture damage,
TSR is the ratio of average indirect tensile strength of
conditioned specimens to the unconditioned specimens.
Unconditioned specimens are maintained at room
temperature and then adjusted to 25°C. The conditioned
specimens were placed in a water bath maintained at
 Paper No. 679

60°C for 24 hours and then placed in an environmental VG-30 asphalt binder in mix design. 1% cement OPC
chamber maintained at 25°C for two hours. Then tensile 43 grade was added to improve the stability and better
strength of each specimen is determined by the tensile dispersion of foamed bitumen in fine particles of the mix.
splitting test. The Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) of
5. PAVEMENT DESIGN
specimen is computed by equation (2).
The design traffic in terms of Cumulative Standard Axles
( ) (2) (CSA) was worked out by considering the commercial
traffic and their Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF), for a
Where, Twet is average indirect tensile strength of convenient design life duly accounting for the anticipated
conditioned specimens and Tdry is indirect tensile strength traffic growth. In the present case, the cumulative
of unconditioned specimen. standard axles have been worked out for 15 years design
Table 3 shows the Tensile Strength Ratio at different life by assuming an annual growth rate of commercial
binder contents. Maximum TSR value is obtained at vehicles as 5%. IITPave software was used to carry
2.25% foamed binder content. out the pavement design as per IRC:37-2012 with 90%
reliability performance.
Table 3 Tensile Strength Ratio Values
The value of resilient modulus of BSM ranges from
Sample Tensile Strength Ratio, % 600-1200 MPa as per Sec 7.3.3 of IRC:37-2012 and it is
No 2.0% 2.25% 3.0% recommended to use the value of 600 MPa for structural
Foamed Foamed Foamed design purpose. BSM is sensitive to moisture, a safer
Binder Binder Binder value of 600 MPa is to be adopted for structural design
Content Content Content as per the code. However, in the present study, as per
1 73.8 77.4 69.4 the values given in table 4, in laboratory much higher
2 70.1 75.2 71.4 values of Resilient modulus were achieved. Keeping
3 74.3 76.5 66.3 in view the satisfactory values of TSR (tensile strength
ratio) obtained from test results, which is indicative
Resilient Modulus Test of a good moisture resistance property of BSM mix, a
This test is used to analyze the pavement response for the mid value of resilient modulus 800 MPa is assumed for
repeated traffic loading by measuring the indirect tensile BSM layer for structural design purpose. The stiffness
strength modulus according to ASTM D7369 (2011). The modulus obtained in laboratory for the BSM at 35C and
test is performed on Universal Testing Machine (UTM- 2.25% foamed binder content is 1444 MPa. Considering
16). Specimens prepared at their optimum binder content an average wet ITS value of 306 KPa, however, a
were loaded by diametrical force in pulse loading. Test conservative value of 800 MPa is considered safe in the
parameters were; Haversine Load Pulse, condition pulse pavement design under the adopted design parameters
count of 5, pulse width of 250 ms, peak loading force of (i.e., 2.25% binder and 6% OMC).
500N and poisons ratio of 0.35. The crust composition is given in Table 5.
Table 4 shows the Resilient Modulus at 25ºC and 35ºC Table 5: Crust Composition with 800 MPa E Value for
for different binder content. It can be seen from table 4.7 BSM layer
that maximum MR values are obtained at 2.25% foamed
binder content at both the temperatures. Layer Specification Thickness,mm185
msa, 15 years
Table 4 Resilient Modulus Values
Granular Sub Base (GSB)+ 450
Foam Binder Content 2.0% 2.25% 2.5% Granular Base (WMM)
Testing Temperature 25°C 35°C 25°C 35°C 25°C 35°C Foam Bitumen Stabilized Base 175
Resilient Modulus, MPa 1552 1034 2577 1444 2319 1550 (BSM) (recycled layer)
(Average of 3 tests)
Dense Bituminous Macadam 70
Coefficient of Variation 7% 5% 6% 3% 7% 4%
(DBM)
The final recommendation for RAP mix design was for Bituminous Concrete (BC) 50
2.25% foam bitumen and 6% optimum moisture content.
Optimum foaming characteristics were achieved at 6. CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
temperature of 180°C and foaming water content of Project evaluation was the first step in the construction
5%. This combination for foaming was selected for the process. Necessary comprehensive site investigation

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 33

 Paper No. 679
was conducted in order to check and qualify the quality
and quantity of RAP that will be processed for recycling
procedure. Laboratory investigation of the asphalt
foaming characteristics, mix design and pavement design
were completed prior to start of the construction.
Wirtgen milling machine was used for milling top 40 mm
layer of BC and transported to hot mix plant for further
Photo 4 Surface after Milling
Photo 6 Spreading of Cement
Photo 8 Cold in Situ Recycling Taking Place
34 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
use during overlay. The existing DBM layer was to be
recycled using foam bitumen. Photo 4 shows the surface
after milling. Fresh crusher dust was spread over the
milled surface (as per the gradation requirement) Photo 5
and then spreading of cement was done Photo 6. Photo
7 shows the homogeneously spread fresh aggregate and
cement.
Photo 5 Crusher Dust Spread over Milled Surface
Photo 7 Surface after Spread of Cement on Fresh Aggregate
 Paper No. 679
WR240 machine Photo 8 was used for recycling at
NH2 project. The foam mixing recycler is coupled
with a bitumen supply tank and water supply tank. The
recycler pushes the tanker. Heated bitumen at 180°C
is transported from hot mix plant to construction site
through a temperature controlled tank. Hot bitumen
and water gets injected in to the recycler and foaming
takes place through spray bars. The foamed bitumen
Photo 9 Rolling Operation
Photo 11 shows the view of recycled surface before
Photo 11 Recycled Surface Before Overlay
7. GHG EMISSIONS: THE GREEN BENEFIT
The most significant contribution of cold in situ recycling
is significant reduction in transportation of materials as
well as reduction in requirement of fresh aggregate and
bitumen.
The case study comprises of 85 km of a 4 lane highway
with a lane width of 3.5 m.
Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Emission
Road construction is a large project consisting of
various strata and process that are carried out. It is
simply not possible that every aspect of the road
construction to be included in the project, nor is it
desirable.
For this particular study, scope of the work is defined as
follows and is shown in Fig. 3.
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 35
then gets mixed with the pulverised pavement material.
Immediately following this recycler was Hamm roller to
compact the recycled base Photo 9. After grading and
profiling of the recycled base layer Photo 10, steel drum
roller was used to seal the top layer. The compaction was
then followed with curing process prior to overlay. The
recycled surface is cured for 48-72 hours by sprinkling
of water at an interval of 6-7 hours.
Photo 10 Grading and Profiling
overlay and photo 12 shows the view after the overlay.
Photo 12 Recycled Road After Overlay
• The boundary is restricted to the region above
the granular sub base. Also, any kind of
embankment shoulders or road furniture such
as toll plazas, markers, sign boards, rails etc are
excluded.
• The focus is on the process carried out in the
construction of the road and the material used for
making the layers of the road.
• Emissions from material transport are not
considered for both conventional and current
design.
• Any road furniture is excluded and hence no
calculations for the Greenhouse emissions from the
process carried out during the production of such
materials are made.
 Paper No. 679

rap design Conventional Design transport and onsite impacts have not been analyzed.

BC BC 50mm
The construction equipment and transport of material
50mm
for both the design has not been considered. The
DBM 70mm
saving of CO2 emission using conventional and RAP
185mm
design using foam stabilized material is due to the
BSM 175mm DBM reduction of temperature during mixing and also due
to saving of aggregate and bitumen, which results
BC: Bituminous Concrete in reduction of embodied emission. As mentioned
DBM: Dense Bituminous Concrete
BSM: Bitumen Stabilized Material earlier in this paper, use of foam stabilized technique
enables utilization of 80% of recycled aggregate and
Fig. 3 Scope of Work Presented in the Paper
about 60% less bitumen for construction of pavement.
Analysis through CHANGER Embodied emission and emission due to mixing are
The data collected from the site was analyzed through determined using CHANGER software and details are
CHANGER software. Preconstruction parts, material presented in Table 6.
Table 6 Consolidated results of Emission per km per lane

Pavement Design (RAP) Conventional Design

Consolidated results: tCO2-eq Consolidated results: tCO2-eq
Construction materials:
Recycled Aggregate 4.9 Bitumen 35.5
Cement 13.6
Bitumen 24.3 Aggregate 18.7
Aggregate 9.2
From mix preparation 20.2 From mix preparation 59.2
Total CO2 equivalent emissions: 73.5 Total CO2 equivalent 113.4
emissions:

Aggregate and bitumen saving per km per lane are found
about 833 and 31 tonne, respectively using the foam
stabilized mix design in place of conventional design.
Embodied energy of cement and recycled aggregate
is also taken into consideration for GHG emission
calculations. Approximately 40 tonne equivalent CO2
is saved per km per lane construction. For a 85 km
and 4 lane road construction project, carbon emission
reduction of about 13600 tonne equivalent CO2 will be
achieved.
8. CONCLUSIONS
The addition of cement would result in increased
strength properties of mixes. The Indirect Tensile
Strength (ITS) and Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) values
of recycled mix were found to be more than satisfactory
whereas resilient modulus (MR) values achieved
were significantly higher than the specified values (as
per IRC:37-2012). Cold recycled materials are good
opportunity to save money and resources. The recycling
process resulted in construction time saving, minimal use
of virgin aggregates, less transportation of materials and
several other environmental benefits. Huge reduction in
carbon emissions can be achieved with the use of RAP
technology.
There are many parameters that influence the
performance of cold recycled mixes including,
aggregate origins, aggregate properties, type of binders,
binder contents, moisture content, temperature etc.
Before construction at site, on the basis of satisfactory
laboratory test results, a field trial is recommended
to verify the construction quality of the pavement
in a realistic condition. These field trials also benefit
the understanding of construction procedure under
different traffic, climate, terrain conditions and quality
control for cold in-place recycled pavements. After
construction, it will be beneficial to have a time series
field performance so as to find its ability to withstand
the existing traffic condition.

