ESWTD 2ndedn Final PDF

Environmental Sanitation,
Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal
2nd Edition
Tanveer Ferdous Saeed

Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Tanvir Ahmed
About the Authors
Dr. Tanveer Ferdous Saeed received his B.Sc. degree from Bangladesh
University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) in 2004, M.Sc. from
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand in 2006, and PhD from
Monash University, Australia in 2011. Currently he is pursuing his
teaching profession as an assistant professor in the Department of Civil
Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Engineering and Technology
(AUST). Dr. Saeed is specialized on fate and mathematical modelling of
pollutants removal from wastewater. Dr. Saeed published many peer
reviewed publications on pollutant removal dynamics in constructed
wetland systems. He is also serving as the reviewer of peer reviewed
international journals Chemosphere, Ecological Engineering, Water
Research, Chemical Engineering Journal and Science of the Total
Environment. Dr. Saeed received many academic and research awards.
These include AIT fellowship during his MSc studies at AIT; Faculty of
Engineering Post Graduate Award, Monash Graduate Scholarship, and
Travel Grant Award while pursuing his PhD at Monash University.
Dr. Saeed employed wetland systems for the first time in Bangladesh to
provide treatment of tannery, textile and municipal wastewaters. In
addition, Dr. Saeed is involved in the treatment of polluted surface water
bodies of Bangladesh employing floating treatment wetlands. He can be
reached at tanveer@alumni.ait.asia
Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received his Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering and Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental)
from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET),
Dhaka and Ph.D from the University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious
Monbusho scholar. His academic experiences cover graduate and post
graduate level teaching and research in renowned universities of
Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has more than 35
technical papers in National and International Journal and Conference
Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in different
World Bank donated projects. He also worked as honorary editor and
reviewer in distinguished journals of international publishers. He worked
as Reviewer in the research project funded by University Grant
Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid
Waste Management of International Training Network (ITN)–BUET.
He also authored two text books titled, ‘Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management’, and ‘Water and Environmental Engineering’ for
undergraduate and graduate students of civil & environmental
engineering discipline. As an academician, he served as progressively
Lecturer, Assistant Professor and Associate Professor in different
universities. At present, he is working as Technical Adviser-WASH in
WaterAid Bangladesh and he can be reached at abdullahal-
muyeed@wateraid.org and amuyeed@yahoo.com
Dr. Tanvir Ahmed received his BSc and MSc Engineering degrees from
the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) in
2003 and 2005, respectively. He received his PhD degree in 2011 from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA. He is currently
pursuing his teaching profession as an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Civil Engineering, BUET. His research interest broadly
encompasses environmental modeling and health risk assessment of
environmental contaminants. He has also been involved in several
national projects as a consultant and EIA specialist. Dr. Ahmed received a
number of awards in recognition for his excellence in academic
achievements and teaching. These include The Prime Minister’s Gold
Medal in 1994 for securing the 1st position in Bangladesh in order of
merit in the national SSC exam, Malik Akram Hossain Gold Medal in
2003 and Dean’s award for academic excellence as a civil engineering
student. He received the Schoettler Fellowship and Martin Fellowship
for Sustainability while pursuing his PhD at MIT. He was also awarded
the Maseeh Award for excellence in teaching from MIT in 2009 while
working as a teaching assistant. He can be reached at
tanvirahmed@ce.buet.ac.bd
Wastewater Treatment and Disposal
2nd Edition
2nd Edition
Tanveer Ferdous Saeed

Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Tanvir Ahmed
First Published : November 2013, Agrahayan 1420

Second Published : December 2014, Poush 1421
Published by : University Grants Commission of Bangladesh
29/1, Agargaon, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh
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UGC Publication No. : 158
ISBN : 978-984-8920-16-9
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Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal by Tanveer Ferdous Saeed,