36 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 679
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the team of M/s Wirtgen
India Pvt. Ltd, for their support during the project and
also during the formation of this paper. The research
sponsoring organization and authors do not endorse
any proprietary products or technologies mentioned in
this paper. These appear herein only because they are
considered essential to achieve the objective of this paper.
References
1. Fu, P., Jones, D., Harvey, J. T., & Bukhari, S. A. (2008).
Dry and Soaked Laboratory Tests for Foamed Asphalt
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2. Fu, P., Jones, D., Harvey, J. T., &Halles, F. A. (2009).
Investigation of the Curing Mechanism of Foamed
Asphalt Mixes Based on Micromechanics Principles.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 22(1), 29-38.
3. IRC:37-2012. "Tentative Guidelines for the Design
Of Flexible Pavements". Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi.
4. IRC:120-2015, "Recommended Practice for Recycling
of Bituminous Pavements", Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi.
5. Jitareekul, P., & Thom, N. H. (2009). Experimental
Study on Deformation of Foamed Bitumen Bound Base
Materials. In GeoHunan International Conference:
Challenges and Recent Advances in Pavement
Technologies and Transportation Geotechnics.
6. Kandhal P. S. (March 2011). Advances in Bituminous
Road Construction, NBMCW.
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7. Kar, S.S., Swamy, A.K., Tiwari, D. and Jain, P.K., 2017.
A Critical, Review on Foam and Emulsion based Cold
Recycled Asphalt Mixes. Indian Highways, 45(8).
8. Kar, S. S., Swamy, A. K., Tiwari, D., & Jain, P. K. (2018).
Impact of Recycled Asphalt Pavement on Properties of
Foamed Bituminous Mixtures. Baltic Journal of Road
and Bridge Engineering, 13(1), 14-22.
9. Nataatmadja, A. (2001). Some Characteristics of Foamed
Bitumen Mixes.Transportation Research Record: Journal
of the Transportation Research Board, 1767(1), 120-125.
10. Mallick, R. B., and Veeraragavan A. (2010). Sustainable
Pavements in India-the Time to Start is Now. New
Building Materials and Construction World (NBM&CW)
Magazine 16.3: 128-140.
11. Marquis B., Bradbury R.L., Colson S., Malick R.B.,
Nanagiri Y.V., Gould J.S., O’Brien S., Marshall M.,
(2003) “Design, Construction and Early Performance of
Foamed Asphalt Full Depth Reclaimed (FDR) Pavement
in Maine”, 82th Annual Meeting of Transportation
Research Board.
12. Muppi Reddy, A., Reddy, K. S., & Pandey, B. B. (2013).
Recycling of an Urban Road using Foam Bitumen: An
Indian Experience. In Transportation Research Board
92nd Annual Meeting (No. 13-3740).
13. Oluwaseyi ‘Lanre, O. (2010). “A Study on the
Development of Guidelines for the Production of Bitumen
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 Paper No. 680

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES IN CONSTRUCTION OF

A HIGH LEVEL BRIDGE INSIDE A RESERVOIR BASIN:
A CASE STUDY OF GURUPRIYA BRIDGE IN THE STATE OF ODISHA

Nalini Kant Pradhan1 Dr. N. C. Pal2

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the constructability issues, technical challenges and lessons learned during the design and
construction of a high level bridge over river Gurupriya inside Balimela reservoir basin in the state of Odisha.
Several challenges were encountered and mitigated during the work on this project which includes large
variation in the water level of the reservoir, tight construction schedule, remoteness of the site with active naxal
threat, poor accessibility to site with almost no tele communication and connectivity. The 910 m long high level
bridge project implemented in Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) mode has large diameter
piles of 1500 mm diameter in the deep channel zones which are executed with help of floating pontoons. Specially
designed sacrificial shuttering system has been adopted for casting of the pile caps considering fluctuating
depth of water. Both PSC and Steel concrete composite superstructures have been used with varying span
ranging from 41 to 61 m considering the ease of construction in such a technically challenging remotely located
site. Two types of designed staging systems have been adopted for the in situ casting and stressing activities of
the PSC composite superstructure, where as the steel girders assembled at the site have been lunched from the
floating pontoons with help of designed winch-pulley-roller system. Temporary structural arrangement with
stiffening truss and derrick/post system were fixed over the pier caps for facilitating lunching of the steel girders
from floating pontoons.. Two representative spans of the bridge have been load tested under equivalent design
load of 115 ton with use of response acquisition instrumentation namely LVDT type transducers and strain
gauges to record the deformation pattern during loading and unloading stages including under temperature
variation. A third-party quality audit of the project has been conducted by the Bridge and Structures Division
of Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) who has certified the structural safety of the bridge. To the best
knowledge of the authors, adoption of 61meter long box type steel superstructure in any river bridge system in
our country is not commonly available. The authors have concluded that innovation during the design phase
and constructability input at the preliminary stage of the project has a positive outcome on project budget and
schedule during the construction phase.

1. INTRODUCTION 1960s and Balimela in1980. The Administration was

A High Level bridge over river Gurupriya within the unable to reach them and ultimately the developmental
activities were far from their dream and the cut off area
Balimela reservoir basin of Malkangiri District in the
remained underdeveloped since last more than thirty
state of Odisha was initially proposed during 1982 to
five years. Taking the advantage of back ward ness of
connect more than 151 villages in cut off area who are the area Left Wing Extremism (LWE) activities by the
surrounded by water from three sides. These villages naxals increased day by day and became challenge to
got disconnected from the main land after construction the Administration/Government as they created serious
of two major irrigation project namely Machhkund in law and order situation. As far as LWE activities are
1

E-in-C cum Secretary, Works Department Government of Odisha & Immediate Past President IRC, New Delhi
Email: pradhan.nalini@gmail.com
2
Executive Engineer (Projects), Works Department, Government of Odisha, Email: drncpal@gmail.com

38 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 680

concerned, the district of Malkangiri has been one of

the worst affected districts with as many as 332 Maoist
incidents recorded in 10 years between 2008 and 2018,
claiming lives of 101 civilians and 77 security forces
personnel. The cut-off area itself has seen severe
bloodshed with deaths of 25 civilian and 49 security
forces, including 37 Grey Hounds of Andhra Pradesh near
the bridge site. Taking advantage of the topographical
isolation of the cut-off area, the Maoists established their
stronghold and a safe haven to operate. Over the recent
years, the region has been witnessing a turnaround with
intensified counter maoist operations jointly by state
police, BSF and CRPF personnel, This has helped to
initiate development initiatives by the State Government
in the maoist affected region. Two companies of BSF
personnel has been deployed since 2013 on both sides Fig 1: Balimela Reservoir & Surrounding Cut off Area
of the bridge site to facilitate security support for safe near Chitrokonda
construction of the bridge. as for construction of super structure work. Such type
The major technical challenge for construction of of site requires large size multiple numbers of floating
Gurupriya bridge is due to its site condition within the Pontoons/Barges to serve the purpose of materials and
Balimela reservoir basin, where average 20 m depth of heavy machinery transport in the water way which is not
standing water throughout the year and about 28 m ( required in other bridge work. These pontoons facilitate
i.e. about 92 feet) depth of standing water in the deep placing of piling rigs, heavy duty cranes, concrete
channel zone exists. After several unsuccessful attempts, mixer and other mechanical equipments /fixtures
the State Government could finally start the work in required for both sub structure and super structure work.
2014 and the bridge was constructed within a short span Similarly, specially designed tailor made lunchers/
of three and half years. The inhabitants of 151 cut-off lunching arrangement are required for superstructure
area villages of Balimela reservoir had witnessed a new work as staging from ground, for about 25 m to 32 m
dawn on 26th July 2018 when Hon’ble Chief Minister depth shall be an impossible task. One has to work
of Odisha dedicated the long-awaited Gurupriya bridge with fluctuating water depth of reservoir also for which
to the nation with an aspiration that the cut off area different construction methodology/approach need to
people will walk towards a new era of hope, progress be adopted with corresponding equipment. Some of the
and prosperity. The 910-metre long high level bridge temporary structures will become sacrificial also during
on river Gurupriya connecting Chitrokonda-Janbai-
Papermetla road is a dream came true for over 30,000
people of the villages that have been cut off from the
mainland for nearly six decades after construction of the
major irrigation projects at Machhkund and Balimela.
The bridge has finally become a reality 36 years after it
was first conceptualized.
2. GURUPRIYA BRIDGE SITE
Fig. 1 and 2 shows the location of the bridge site in
Google map.
The present bridge site near Janbai was finalized during
2004 which is within the Balimela reservoir basin with
average 20 m depth of standing water. In the deep channel
zone, the standing water depth is about 28 m ( i.e. about
92 feet). Construction of any bridge work due to such
large standing depth of water need specialized skills
and equipment for under water foundation work as well Fig 2 : Gurupriya Bridge Site inside Balimela Reservoir Basin

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 39

 Paper No. 680
the construction. Above technically challenging issues
are some of the main reason why bridge at Gurupriya
site could not happen since long,
The bridge site near Janbai on Chitrokonda-Janbai-
Papermetla road is in a remote location touching the
border zone of Orissa-Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
and very much affected by Naxal threats. Very poor
accessibility for movement of man and machineries
for construction purpose due to hilly terrain & narrow
inaccessible roads from both approaching ends i.e either
from Jeypore side (i.e through state of Odisha) OR from
Visakhapatnam side (i.e from state of Andhra Pradesh).
The accessibility to Janbai site approach of the bridge
are either through Jeypore-Baipariguda-Govindali-
Balimela-Chitrkonda route from state of Odisha OR
through Visakhapatnam-Tahllipelam-Narsingpatnam-
Chintapalli-Gudem-Darkonda-Chitrokonda from state of
Andhra Pradesh. Road conditions were extremely poor
from Chitrokonda to Janbai. Similarly the only route
available to come to Papermetla side approach of the
bridge is from Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh through
Visakhapatnam-Tahllipelam-Narsingpatnam-Chintapall-
Paderu-Muchingiput-umuda-Gandiguda-Jantapai-
Papermetla-Badapada. The road from Muchingput to
Badapada is earthen kachha road. Besides above, the
surrounding areas all along the above three routes are
affected by regular maoist activities and with almost nil/
very poor tele network connectivity till today.
3. SITE STRATGIC ISSUES & DIFFICULTIES IN
MOBILIZING MATERIALS, MACHINARY &
HUMAN RESOURCE
Three challenges that was originally predicted were;
access to reach the bridge site, availability of limited
working period of only four to five months a year that again
only during day time as evening work was considered
highly unsafe & risky due to naxalite problems. The
amenities like electricity and communication were very
poor. Though a fair access to the site was made partially
ready around June 2013 after start of construction
work for Chitrokonda-Janbai road, there was need for
appropriate planning to mobilize material, plants &
machineries and labour to complete the task considering
the natural and man made hinderances.
As the area was affected/defamed due to Naxal threats, no
agency was ready to supply any machinery/equipment to
the site. The area was cut-off from transmission/ mobile
network, and thus no operator was ready to work in the
Gurupriya bridge site. Piling machineries were shifted
from Kolkata through Bhubaneswar to Janbai via Jeypore
route. This route passes through narrow Ghat road. It
40 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
takes around 15 to 20 days from Kolkata to the bridge
Site. In case of any breakdown/regular maintenance; wire
rope and all spares to be brought from Kolkata. Pontoons
were fabricated in workshop at Raipur, Chhattisgarh and
shifted in pieces over Trailer and assembled at site. High
Capacity crane was moved from Latehar of Jharkhand
state. Crane was moved on its wheel and its counter
weight was sent through Trailer. A team of 4 members
was sent along with the crane to reach the site safely. It
took about 5 days to reach the site.
Due to Naxal threats, no material supplier was ready
to supply materials at site. District Administration did
not permit to run crusher due to pollution and green
belt issue at Malkangiri, which hampered supply of
aggregates. No transport facilities are available at site,
therefore, for sending even for small parts/spares also,
an individual vehicle had to be arranged. Prestressing
wire rope was procured from M/s Usha Martin from their
Ranchi production unit. Each lot took about 15 days to
reach the site. Prestressing Jacks and other materials
were procured from Dynamic Prestressing system from
Nasik and 30 days lead time was required to reach
the materials at site. Steel Girders for the six spans of
the bridge were fabricated in workshop at Raipur and
individual segments were transported through trailer
through the Ghat Roads to the bridge site which used to
take 8 to 10 days time. HSFG bolts were procured from
Ludhiana and dispatched after inspection from the shops
and each lot took about 20 days to reach the site.
Similar difficulties were faced during mobilization
of manpower: The 17 Km long existing road between
Chitrokonda (i.e the block head quarter) to Janbai
approach of the bridge site is full of jungle and barren
areas with no tele communication facilities. Due to
Naxal threat, no staffs were ready to work at bridge site.
Subsequently, the project site office including labour
camp were established just adjacent to BSF base camp
on A1 side approach of Janbai and officials camp near
Chitrokonda BSF premise for safety purpose. There
is no direct rail/road route from metro like Kolkata to
the project site. Pilling gangs were arranged from West
Bengal. Labour was sent to Kolkata from their native
place, Kolkata to Vizag via train, then Vizag to Selur via
bus and Selur to Site through Jeep. It took around 36 hrs.
for labours to reach the site from their native place.
4. TECHNICAL CHALLENGES DURING
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS
The Full Reservoir Level (FRL) of Balimela reservoir
is R.L.462 m. Considering vertical clearance to the
superstructure, the formation level of bridge has been
 Paper No. 680

fixed as RL 465.90 m. The waterway spread vis-à-vis

depth of water at different levels at bridge site are given
in Table 1.
Table 1 Depth and spread of Water for H.F.L.
Bridge Waterway Water Water Water Water Water
Site spread Depth > Depth Depth Depth Depth
Water 20m 15m- 10m- 5m- < 5m
Level 20m 15m 10m
(RL in
M)

462 900 m 240 m 320 m 130 m 140 m 70 m

457 820 m 160 m 240 m 190 m 175 m 55 m

452 740 m 110 m 180 m 260 m 110 m 120 m

447 620 m 0 110 m 160 m 260 m 80 m

Photo 2 Transportation of Construction Materials
As may be seen under Full Reservoir Level (FRL) situation, over Floating Pontoons
the waterway spread is about 900 m. Accordingly, the
bridge length of 915 m has been designed considering
embankment height on both sides of the approaches. It is
also observed that more than 20 m depth of water covers
a stretch of about 240 m, which has been considered as
the deep channel zone at the bridge site and the most
critical zone for all construction activity.

Photo 3 Heavy Construction Machineries

over Floating Pontoons

Photo 1 Bridge Site in September 2014
After Award of the Work
Photograph shown at Photo 1 presents the view of
the bridge site during September 2014 after award of
the work to the EPC contractor. The field water level
as witnessed by the department has gone beyond RL
460 m during 2014, 2015 and 2016 construction period.
Photographs shown at Photo 2 and 3 explains how
transportation of heavy construction machineries and
construction materials were made over floating pontoons
during the construction period.
The construction activities for foundation work were
carefully planned as per the gradual water spread and
corresponding water depth at any particular location by
segregating the construction activities for shallow water
zone and deep channel zone.
The foundation for the bridge are executed with large
diameter piles (1200 mm & 1500 mm diameter) anchored
inside hard rock. Average depth of pile foundation
is about 20 m below ground level with 3.5 m to 7 m
embedment inside hard rock. The piling work in shallow
water depth zone was done by making local earthen
islands as shown in Photo 4.
The piling work in deep channel zones are done over
floating pontoons with the help of steel liner, which were
provided through the standing water to the starting of
rock zone. This is one of the critical activities of the
project which had consumed lot of time due to difficulties
in maintaining balance over the floating pontoon while
driving the chisels as shown in Photo 5.

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 41

 Paper No. 680
Photo 4 Views of Piling work in Shallow Water Depth Zone
Photo 5 Views of Piling work in Deep Water Depth Zone
The photograph of completed piles (1500 mm diameter)
with their liners projecting above water level under piers
P15 & P16 are shown in Photo 6. At these two locations
inside the deep water zone, 28 m depth of water flows
during Full Reservoir Level (FRL) condition and 20 m
depth of water during normal flow condition. The piling
work was done inside flowing water with steel liners
taken up to rock level.
Photo 6 Views of Pile Liner in Deep Water Depth Zone
42 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
The original design of pile groups in the deep channel
zone was having provision of four numbers of 1500
mm dia. piles anchored in to hard rock level. Average
12 to 15 days were consumed in the piling work for
one single pile in these locations. The casting of pile
caps was done only after observing the top levels &
corresponding inclination/tilt, if any in the individual
piles. The permissible constructional tolerance for
piles as per IRC:78-2014 is offset of 75 mm at piling
platform level and tilt not exceeding 1 in 150. During
construction, some tilt was observed in one of the pile at
P16 location during piling operation which was beyond
above tolerance level. Although the pile capacity of
individual piles at this location is of the order of 700 to
1200 ton and is quite safe in a group effect as per design
requirement, however as an additional strengthening
measures, two more numbers of 1500 mm dia. piles
were executed at the same location to enhance the safety
factor and stability. As precautionary measures, two
more 1500 mm dia. piles were also executed by the EPC
contractor in all the pier location inside deep channel
zone making group of the four piles to group of six piles
without any additional cost to the project. By first quarter
of 2015, the pilling work started in full swing.
5. TECHNICAL CHALLENGES DURING
CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTRUCTURE
Casting of pile caps under water in the deep channel zone
was another technical challenge. Specially designed
sacrificial RC beams & RC thin slabs surrounding the
piles were first cast to function as sound platform for
shuttering for the pile cap considering average depth of
water at RL 452 m (which is also the bottom level of the
pile cap). Subsequently, 2250 mm thick pile caps as per
design were cast over the sacrificial shuttering system.
Fig. 3 shows the shuttering arrangement with sacrificial
base for deep water pile cap construction.
Similarly casting of cantilevered pier cap from the tall
piers in the deep channel zone was another technically
challenged item. Practically the water level at the bridge
site in the deep channel zone remains above RL 452
(i.e. bottom of pile cap) for about six to eight months
time. Therefore the staging for Pier caps were carefully
erected above the pile caps applying sound engineering
principles and dead load transfer mechanism so that even
during sudden rise in water level in the reservoir, the pier
cap temporary support system will not lose its stability.
Photo 7 shows the staging arrangement for pier cap in
deep channel zone.
 Paper No. 680
Fig 3 Shuttering Arrangement with Sacrificial Base for Deep Water Pile Cap
Photo 7 Views of Submerged Tubular Staging over Pile Cap
6. TECHNICAL CHALLENGES FOR
SUPERSTRUCTURE
One of the option for construction of super structure in
such type of large depth standing water site situation is
to adopt pre cast PSC pre-tensioned girders OR pre cast
PSC post-tensioned segments with appropriate lunching
arrangements for lunching the precast units from one
end by deploying suitably designed launchers. The
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 43
other feasible constructability option is adoption of steel
concrete composite superstructure with fabrication of
steel girders in the fabrication yard/shop, transporting the
fabricated segments to the bridge site after full assembly
checking at factory, assembling the segments at site
with required bolting/welding at the splice locations
and finally lunching the assembled segments either by
pushing method from one end OR by use of lunching
arrangements similar to lunching of PSC girders OR by
lifting the girders from two ends with use of required
capacity cranes/winch pulley system from temporary
structures at pier cap level. The constructability issues
and hindrances of above options at Gurupriya bridge site
as per the site condition were examined. Difficult terrain
condition for making a suitable place for the pre cast
construction yard for casting of precast girder/segment
and transportation of the pre cast segments to the required
location of the bridge site besides frequent occurrence
of naxalites vandalisms to the construction equipment’s
at other work sites in the naxal affected zones was one
of the main bottle neck to organize all logistics for the
above construction arrangement.
 Paper No. 680

staging platforms during casting & stressing operation in

Photo 8 Earth Filled Compacted Island Driven
Bullah Piles Arrangement
case of sudden submergence due to rise of reservoir water.
Photo 9 gives pictorial presentation of completed girders
over span P4-P5 in shallow water zone with subsequent
submergence condition of tubular pipe integrated staging
platform. The overall view of the bridge site with
submergence condition of staging platforms near span
A1-P1 and P4-P5 is shown at Photo 10. The stability
of the staging platforms supporting about 450 ton dead
load of the girders even under submerged condition over
temporary earth fill island is self explanatory in these
photographs.

The EPC contractor had proposed PSC girder and cast –

in-situ deck slab superstructure with two stages stressing
option for the shallow water zone and steel concrete
composite superstructure for the deep channel zone.
The Contractor had furnished proposal for adoption
of two types of staging platform in the shallow water
zone to support the dead load of concrete girders before
stressing. For the two lane bridge with three girder
system, the induced dead load of PSC girder system is of
the order of 430 to 450 ton at the time of casting as per the
design furnished by the contractor after vetting from the Photo 9 A View of Tubular Scaffolding on
proof consultant. Typical tubular cup lock type braced Earthfill Island for Span P4-P5
structural tube integrated system with required staging
platform above temporary earthen island was proposed
for the spans in the shallow water zone near the approach
embankment. Similarly, suitably designed truss system
spanning over pile caps between two consecutive piers to
support the staging platform for casting the in situ PSC
girders in the shallow water zone close to deep channel
was proposed. Steel concrete composite super structure
with lunching of steel girders from floating pontoons
with help of required winch pulley lifting devices placed
over temporary structures on pier caps was proposed by
the EPC contractor for the remaining spans inside the Photo 10 Bird’s Eye View of the Self Standing Staging
deep channel zone covering a length of about 240 m Platforms under Submerged Condition for Spans A1-P1
where depth of water varies between 20 m to 28 m. and P4-P5 and Remaining Piers

Above proposals alongwith supported design and
methodology were examined & reviewed critically and
proved to be acceptable for construction considering the
site condition . The earth filled island for any particular
span in the shallow zones over an area of 40 m X 9 m
was stabilised by driving wooden piles with proper
compaction as shown in Photo 8 to support the induced
dead load of concrete girders before stressing. Other
slope strengthening measures using sand bags as pitching
elements to the temporary earthen islands was also made
besides laying of 150 thick PCC bed over the compacted
bullah pile system to avoid any failure of the temporary
In situ casting and subsequent stressing of PSC girders
for the spans close to the deep water zone were made
from a staging platform placed on a designed truss
system over pile caps.. As shown in the construction
photograph Photo 11 for the span P17-P18, there were
three inter connected plane truss over which tubular
staging were erected to facilitate required casting height.
The segments and joints of the trusses were made with
typical splice plate connected with high tensile nut &
bolt system so that the segments can be opened for re-use
in another span. This type of staging was first attempted
over span P17-P18 and the work was successfully carried

44 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 680

out. However, the arrangement took considerable amount in-house fabrication factory and transported to the bridge
of time for erection of the truss over the pile cap and the site.
tubular staging over the truss system . Removal of such
truss system segment wise & re-fixation in another span
inside deep water zone also took considerable amount of
time, which compelled to look after other alternatives.