Abdullah Al-Muyeed & Tanvir Ahmed, Published by University Grants Commission of
Bangladesh, Dhaka.
ISBN : 978-984-8920-16-9
Cover Picture :Internet
Dedicated to
Our Parents
v
Foreword
It is my earnest privilege to present this book titled Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater
Treatment and Disposal from the University Grants Commission, Bangladesh (UGC).
The explosion of population has exerted undue pressure on the environment and its
resources, a problem which is more severe for developing countries due to their limited
resources in providing adequate sanitation, handling of wastes and wastewater generated
and preventing pollution. This book offers primarily theoretical concepts in
environmental sanitation, treatment of wastewater and water pollution, that form a core
part of the curricula for civil/civil and environmental engineering discipline at the
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. A comprehensive textbook to address these issues
in the undergraduate and postgraduate curricula was critically necessary, and this book
certainly fills up that void to some extent. With the emergence of civil and environmental
engineering disciplines in different universities around the country, I believe that this
book will receive its due credit. Apart from that, postgraduate research students in
environmental engineering, and practicing environmental engineers in relevant fields will
also find the contents of this book useful as reference materials.
The authors of the book are three young professionals in the field of environmental
engineering working as faculty members in different universities. I wholeheartedly admire
their courage and enthusiasm in embarking on this tedious journey to write this textbook.
The University Grants Commission of Bangladesh has a long history for promoting research
and publication works from scholars in Bangladesh and therefore, is pleased to promote such
an endeavour from the young authors. From my point of view, the real beneficiaries are the
thousands of students studying in this field in various universities in the country. It is my
belief that the students as well as the respected peers will appreciate their effort.
The University Grants Commission of Bangladesh is happy to publish the book. I expect that
the book will be of immense benefit to the students, researchers and teachers of relevant
fields. I express my sincere thanks to the officers and staff of the Publication Section of the
UGC for their strenuous efforts in publishing the book.
Dhaka Prof. Dr. A K Azad Chowdhury

September 2013 Chairman (State Minister)
University Grants Commission of Bangladesh
vii
Preface
This text book has been designed to cover the curricula of undergraduate and postgraduate
environmental engineering and related courses that are generally offered by the Civil
Engineering Departments of the technological universities in Bangladesh. More specifically,
this book covers several sub divisions of environmental engineering, such as sanitation
engineering, wastewater (municipal and industrial) treatment technologies, water pollution
control that are usually taught at the 3rd or 4th level of the undergraduate programs or as
core courses in the postgraduate level.
This book is comprised of 12 chapters covering a wide range of topics related to sanitation,
wastewater treatment, disposal and water pollution. Chapter 1 gives a brief description on
the importance of sanitation, wastewater treatment and safe disposal, with an aim to provide
the reader a scope to think about the necessity of sustainable environmental solutions for the
country. Chapter 2 describes engineered sanitation technologies in context of Bangladesh.
Chapters 3-7 describe municipal wastewater transportation into treatment plants, and
different treatment stages for achieving safe disposal criteria. Several design examples have
also been included in these chapters to allow the students, as well as the professionals for
developing a clear understanding of the design process of treatment plants. Chapter 8
describes different approaches to provide treatment of industrial wastewater. Two case
studies on the treatment of tannery and textile wastewater (i.e. major sources of water
pollution in Bangladesh) have been included in this chapter, with an aim to giving the reader
a conceptual view for preventing water pollution from such sectors in Bangladesh. Chapter 9
includes a brief description on sludge treatment (for safe disposal), generated from
wastewater treatment plants. Chapter 10 focuses on low-cost natural treatment
technologies, such as ponds and constructed wetlands. Chapter 11 gives a brief description
on the factors associated with water pollution. Several case studies regarding water pollution
analysis and control have been incorporated in this chapter which will allow the reader to
acquire an in-depth knowledge on such factors. Finally Chapter 12 gives brief information
and required guidelines for the construction, operation and maintenance of decentralized
wastewater treatment systems.
During the writing phase, we received feedbacks and suggestions from national and
international experts and professionals. We are greatly indebted to them for their useful
comments, that helped us enrich the quality and content of this book. We are grateful to the
University Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh, for making the publication of this
book possible. Despite our wholehearted effort there may be some inaccuracies or mistakes
for which we are wholly responsible. We would be extremely grateful if you let us know by e-
mail when you detect any such errors in the text.
We are also indebted to our colleagues, friends and family members who supported us during
the stressful writing period. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to our parents for
showing us the light of knowledge throughout our life. This book is dedicated to our parents.
Tanveer Ferdous Saeed Ph.D (tanveer@alumni.ait.asia)

Abdullah Al-Muyeed Ph.D (amuyeed@yahoo.com; muyeed.ce@aust.edu)
Tanvir Ahmed Ph.D. (tanvirahmed@ce.buet.ac.bd)
ix
Table of Contents
Page
Forward vii
Preface ix
Tables of Contents xi
List of Abbreviations xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Environmental Sanitation 3
1.2 Wastewater Engineering 5
1.3 Wastewater Characteristics: Physical, Chemical and Biological 6
1.4 Fate of Major Environmental Contaminants 7
1.5 Organization of the Book 9
2 Sanitation 13
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 International Commitments and the Global Sanitation Scenario 15
2.3 Disease Transmission Pathways and the Impact of Sanitation on 18
Public Health
2.4 Benefits of Improving Access to Sanitation 21
2.5 Hygienic Latrine 22
2.6 Challenges in Sanitation 22
2.7 Sanitation and Waste Categorization 24
2.8 Sanitation Technologies 27
2.9 Major Sanitation Technologies 30
2.10 Water Carriage Systems 36
2.11 Handwashing Facilities 38
2.12 People’s role in Latrine Construction 38
3 Sewer Systems 45
3.1 Wastewater Collection Systems 47
3.2 Classification of Sewers 48
3.3 Sewage Quantity 48
3.4 Sewer Velocity 51
3.5 Materials of Sewage Pipes 55
3.6 Sewer Appurtenances 55
3.7 Sewer Construction and Maintenance 57
3.8 Septic System 59
xi
3.9 Small Bore Sewer Systems 66
3.10 Wastewater Production and Sanitation Coverage in Dhaka 70
3.11 On-site Sanitation Technologies of Dhaka: Septic Tanks 71
3.12 Sewerage System of Dhaka 74
3.13 Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant 75
3.14 Upgrading Sewerage Systems of Dhaka 77
4 Preliminary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 81