Photo 12 Placing of 41m Long Assembled Steel Girder

over Floating Pontoons

Photo 11 Staging Truss System over Pile Caps in

Deep Water Zone

With above two types of staging arrangement in shallow

& deep zone of water, the PSC superstructure work
continued from A1 to P11 and A2 to P17 for almost one
and half years between June 2015 to October 2016. One
of the major time consuming issue in such cast-in-situ
PSC construction type work is typical time requirement
from the date of casting of girders to the final stage of
prestressing. The Stage-1 stressing as per design was
after 10 days of casting of girders, followed by casting
of cross diaphragm and deck slab. Final Stage-2 pre-
stressing is after 21 days after casting of deck slab. Photo 13 Transportation of 41 m Assembled Girder
It was observed that minimum of three months time over Floating Pontoons
being consumed in one span in the process starting
from arrangement of staging, shuttering, reinforcement
detailing, prestressed cable laying etc. in site where
staging was erected over stabilized earth fill island.
Similarly minimum four months time requirement was
felt for the work inside deep channel zone, where staging
platforms were integrated truss system placed over the
pile caps. The difficulty in execution of PSC girders &
their two stage of stressing at such large height over the
staging platforms besides huge time requirement for
the work was the main reason to consider a change in
super structure type from PSC girder to steel concrete Photo 14 Temporary Structural Arrangement with
composite system. Derrick/Post and Winch Pulley System for Lunching
Steel Girders in the Deep Channel Zone
The proposed work plan and methodology of the EPC
contractor for steel concrete composite superstructure Then these girders were assembled at site and taken over
with lunching arrangement over floating pontoons for the floating pontoons to the required location between P11
spans between P11 to P17 in the deep channel zone was to P17 for launching/lifting over the bearing pedestal.
reviewd and accepted by the Authority Engineer.. The Temporary structural arrangement with derrick/post
steel girders were fabricated at Raipur in the contractor’s system were designed and fixed over the pier caps for

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 45

 Paper No. 680

facilitating lifting by typical winch-pulley-roller system.
Photo 12 to 15 explains the sequential activities starting
from site assembly of steel girders with connection of
their flange & web splice plates, tightening of HSFG
bolts by mechanical torque wrench of required capacity,
placement of assembled girder over floating pontoons
by mechanical crane, transportation of girder on floating
pontoons by tug boats to the required location and finally
lifting of girders from floating pontoons with help of
designed pulley & roller system.
41 m Long Steel Girder errection in deep channel
zone from floating pontoon-I, November 2018
than 14 m were erected over temporary earthen island
with design staging platform. The temporary earthfill
island at this location was strengthened by combination
of bullah piles and steel piles driven deep inside the bed
level besides sacrificial concrete capping arrangement to
prevent any collapse of the tall towers due to underneath
seepage failure. Assembling of the individual box
segments were made at the bearing level over temporary
steel towers after matching the splice holes for the
HSFG bolts. Thereafter the fully assembled box girders
were laterally moved one by one with help of designed
rollers from down stream side pedestal to up stream side
pedestal followed by fixation of cross girders The site
photographs showing launching of box-type steel girders
of 60 m length over the last span on P12A-P14 is shown
in Photo 12. The compulsion to change the execution
methodology due to unexpected abnormal drawn down
of reservoir water level has resulted some delay in the
work for this last span of the bridge.

Photo 15 Lunching of 41 m Steel Girder in the

Deep Channel Zone
The momentum of work got expedited inside deep
channel zone and the work continued till end of 2017
successfully with the above parallel work arrangement
of fabrication of steel girders in the factory at Raipur
and lunching of assembled girders at site over floating
pontoons. However again another execution issue
became visible from beginning of January 2018, when Photo 16 Structural Arrangement for Erection of 60 m Steel
suddenly the water level in the reservoir started depleting Girder after the Reservoir Water Level Drops Abnormally
at a very faster rate due to reported non closure problems Affecting Pontoon Movements
of some of the sluice gates, which happened for the first
time during last 20 years. An abnormal reduction in
water level ( by more than 12 m) compared to the last
three years water levels was observed during February
2018 when launching arrangement for the last 60 m span
of the bridge over Pier P12A & P14 was in progress.
Due to abnormal reduction in water level, movement
of floating pontoons from the approach embankment
location to transport the assembled steel segments to
the required pier location in side deep channel zone got
hampered. Therefore the entire erection methodology
was revised for this last span of 60 m length, wherein
individual box type steel girder of weight about 120
ton were planned for lifting with combination of high
capacity crane and winch-pulley system. Total eight Photo 17 Assembling & Erection of 60 m Steel Girder in
numbers of rigid frame type tall towers of height more Progress

46 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 680

7. QUALITY ASSURANCE & DUE DELIGENCE
THIRD PARTY TESTS
Various quality assurance tests were performed during
the construction phase after finalizing the methodology
and schedule in advance. All tests after completion of the
project were conducted for issue of completion certificate
to the contractor as per the EPC agreement condition.
Finally a third-party quality audit was also conducted
by the Bridge and Structures Division of Central Road
Research Institute (CRRI) who has certified the structural
Check for Deflection at various points due to test vehicle
safety of the bridge. As a part of audit by CRRI, two
representative span of the bridge namely span P2-P3
(PSC girder with RC deck superstructure) and P12-P12A
(Steel composite super structure) were load tested under
full design load test. Before load test visual inspection
of full span had been done properly. Expansion
joints checked to insure for their proper functioning.
Scaffolding erected for fixing the instruments such
as displacement transducers, temperature and strain
gauges.

Fig. 4 Discretization of Girder System Showing Critical Nodes and Sequential Loading Pattern of the Test Vehicles.
Fig. 4 explains the discretization of girder system in to
finite elements and nodes. The sequential positioning of
test vehicle loading pattern in longitudinal and transverse
axis for analytical evaluation of deflection under test
load as per equivalent absolute maximum bending
moment concept and the corresponding deflection at
critical nodes are shown in Fig. 5. The load was applied
by adding loaded trucks of known weight. The test load
is applied in stages of 55T, 85T and 115T (100% design
equivalent load) as shown in Fig. 6.
The deflections are measured at every stage of loading
and after one hour of loading. The recording of deflection
and strain value continued for next 24 hours at an
interval of one hour. After completion of 24 hours the
above procedure was repeated for unloading of load and
deflection, temperature and strain values were recorded.
Afresh. Total 27 numbers of LVDT and 9 numbers of strain
gauges were fixed at the critical locations of the girders as
shown in the Fig. 7 to record & measure the displacements
and rotations in the three girder integral system.
Fig. 8 shows the schematic arrangement of test load and
Fig. 9 demonstrates the load deflection graphs as per the
data recorded through four numbers of LVDTs placed near
the mid span, The test spans were constantly monitored

Fig. 5 Sequential Loading Along Longitudinal Axis with Fig. 6 Theoretical Deflection Values at Critical Nodes for the
Transverse Critical Position Outer and Inner Girder

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 47

 Paper No. 680

for any structural distress at every stage of loading. From spans satisfy the required recovery of deflection
the load test results it is clear that both the representative more than 85% as per IRC:SP:51-2015 specification.

Fig. 7 Location of LVDTs & Strain Gauges for Load Testing of Full Span

Fig. 8 Schematic Diagram of Test Load on Span P2-P3

48 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 680

Fig. 9 Load Deflection Curve for the LVDTs Placed at Mid Span of Girders

Photo 18 Completion Photograph Of Gurupriya Bridge with Water at Full Reservoir Level of 462 m During September 2018

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 49

 Paper No. 680
8. CONCLUSION
The planning for construction of the high level bridge
near Balimela reservoir was started in 1982, but it could
not take off due to technical challenges, remote location
and inaccessibility, and foremost, the menace of naxals/
left wing extremism. After several attempts, the State
Government could finally start the work in 2014 and
the bridge was constructed within a short span of three
and half years due to dedicated micro managemet at
each stage of work . The bridge has become a landmark
engineering feat in the State considering the natural
features and technical challenges posed by the site. The
present bridge structure as shown in the completion
photograph Photo 18 inside Balimela reservoir basin
has 22 spans standing on the water depth of an average
20 m with the deep channel zone extending to a depth of
around 28 m.
At the time of the beginning of construction of the
Gurupriya bridge, there were many skeptics who
believed it was impossible to try and build a bridge
that can span across the Balimela reservoir. One of the
nation’s leading engineering firms Gammon India tried
their efforts during 2006-2008 but could not progress
due to remote site condition with naxal threats besides
abnormal fluctuation in water depth for three consecutive
years. State Govt’s initiative for making the bridge
with help of Garden Reach Ship Builders, Kolkatta
and Bharat Earth Movers Ltd, Bangalore also could
not materialised Subsequently the project was included
under the LWE (Left Wing Extremism) scheme of
Govt of India. During 2010. However multiple bidding
attempts made on behalf of Government of India could
not yield any success ill 2013. As the State Govt. was
desperate for giving all-weather connectivity to the
remote and un connected 151 habitations for bringing
the people to the main stream and also to free the area
from LWE activists, it was finally decided to initiate
fresh bidding attempt with Engineering, Procurement
and Construction (EPC) contract provisions by recasting
50 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
the estimate considering the ground realities. In a
competitive bidding process, M/s Royal Infraconstru
Ltd from Kolkatta was awarded with the work, who
could finally complete the bridge within a span of three
and half years under BSF protection. Two companies of
BSF were deployed on each side of the bridge to provide
security cover to the personnel and machineries during
the construction. The BSF security arrangement will
remain in place for some more days near the bridge site.
The entire bridge has been illuminated and brought under
CCTV surveillance to detect any attempt of sabotage by
naxals. The bridge will bring all-round transformation
in the worst LWE-affected region by facilitating fast-
paced development through improved connectivity,
health, education, electrification and access to public
services. It will boost economic activities and create
better livelihood opportunities for the people.
One of the lesson learned in this project is to assess the
constructability issues that may arise from time to time
due to fluctuating water depth, which practically guides
the execution methodology and provide the basis for
actual construction time period in such a remotely located
naxal disturbing zone. All items of works including the
required machineries and associated logistics that can be
safely deployed in such site scenario should be worked
out at the planning stage and cost estimate as per ground
realities should be prepared.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to record their appreciation and sincere
thanks to the team of Scientists from Bridge and Structure
Division of Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) New
Delhi for their suggestions during 3rd party quality audit
in documenting the work as a case study example. Special
thanks are extended to the Authority Engineer team from
ARCHITECHNO Consultant Pvt Ltd, Bhubaneswar led
by Er. Rajesh Roy Choudhury, Managing Director and
Er Ashok Basa, Director Technical for their technical
guidance during supervision of the project.
 Paper No. 681

INVESTIGATION OF PREMATURE PAVEMENT DISTRESSES ON TYPICAL

NATIONAL HIGHWAY PROJECT

Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal1 Prof. A. Veeraragavan2

ABSTRACT
Premature pavement distresses primarily in terms of moderate to severe fatigue cracking were observed on
a four-laning, 50-km national highway project. This paper describes in detail the systematic sampling and
testing plan which was executed to determine the specific cause(s) of the premature pavement distresses.
In general, good construction quality control and quality assurance of various pavement courses was not
exercised, which led generally to the development of premature “bottom up” fatigue cracking on the project.
Remedial measures to rehabilitate this distressed national highway project have been described in detail based
on the category, severity, and extent of the distresses. General recommendations have also been made to avoid
such pitfalls on other major highway projects.
1. INTRODUCTION (c) obtain samples of all pavement layers; (d) test all
After four-laning of a 50-km national highway was samples in an independent laboratory; (e) analyze the test
completed, premature pavement distresses were observed data and draw conclusions; and (f) recommend remedial
on it during the first monsoon. The following pavement measures considering the type, severity, and extent of
distresses were observed: open surface texture; raveling; specific pavement distress.
hungry surface; alligator cracks; and potholes. By far, 3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND DETAILS
fatigue cracking was the primary distress ranging from
3.1 Project Description
moderate cracking (one to two cracks in wheel path) to
severe cracking (alligator cracks in the wheel path or Four-laning of this project was completed on a Design,
block cracks across the lane). Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer (Toll) basis. The
concession period of this project is 20 years excluding
Further successive deterioration of pavement occurred the construction period.
during the second and third monsoons. Several areas of
severe alligator cracks also developed shallow and deep 3.2 Pavement Design
potholes which required extensive patching. The pavement design life adopted for bituminous layers
It was decided to investigate the specific cause(s) of was 10 years of stage construction option and the
premature pavement distresses on the entire project by underlying base and subbase layers were designed for
full operation period of 20 years. Both the bituminous
systematic sampling and testing so that suitable remedial
and granular layers design life period was adopted as per
measures could be recommended.
Indian Roads Congress IRC:37–2001, “Guidelines for
2. OBJECTIVE Designing Flexible Pavements”.
The objectives of this investigation were (a) prepare a For the entire project road (new construction and
systematic pavement evaluation plan for each section; reconstruction of existing lanes) flexible pavement
(b) conduct a visual inspection of the pavement surface; thickness was adopted in accordance with IRC:37-2001

1. Associate Director Emeritus, National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT), Auburn University, USA (currently at Jaipur)
Email: pkandhal@gmail.com
2. Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Email: av@iitm.ac.in

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 51

 Paper No. 681

and strengthening of the existing two-lane carriageway Bituminous Macadam (DBM) layers was considered as
flexible overlay thickness was adopted in accordance 1700 MPa and the Poisson’s ratio for BC and DBM layer
with IRC:81-1997. The four-lane pavement design was was considered 0.5. The statistical level of reliability
completed using the mechanistic method of pavement used in the design was 80 percent. Design CBR of 15%
design. was considered.
Vehicular movement on the project road indicated that The VDF values adopted in pavement design based on
the traffic pattern was significantly different along the traffic survey for two-axle, three-axle and multi-axle
length of the project. Therefore, this project road was tracks are 1.40, 2.57 and 3.27 respectively for the up
divided into two different homogenous sections as direction and these values were 2.30, 5.69 and 15.10 in
shown in Table 1. the down direction.
Table 1: Homogeneous Section-wise Cumulative Traffic The actual tensile strain values were calculated using in
the FPAVE program as per IRC:37-2001, and the actual
Homogeneous Design Chainage, 10 Year msa
strains were computed using various trial pavement
Section km
LHS RHS structural layer combinations. The tyre pressure used for
1 0+000 to 35+000 70 70 the analysis was 0.56 MPa and standard axle used was
dual type, having a mass of 8160 kg. This resulted in
2 35+000 to 50+000 68 95 consideration of single tyre load of 20,500 N.
The pavement temperature was considered as 35°C. In Pavement thicknesses adopted
accordance with IRC:37-2001, the resilient modulus Tables 2 and 3 show homogeneous section-wise adopted
(Mr) of the Bituminous Concrete (BC) and Dense MSA, CBR and pavement thickness values.
Table 2: Thickness of Pavement Layers (LHS Side)

H. Design Chainage, Layer Thickness, mm

CBR% MSA
Section km BC DBM WMM GSB SG
1 0+000 to 35+000 15 70 40 100 250 200 500
2 35+000 to 50+000 15 68 40 100 250 200 500
Table 3: Thickness of Pavement Layers (RHS Side)

H. Design Chainage, CBR% MSA Layer Thickness, mm

Section km BC DBM WMM GSB SG
1 0+000 to 35+000 15 70 40 100 250 200 500
2 35+000 to 50+000 15 95 50 100 250 200 500

The thickness of BC ranged from 40 to 50 mm whereas
the DBM consisted of a single layer 100 mm thick.
3.3 Pavement Construction and Quality Control
General
The pavement layers’ construction was carried out with
the materials satisfying the “MORTH Specifications for
Road and Bridge Works (4th Revision)”. The Project
Quality Plan (PQP) was submitted and approved by
Independent Engineer. The construction activities were
carried out as per the submitted PQP. The detailed
description of various layers of construction is described
below:
Subgrade
The construction of subgrade was carried out as per
the specifications of the clause 305 of the MORTH
Specifications. The subgrade was constructed using
soils with 15% CBR from identified borrow areas. The
pavement design was based on the 4-day soaked CBR
at maximum dry density. The construction and quality
control tests were carried out as per agreed Project
Quality Plan.
Granular Subbase (GSB)
The construction of GSB was carried out as per Clause
401 of MORTH Specifications (4th Revision). Grading
I as per Table 400-1 was used. The construction and
quality control tests were carried out as per agreed
Project Quality Plan.
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM)
The construction of WMM Layer was carried out as per
Clause 406 of MoRTH (4th Revision). The construction

52 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 681
and quality control tests were carried out as per agreed
Project Quality Plan.
Bituminous Layers
The BC and DBM layers were constructed in the project
as follows:
The BC layer was constructed with Polymer Modified
Bitumen Grade PMB-40. The DBM layer was
constructed with VG-30 Bitumen. The bituminous layers’
construction was carried out after duly applying the
prime coat and tack coat as per MORTH specifications.
The construction of DBM and BC layers were carried out
as per the clause 507 and 509 of MORTH Specifications.
All aggregates met the MORTH requirements.
4 PAVEMENT EVALUATION PLAN
The pavement evaluation plan consisted of the following
steps:
4.1 Review of Mix Designs
Hot mix asphalt mix designs of BC and DBM involved
in the construction of this project were studied in detail
before inspection of the projectroad to ensure Marshall
Mix Design data met the specifications.
4.2 Sampling Plan
It was proposed to locate a representative “distressed” or
poor section and a relatively “good” section on this project.
These sections were intended to be at least 500 m long;
cores to be obtained in the lane adjacent to the median,
which carries truck traffic; and cores to be obtained in
the wheel track near the median in that lane. This type of
approach for systematic pavement investigation has been
used successfully across the world by the first writer in
the past[1]. Comparison of the test data from relatively
good and poor areas is generally helpful in isolating the
cause(s) of poor performance. Moreover, it also gives the
general range of pavement test properties on the project
being investigated. This approach is highly successful if
only one primary distress type is being investigated, it
may be cracking; rutting; or raveling/potholes.
Fig.1 shows the sampling plan for a typical “distressed”
(poor) or “good” section which involves the following:
• Five (5) 150-mm diameter cores to comprise BC
and DBM layers (subjectively evaluate the adhesion
between the two asphalt layers during coring).
• One (1) small test pit about 750 mm by 750 mm
in the middle of the 500 m test section in line
with cores to visually examine the condition of
in-situ BC and DBM (especially stripping). Also,
obtain samples of BC and DBM for determination
of maximum specific gravity (Gmm) of the mixes
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 53
from this test pit. [This was later changed to an
extra 150-mm diameter core because the pits were
taking too long. This extra core was brought to the
testing laboratory; warmed at 110 °C; and opened
to examine stripping, if any.]
• Five (5) test pits along the edge of the pavement near
shoulder to test the in-situ density of WMM, GSB,
and subgrade and take samples of all three both
for determining in-situ moisture content, optimum
moisture content, optimum dry density; gradation
and PI in the laboratory. Subgrade samples were
also used to determine the in-situ CBR values.
• Two (2) coring right on the crack to examine the
depth of the crack within the pavement (only in
distressed section).
Total number of samples to be collected from project
site and pits to be dug in both poor and good sections:
• 150-mm diameter cores = 6×2 = 12
• 150-mm diameter cores directly on cracks = 2 ×1 =
2 (poor sections only)
• Edge pits for testing WMM, GSB, and subgrade =
2×3×5 = 30
Fig.1. Sampling Plan
4.3 Testing Plan
Full depth cores of BC and DBM were brought to the
laboratory and evaluated for poke marks (generally
indicate inadequate density) and stripping. Layer
thicknesses were measured before sawing to separate
BC and DBM layers. Also, the bond between the two
asphalt layers was evaluated before sawing. Bulk
specific gravity was obtained for BC and DBM layers.
Cores were then warmed at 110°C or so to crumble them
and evaluate % stripping in the mix, if any. Photograph
were taken of some typical stripped mixes. Extraction
test was then conducted on the loose, crumbled mix
to determine bitumen content and gradation. Gmm was
measured on the loose mix of BC and DBM obtained
from the extra 150 mm diameter core. Gmm was measured
 Paper No. 681

after heating and remixing the loose mix to ensure all with white fines from the WMM had oozed out of the full
aggregate particles are coated with bitumen. depth cracks in Fig. 3.
Total number of Tests Core taken directly on the crack (Fig. 5) showed the
• Measurement of thickness of each asphalt layer in bottom up crack traversing both DBM and BC. That is
full depth cores = 2×2 × 5 = 20 why; fines from the WMM were brought up to the road
• Bulk specific gravity of cores = 2×10 = 20 surface by moisture/water.
• Gmm of loose samples (BC and DBM) obtained from All core samples were brought to the testing
extra cores = 2 ×2 = 4 laboratory and tested. As mentioned earlier, in lieu
• Visual evaluation of stripping in 2 layers of all cores of excavating a 750 mm by 750 mm pit, an extra
= 2×10 = 20 150-mm diameter core was taken which was warmed
• Extractions (bitumen content and gradation) of BC in the laboratory at 110°C opened up, and both BC
and DBM=2×10 = 20 and DBM evaluated for stripping. Table 4 gives the
• WMM Tests (in-situ moisture content; in-situ details of thicknesses, condition of bond between
density; optimum dry density; optimum moisture DBM and BC, and observation of stripping within
content; gradation; and PI = 10 mixes for all cores.
• GSB Tests (in-situ moisture content; in-situ density;
optimum dry density; optimum moisture content;
gradation; and PI = 10
• Subgrade Tests: gradation; moisture content; LL;
PL; PI; in-situ density; and in-situ CBR = 10
4.4 Summary and Tabulation of Test Data
All necessary calculations such as % air voids and %
compaction of WMM and GSB were made. Then, all
test data were tabulated along with JMF values and
specification limits. Mean, standard deviation, and 95%
confidence limits (CL)were calculated for all 5-test data
each for relatively good and poor (distressed) sections and
reported on one sheet for comparison. The meaning of 95%
CL means: if 100 samples (not 5) are taken of the same
material, 95 samples would statistically have the property
within the CL or range. Thicknesses of bituminous courses
and bond between the DBM and BC (yes or no) were also Fig. 2. Typical Fatigue Cracking
reported on one sheet for each section.
5. VISUAL INSPECTION, TEST RESULTS,
CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDED
REMEDIAL MEASURES
Tentative selection of relatively good and poor areas
was made prior to the field inspection based on details
of distresses noted after the first monsoon since
construction. These areas were then finalized during this
inspection.
Both good and poor areas were selected on normal height
embankments. Although road surface appeared to be dry
and raveled at many places, the predominant distress
on this road is medium to high severity (alligator)
cracking mostly on the wheel tracks of the inside lane
(next to median). Fig. 2 shows typical fatigue cracking
(sometimes in form of block cracking) in the lane. Figs.3 Fig. 3. Close-up View of Fatigue Cracks also Showing White
and 4 show close-ups of the cracks. Note that water laden Stains of Fines Brought up from WMM

54 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 681
Fig.4. Another Close-up View of Fatigue Crack
Fig. 5. Core Showing Bottom up Crack Traversing Both
DBM and BC
There was good bond between DBM and BC in all cores.
No stripping was observed in both mixes since hydrated
lime was used in both mixes. However, the mix from
both good and poor area contained significant amount of
dusty, friable aggregate particles in DBM and BC, which
is considered highly detrimental to the performance of
the asphalt mix. It probably came from the overburden
in the stone quarry.
Tables 5 through 9, respectively, give detailed test data
for good and poor areas of BC, DBM, WMM, GSB, and
subgrade, which are discussed below:
Bitumen Concrete (BC) Grading 2 (Table 5)
Mix Composition: The mix design appears satisfactory.
However, the Job Mix Formula (JMF) was not reproduced
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 55
well during mix production. Look at numerous asterisks
in the table, which indicate test data were outside the
permissible JMF tolerances. Although not significantly
different, both relatively good and poor areas have
gradation much coarser than the JMF, the latter even
more. This is indicated by the percentages passing 2.36
mm, 0.300 mm, and 0.075 mm sieves as follows:
Percent Passing JMF Good Area Poor Area
2.36 mm 48 +/- 4 40 38
0.300 mm 20 +/- 3 12 11
0.075 mm 7.3 +/- 1.5 4.8 2.7
Coarse mixes have high air voids as shown later and are
permeable to water. Such mixes are also prone to raveling
because the fine matrix holding the coarse aggregate
particles is lacking.
The JMF bitumen content was 5.15 percent. However,
the relatively good area has a mean of 4.7% and the
poor area has a mean of 4.6%, both being deficient in
bitumen content and outside the JMF tolerance of +/- 0.3
percent. Deficient bitumen content makes the mix brittle
and more prone to raveling and cracking especially
when there is inadequate support from the underlying
pavement courses, which is the case on this project as
discussed later.
Both gradation and bitumen content test data show lack
of quality control during mix production. This shows
on the road surface which is dry and raveled at many
places.
In-Situ Air Voids: At the present time, mean air void
content is 10.5% for the good area and 10.3% for the
poor area with air voids as high as 11.1 percent. Both
mean air voids are very high and unacceptable because
asphalt mixes oxidize (age) rapidly if the air void content
at the time of construction is more than 8%, which is
the specification limit. Normally in-situ air voids reduce
from 8% to near the design air voids (about 4%) due to
densification from traffic during the first 2-3 years. This
shows that air voids at the time of construction must
have been 11-12 percent or more on this project. High
air voids also lead to a brittle mix prone to raveling and
cracking. Asphalt pavement with more than 8% air voids
has interconnected voids which allow water intrusion into
the pavement during rains. That is why, such pavements
develop problems such as potholes during the monsoon,
which was the case on this project.
DBM Grading 1 (Table 6)
Mix Composition: Unlike BC Grading 2 above, the
bitumen content and gradation are acceptable despite
some test values outside the tolerance ranges.
 Paper No. 681

In-Situ Air Voids: At the present time, the mean air voids in Grading 1 is also prone to segregation and potholing
good and poor areas are 9.0 and 8.8 percent, respectively. which was also the case on this project[2].
This is unacceptable because at the time of construction
WMM (Table 7)
more than two years ago these values must have been
10% or even more. The DBM was also used by traffic Gradation: Although within the specified MORTH
before laying the BC, which causes some densification. range, the gradation of WMM both in good and poor
MORTH does not allow more than 8% air voids at the areas is on the fine side. The material passing 0.075
time of construction. As discussed in detail in BC above, mm should not exceed 8% as per MORTH. However,
high air voids cause the mix to be brittle (due to aging) it is excessive: 13.4% in good area and 13.7% in poor
and prone to raveling and cracking. Asphalt pavement area. According to Yoder[3], excessive fines interfere
with more than 8% air voids has interconnected voids with the interlocking of aggregate in the WMM and
which allow water intrusion into the pavement during therefore lower its structural strength. Once water gets
rains. That is why, such pavements develop problems into the WMM through cracks in the asphalt courses,
such as potholes during the monsoon. it becomes weaker and weaker and does not provide
As a rule, DBM Grading 1 which was used on in this adequate support to the overlying asphalt courses. Fines
section is generally more permeable than DBM Grading from the WMM have been brought to the road surface as
2 and therefore should not have been used at all. DBM mentioned earlier (Fig. 3).
Table 4. Condition of Cores
MORTH Good Area Poor Area
Spec. or
Test Property Location no. Std. Location no. Std. 95%
Project Mean 95% CL Mean
Spec. 1 2 3 4 5 Dev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dev. CL
109-
Thickness, mm 143 145 122 133 112 131 14 103-159 131 141 118 129 116 136 129 10
149
76-
DBM 100 101 102 79 92 75 90 12 66-114 104 97 83 89 86 102 94 9
112
BC 40 or 50 42 43 43 41 37 41 2 37-45 27 44 35 40 30 34 35 6 23-47
Bond between
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes - - - Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes - - -
DBM and BC
% Stripping in Mix
DBM None None
BC None None

Table 5. Bituminous Concrete (BC) Test Data

Per. Good Area Poor Area
MORTH
Test JMF
Spec. or Std 95% Std 95%
Property Range 1 2 3 4 5 Mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean
JMF Dev. CL * Dev. CL *
(%)
Thickness,
37 41 43 43 42 41.2 34 30 40 35 44 27 35
mm
Passing
Sieve Size, BC Grading-2
mm
26.5 100 ±7 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100
19 100 ±7 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100
13.2 93 (90-100) ±6 93 91 93 90 90 91 2 87-95 90 92 92 91 92 83* 90 4 86-94
9.5 76 (70-88) ±6 81 78 76 79 80 79 2 75-83 70 68* 76 79 78 68* 73 5 69-77
4.75 58 (53-71) ±5 61 58 52* 59 55 57 4 49-65 53 49* 52* 54 57 52* 53 3 45-61
2.36 48 (42-58) ±4 45 39* 37* 41* 38* 40* 3 34-46 37* 35* 38* 38* 41* 39* 38* 2 32-44
1.18 38 (34-48) ±4 27* 25* 24* 23* 25* 25* 1 23-27 25* 23* 25* 26* 25* 26* 25* 1 23-27
0.6 30 (26-38) ±4 21* 19* 19* 20* 20* 20* 1 18-22 20* 18* 23* 19* 18* 21* 20* 2 18-22
0.3 20 (18-28) ±3 13* 13* 11* 13* 12* 12* 1 10-14 11* 10* 14* 10* 8* 12* 11* 2 9 -13
0.15 15 (12-20) ±3 9* 9* 8* 8* 7* 8* 1 6-10 6* 7* 6* 5* 3* 8* 6* 2 4- 8
0.075 7.3 (4-10) ±1.5 5.1* 4.7* 4.8* 4.7* 4.5* 4.8* 0.2 4.4-5.2 2.9* 3.1* 2.7* 1.7* 1.3* 4.2* 2.7* 1 2.3-3.1
% Bitumen
5.15 (Min.
Content by ±0.3 5.3 4.4* 4.2* 4.7* 5.0 4.7* 0.4 3.9-5.5 4.3* 4.3* 4.5* 4.8* 5.2 4.7* 4.6* 0.3 3.8-5.4
5.4)
wt.
2.354 2.342 -
Gmb 2.450 2.370 2.387 2.364 2.395 2.392 2.382 0.01 2.364 2.404 2.412 2.395 2.364 2.371 2.385 0.02
2.409 2.428
Gmm 2.561 2.650 2.660

56 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 681

Per. Good Area Poor Area

MORTH
Test JMF
Spec. or Std 95% Std 95%
Property Range 1 2 3 4 5 Mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean
JMF Dev. CL * Dev. CL *
(%)
9.5- 8.7-
% Air Voids 4.3 (3-5) 10.9 10.3 11.1 10 10.1 10.5 0.5 11.1 9.6 9.3 10.0 11.1 10.9 10.3 0.8
11.5 11.9
Place asterisk on test data not meeting specification
95% CL = Mean +/- 2 Std. Dev.

Table 6. Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) Test Data

Per. Good Area Poor Area
Test MORTH
JMF Std 95 % Std 95 %
Property Spec. or JMF Location No. Mean Location No. Mean
Range Dev CL* Dev. CL*
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Thickness,
75 92 79 102 101 89.8 102 86 89 83 97 104 93.5
mm
Gradation
% Passing, DBM
Gradg-1
Sieve Size,
mm
45 100 ±8 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100
37.5 100 (95-100) ±8 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 100
26.5 86 (63-91) ±8 100* 99* 100* 72* 74* 89 15 85-93 92 100* 87 82 100* 82 91 8 87-95
13.2 64 (55-75) ±7 81* 72* 68 52* 54* 65 12 57-73 69 79* 65 69 79* 65 71* 6 63-79
4.75 42 (38-54) ±6 61* 50* 43 41 44 48 8 42-54 48 47 44 43 50* 43 46 3 40-52
2.36 35 (28-42) ±5 44* 39 30 29* 32 35 6 33-37 36 33 34 31 37 33 34 2 32-36
0.3 11 (7-21) ±4 14 12 11 8 11 11* 2 9- 13 8 10 7 10 14 13 10* 3 8 - 12
0.075 4.2 (2-8) ±2 6.5* 5.1 4.3 4 4.2 4.8* 1 3-7 3.2 4.3 3.9 3.6 5.2* 4.5 4* 1 2-6
% Bitumen
4.25 3.4- 3.8-
Content ±0.3 4.8* 4.3 4.6* 3.4* 3.7* 4.2 0.6 4.3 5.2* 4.1 4.4 5.2* 4.5 4.6 0.5
(Min. 4) 5.0 5.4
by wt.
2.313
2.514
Gmb 2.490 2.377 2.389 2.337 2.335 2.367 2.361 0.024 - 2.568 2.568 2.584 2.584 2.547 2.522 2.562 0.024
- 2.61
2.409
Gmm 2.600 2.595 2.809
% Air 7.2- 7.2-
4.3 8.4 7.9 9.9 10.0 8.8 9 0.9 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 9.3 10.2 8.8 0.8
Voids 10.8 10.4
Test data with asterisk not meeting specification
95% CL = Mean +/- 2 Std. Dev.

Table 7 Wet Mixed Macadam (WMM) Test Data

Good Area Poor Area
MoRTH Std Std 95%
Test Property Location No. Mean 95% CL * Location No. Mean
Spec. Dev. Dev. CL *
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
% Passing,
Sieve Size, mm
53 100 100 100
45 95-100 100 100
26.5 - - -
22.4 60-80 78 86*
11.2 40-60 60* 67*
4.75 25-40 40 48*
2.36 15-30 32* 39*
600 micron 8 - 22 22 27*
75 micron 0-8 12.4* 13.7*
60% of % passing
13.2 16.2
600 micron
Plasticity Index 6 MAX 6 7
Optimum Moisture
6.5 7
Content
Optimum Dry
2.37 2.32
Density
In-Situ Moisture
6.4 6.4 5.26 5.3 8.7 6.4 1.4 3.6-9.2 7.5 6.4 8.7 5.3 6.4 6.9 1.3 4.3-9.5
Content
Min 98% of
In-Situ Density 2.2 2.2 2.21 2.3 2.3 2.24 0.03 2.18-2.30 2.1 2.1 2.11 2.2 2.1 2.13 0.02 2.09-2.17
Lab.MDD
% Compaction 94* 95* 93* 95* 96* 94.6 91* 92* 91* 93* 92* 91.8

Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 57

 Paper No. 681
Table 8. Granular Subbase (GSB) Test Data
Good Area Poor Area
MoRTH Std. Std.
Test Property Location No. Mean 95% CL* Location No. Mean 95% CL*
Specs Dev. Dev.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
% Passing,
Sieve Size, mm
75 100 100 100
53 80-100 100 100
26.5 55-90 78 87
9.5 35-65 54 65*
4.75 25-55 40 53
2.36 20-40 34 46*
0.85 - 26 36
0.425 25-10 23 31*
0.075 3-10 17.2* 24.5*
Plasticity Index 6 Max 15 15
Optimum Moisture
7 7
Content
Optimum Dry
2.31 2.21
Density
In-Situ Moisture
8.7 8.7 7.5 7.5 9.9 8.5 1 6.5-10.5 6.4 8.7 9.9 8.7 8.7 8.5 1.3 5.9-11.1
Content
Min 98% of
In-Situ Density 2.2 2.24 2.21 2.22 2.21 2.22 0.02 2.18-2.26 2 2 2.01 2 2 2.01 0.02 1.97-2.05
Lab. MDD

Table 9. Subgrade Test Data

Good Area Poor Area
MoRTH Soil 95%
Test Property Location No. Mean Std Dev. 95% CL * Location No. Mean Std Dev.
Specs. Group CL *
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Gradation
% Passing,
Sieve Size, mm
75 100 100
19 100 99
10 96 98
4.75 85 89
2 73 77
0.425 57 62
SC
0.075 43 51
Liquid Limit 48 44
Plastic Limit 23 20
Plasticity Index 25 Max 25 24
In-Situ Moisture
9.9 9.9 11.1 9.9 9.9 10.1 0.5 9.1-11.1 6.4 5.3 8.7 9.9 9.9 8 2.1 3.8-12.2
Content
Min 97% of
In-Situ Density 2 2 2.04 2.1 2.1 2.04 0.06 1.92-2.16 2 2 2 1.9 2 1.97 0.02 1.93-2.01
Lab. MDD
In-Situ CBR** 6 4

Plasticity Index (PI): According to MORTH, PI of However, the mean density is 95% in the good area and
WMM should not exceed 6 percent. However, it is much lower, that is, 92% in the poor area. Both values
borderline (6) in the good area and exceeds (7) in the indicate inadequate compaction in the field, which
poor area. WMM with high PI, lose strength in presence further reduces the strength of the WMM.
of water. Granular Sub-Base (GSB) (Table 8)
In-Situ Density: The in-situ density of WMM should Gradation: The gradation of GSB in the poor area is
be at least 98% of optimum dry density (MORTH). finer all the way and is outside the range of MORTH

58 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018

 Paper No. 681
Grading 1. This is not desirable because it reduces the
permeability of GSB to facilitate subsurface drainage.
Moreover, the material passing 0.075 mm sieve
should not exceed 10%, but it is excessive: 18.2% in
good area and 23.5% in poor area. These values make
the GSB highly impermeable. That is why; in-situ
moisture content is 8.5 percent with the value as high as
9.9 percent.
Plasticity Index (PI): According to MORTH, PI of GSB
should not exceed 6. However, it is excessive: 15 both in
good and poor areas.
In Situ Density: The in-situ density of GSB should be
at least 98% of the optimum dry density. However, it is
highly deficient: 96% in good area and only 91% in poor
area. This reduces the structural strength of the GSB.
Therefore, the GSB on this project is not only highly
impermeable but, it does not have adequate strength.
Subgrade (Table 9)
Gradation: The poor area has finer gradation all the way
compared to the good area. The material passing 0.075
mm is 43% in good area and 51% in the poor area.
Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index (PI): The liquid
limit ranges from 44 to 48 % and the PI range is from 24
to 25. Together with the % passing 0.075 mm sieve, they
represent a soil classification of SC (clayey sand) which
typically have CBR of about 6 to 10 as per literature.
This supports the measured in-situ CBR of 6% in the
good area and 4% in the poor area as discussed next.
CBR: The subgrade soil sample was brought to the
laboratory and compacted at 3 different compaction levels
at a moisture content equal to the in-situ moisture content.
CBR values were determined on samples compacted to
3 different compaction levels. A plot of density versus
CBR was made. The CBR corresponding to the in-situ
density was obtained from the plot. Figs. 6 and 7 show
such plots for good and poor areas, respectively.
Fig. 6. Density Versus CBR Plot for Good Area
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 59
Fig. 7. Density V CBR Plot for Poor Area
The in-situ CBR values of relatively good area was
determined to be 6 percent and the CBR value for the
poor area was determined to be 4 %. These are much
below the CBR value of 15 used in the structural design
of the pavement for a design life of 10 years. Although
borrow areas with CBR higher than 15% were identified
for constructing the subgrade, it appears local or different
soil (typically with much lower CBR value) was used
on this project. Inadequate compaction of the subgrade
and subbase layers apart from low CBR value resulted in
early failure.
Had the CBR of 4% been used for determining the
thickness of DBM course, that thickness would have
been significantly more. Moreover, the thickness of
DBM would also have been even greater if a 20-year
design life (traffic) was used in lieu of 10-year design
life (the so-called stage construction). Traffic is usually
opened on the DBM without the BC overlay. This likely
caused the bottom-up fatigue cracking in the DBM which
besides the reduced thickness also had substandard
GSB and substandard WMM to support it. Moreover,
the quality of DBM itself was also substandard. Such
development of fatigue cracks in the DBM under similar
circumstances have been observed by the authors on
other major projects. These bottom up fatigue cracks in
the DBM soon get reflected in the BC later. This finally
results in disintegration of the entire asphalt pavement
structure; full depth cracks were observed on this project.
General
Based on the preceding discussion, it can be concluded
that all five pavement courses on this project are
largely substandard in quality, which collectively have
 Paper No. 681
caused the premature distresses. This is rather unusual.
Generally, one or two pavement courses are substandard
in the poor area and therefore can be isolated as cause(s)
for premature distress.
Recommended Remedial Measures
This project experienced substantial distresses during the
first, second and third monsoons since it was constructed.
As immediate measure, all potholes should be repaired.
The areas which show severe loss of road surface
should be milled off and replaced with BC Grading 2
(with gradation on the finer side of the JMF) containing
elastomeric PMB-40. [This work was carried out soon
after this field evaluation.] These measures would ensure
the safety and comfort of the motoring public.
Then, pavement deflections should be measured on the
entire project using a falling weight deflectometer (FWD)
which is more reliable and faster than the Benkelman
Beam. Plot the results on a linear graph. Use IRC:81-
1997 to determine the thickness of asphalt overlay to
bring deflections below the acceptable level or IRC:115-
2014 should be used.
Conduct a “broad” survey of the road surface in this
section to identify the following three (3) road surface
categories:
Type A
Road surface showing “severe” fatigue cracks (alligator
type) in the wheel tracks and/or block cracks in the entire
lane.
Type B
Road surface showing “moderate” fatigue cracks (one or
two longitudinal cracks in the wheel track). This surface
is likely to become Type A in the near future.
Type C
Surface showing no fatigue cracks. There is no guarantee
that fatigue cracks would not appear in the future given
the substandard quality of underlying pavement courses
(even in the good areas) unless proven otherwise with
additional explorations like this one.
Type A Recommended Remedial Measures
Any suggested remedial measures should take into
consideration the following:
i. All or most of the pavement courses are substandard
in quality.
ii. Alligatored BC cannot be kept within the pavement
system because it is shattered and therefore likely
to cause problems in future if overlaid without
removal from the distressed areas.
60 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
iii. Intrusion of rainwater in the pavement system
from the surface including the full depth cracks is
causing serious problems in terms of disintegration
(potholes/loss of surface). The recommended
overlay system must ensure “complete sealing” of
the existing pavement.
iv. The existing pavement has bottom up fatigue
cracking and therefore may not provide resistance
to tensile strains. The new asphalt overlay must
have its “own” reinforcement system to (a) resist
tensile strains at its bottom; (b) arrest cracking; and
(c) increase its fatigue life.
v. Despite its “own” reinforcement, the new asphalt
overlay would be subjected to extraordinary
stresses and strains due to inadequate support of
the underlying courses. Therefore, the new asphalt
overlay should be more flexible than BC Grading
2; resistant to reflection cracking; and highly rut
resistant at the same time.
Ideally, all pavement courses which are substandard
should be replaced. However, it is not practical nor
economical. Therefore, the following remedial measures
are recommended for Type A Category:
i. Mill off the existing BC Grading 2 exhibiting
alligator cracks and/or block cracking and replace
with BC Grading 2 (redesigned with finer gradation)
containing elastomeric PMB-40 from a reliable
international supplier. Ensure good quality control
in mix production and compaction.
ii. Provide a composite (combination) of non-
woven geotextile (GT) paving fabric (which is
continuous and has polyester and glass fibers) and
a glass fiber grid reinforcement. The quality of the
composite GT should conform to IRC: SP:59-2002.
Application should consist of heavy tack coat of
VG-30 bitumen (not emulsion) at a rate specified
by the manufacturer of GT paving fabric. The
nonwoven geotextile together with heavy tack coat
would ensure “complete sealing” of the existing
pavement. The glass fiber geogrid would provide
“reinforcement” to the overlying 50 mm asphalt
overlay to resist tensile stresses at its bottom. It
would also prevent lateral movement of the overlay
asphalt mix.
iii. Provide 50 mm of Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)
in accordance with IRC:SP:79-2008 (drafted by
the first author) containing elastomeric PMB-40
over the composite geotextile. A minimum asphalt
overlay thickness of 50 mm is required over
geotextile. Although SMA is preferred, BC Grading
2 with highly modified asphalt binder HiMA can
 Paper No. 681
also be considered. HiMA has about 7% SBS
polymer compared to about 3% SBS in conventional
PMBs. Research at NCAT Test Track in the US has
shown it is highly resistant to rutting and fatigue
cracking. Due to its higher structural strength, 41
mm of BC with HiMA is approximately equivalent
to 50 mm of BC with conventional PMB. HiMA is
commercially available in India.
iv. If the pavement deflection analyses show that
asphalt overlay should be more than 50 mm, then
additional BC Grading 2 overlay should be provided
prior to laying the geotextile.
Type B Recommended Remedial Measures
Same as Type A above except that the existing BC need
not be milled off and replaced. However, all potholes and
surface deficiencies of existing BC should be corrected.
Cracks over 5 mm wide should be filled with hot asphalt-
rubber or hot VG-30 bitumen. Do not use emulsion
which would shrink when about 35% water contained in
it evaporates.
Type C Recommended Remedial Measures
In case the deflection analysis does not require any
asphalt overlay, apply Microsurfacing Grade III (6
to 8 mm) in accordance with IRC:SP:81-2008 to the
existing road surface to seal it from moisture intrusion
as a preventive maintenance. Then, it would be a matter
of “wait and watch”. If fatigue cracks start to develop,
use Type B remedial measures. In case, the deflection
analysis requires an asphalt overlay, use 40 mm or 50
mm SMA rather than BC Grading 2 considering the
substandard quality of underlying courses, unless proven
otherwise after explorations like this one.
6. SUMMARY
On completion of the four-laning of this 50-km national
highway, premature pavement distresses were observed
on it during the first monsoon. The following pavement
distresses were observed: open surface texture; raveling;
hungry surface; alligator cracks; and potholes. By far,
premature fatigue cracking was the primary distress
ranging from moderate cracking (one to two cracks in
wheel path) to severe cracking (alligator cracks in the
wheel path or block cracks across the lane). Therefore,
this was the primary focus of this investigation.
Further successive deterioration of pavement occurred
during the second and third monsoons. Several areas of
severe alligator cracks also developed shallow and deep
potholes which required extensive patching.
It was decided to investigate the specific causes of
premature pavement distresses on the entire project by
Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018 61
systematic sampling and testing so that suitable remedial
measures could be recommended.
In general, good quality control of various pavement
courses was not exercised during construction, which
led generally to the development of “bottom up”
fatigue cracking on this project. The following general
deficiencies were noted on this project:
Subgrade: CBR values from the trial pits of 6 in good
area and 4 in the poor area were less than the CBR value
of 15 used in the structural design of this project. This
apart from inadequate compaction of the subgrade layer
resulted in an under designed pavement.
Granular Subbase (GSB): Gradation; plasticity
index (PI) and % compaction did not meet MORTH
requirements. This results in poor subsurface drainage
and inadequate support to the overlying pavement
courses especially in presence of water.
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM): Gradation; plasticity
index (PI) and % compaction did not meet MORTH
requirements. This results in weak WMM which provides
inadequate support to the overlying pavement courses
especially in presence of water.
Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) Base Course:
DBM has excessive air voids (due to inadequate
compaction) which allow water intrusion during rains
causing potholes. High air voids also make the mix more
prone to cracking. Some DBM mixes contained soft,
friable aggregate most likely from quarry overburden.
Also, traffic allowed on the DBM during construction
before placing the BC can induce bottom up fatigue
cracking in it. These cracks then reflect though the BC
at a later date.
Bituminous Concrete (BC) Wearing Course: Deficient
bitumen content; gradation outside JMF tolerances
(generally coarser which allows intrusion of rainwater);
and high air voids (due to poor compaction) made the mix
more prone to cracking. Some BC mixes contained soft,
friable aggregate most likely from quarry overburden. In
most cases, BC did not provide an impermeable surface
for the pavement to prevent water intrusion.
Based on preceding deficiencies, all five pavement
courses were substandard in quality. This resulted in a
rather complex investigation, where the relatively good
area also had serious deficiencies in case of some test
parameters.
It has been recommended that pavement deflections
should be measured on the entire project using a falling
weight deflectometer (FWD). Plot the results on a linear
graph. Use IRC: 81-1997 or IRC:115-2014 to determine
 Paper No. 681
the thickness of asphalt overlay to bring deflections
below the acceptable level, wherever needed.
Conduct a “broad” survey of the road surface on the
entire project to identify the following three (3) road
surface categories:
Type A: Road surface showing “severe” fatigue cracks
(alligator type) in the wheel tracks and/or block cracks
in the entire lane.
Type B: Road surface showing “moderate” fatigue cracks
(one or two longitudinal cracks in the wheel track). This
surface is likely to become Type A in the near future.
Type C: Surface showing no fatigue cracks. There is
no guarantee that fatigue cracks would not appear in
the future given the substandard quality of underlying
pavement courses (even in the good areas) unless proven
otherwise with additional explorations like this one.
Type A Recommended Remedial Measures
Details are given in the body of this paper. Briefly, remedial
measures consist of (a) mill off existing BC Grading 2
and replace with new BC Grading 2 with elastomeric
PMB-40 Bitumen; (b) provide a composite geotextile
paving fabric and glass fiber grid reinforcement; and (c)
provide 50 mm of Stone Matrix Asphalt.
Type B Recommended Remedial Measures
Same as Type A above except that the existing BC need
not be milled off and replaced. However, all potholes and
surface deficiencies of existing BC should be corrected.
Cracks over 5 mm wide should be filled with hot asphalt-
rubber or hot VG-30 bitumen, not emulsion.
Type C Recommended Remedial Measures
In case the deflection analysis does not require any
asphalt overlay, apply Micro surfacing Grade III (6 to 8
mm) in accordance with IRC:SP:81-2008 to the existing
road surface to seal it from moisture intrusion. Then, it
would be a matter of “wait and watch
Quality Control
In all remedial measures, strict quality control need to
be exercised during bituminous mix production and
compaction. It is especially important for stone matrix
62 Journal of the indian Roads Congress, April - June, 2018
asphalt (SMA). If two sets of extractions (bitumen
content and gradation) and Marshall tests are faithfully
done every day as per MORTH requirements, there is no
reason as to how the quality can be compromised.
7. GENERAL RECOMMENDTIONS
The following general recommendations are made so
that major highways do not develop premature distresses
as observed on this project:
(a) The pavement design life should not be based on
“stage construction” such as 10 years. Rather, it
should be for the full operational period.
(b) Construction quality control (QC) needs to be
exercised by the contractor and quality assurance
(QA) should be exercised by the concessionaire/
Independent Engineer (IE) – both were lacking on
this project.
(c) DBM base course should not be used by traffic for
long periods of time; it should be overlaid with BC
as soon as possible so that bottom-up fatigue cracks
do not develop in DBM due to reduced pavement
thickness.
(d) Although not applicable to this project, the thickness
of DBM should not be reduced when modified
binders are used. This is technically unwarranted
and would further aggravate the problem of under
designing the pavement structure.
(e) If subgrade is constructed with high CBR soil from
identified borrow areas, it should be ensured that
local soil with low CBR value is not used.
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Kandhal, Prithvi Singh, “Bituminous Road
Construction in India”. Textbook. Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi, July 2016.
2. Kandhal, P.S. and A. Veeraragavan, “Review of
Practices for Improving Ride Quality and Periodical
Renewal of Bituminous Pavements in India”. Paper
No. 662. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress,
Volume 77-3, October-December 2016.
3. Yoder, E.J., “Principles of Pavement Design”. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1965.