4.1 Screening 83
4.2 Comminuting 88
4.3 Grit Removal 89
4.4 Grease and Oil Removal 91
4.5 Equalization Basin 93
4.6 Design Examples 94
5 Primary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 99

5.1 Discrete Particle Settling 102
5.2 Flocculant Settling 111
5.3 Tube and Lamella Clarifiers 113
5.4 Guidelines for the Design of Sedimentation Tanks 114
6 Secondary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 125

6.1 Common Organisms of Biological Process 128
6.2 Cell Growth of Bacteria 129
6.3 Kinetic Transformations in Biological Reactors 130
6.4 Organic Matter Measurement 133
6.5 Factors Affecting Aerobic Degradation of Organics 136
6.6 Classification of Biological Reactors 137
6.7 Suspended Growth System: Activated Sludge Process 138
6.8 Plug- Flow Pattern: Activated Sludge Process 144
6.9 Secondary Clarifiers of Activated Sludge Process 145
6.10 Aeration in Activated Sludge Process 151
6.11 Common Variations of Activated Sludge Process 154
6.12 Attached Growth Process: Trickling Filters 160
6.13 Attached Growth Process: Rotating Biological Contactor 167
6.14 Design of Secondary Treatment Processes 168
7 Tertiary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 183

7.1 Removal of Nitrogen 185
xii
7.2 Nitrification Theory 188
7.3 Denitrification Theory 192
7.4 Aerobic-Anoxic Reactors for Nitrification-Denitrification 193
7.5 New Nitrogen Removal Routes 195
7.6 Removal of Phosphorus 201
7.7 Chemical Precipitation of Phosphorus 201
7.8 Biological Phosphorus Removal 205
7.9 Optimization of Biological Phosphorus Removal 209
7.10 Design of Activated Sludge Processes for Simultaneous Organics 209
Degradation and Nitrification
7.11 Metals Removal 213
8 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 217

8.1 Changes in Industrial Management 219
8.2 Characteristics and Treatment of Industrial wastewater 220
8.3 Overview of Industrial Pollution in Bangladesh 223
8.4 Processing and Treatment of Tannery Effluents 225
8.5 Textile Effluent Treatment 233
8.6 Operation and Maintenance Costs for Wastewater Treatment Plants 237
9 Sludge Management 243

9.1 Sludge Characteristics 245
9.2 Sludge Treatment Mechanisms 247
9.3 Sludge Thickening 248
9.4 Sludge Stabilization: Anaerobic and Aerobic Digestion 253
9.5 Sludge Conditioning 258
9.6 Sludge Dewatering 259
9.7 Design Problem 262
10 Natural Treatment: Ponds and Wetlands 267

10.1 Stabilization Ponds 269
10.2 Classification of Stabilization Ponds 269
10.3 Nutrient Removal in Stabilization Ponds 272
10.4 Design of Facultative Ponds 273
10.5 Design Example 275
10.6 Constructed Wetlands: Definition and Classification 277
10.7 Components of Treatment Wetlands 280
10.8 Pollutant Removal Mechanisms in Wetland Systems 283
10.9 Influence of the Environmental Factors 288
xiii
10.10 Design Guidelines for the Wetland Systems 288
10.11 Modelling of Nitrogen and Organics Removal in VSSF and 291
HSSF Systems
10.12 Floating Treatment Wetland: An Innovative Natural Treatment 294
System
10.13 Pollutant Removal Mechanisms in Floating Wetlands 296
11 Water Pollution: Analysis and Control 305

11.1 Water Pollutant Categories 309
11.2 Pollutant Discharge Limits 317
11.3 Water Quality Assessment Methods 318
11.4 Oxygen Demand of Wastes 319
11.5 Fate of Oxygen Demanding Wastes in Rivers 327
11.6 Water Quality in Lakes and Reservoirs 340
12 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment 355

12.1 Components of DWWT Systems 358
12.2 Planning and Designing of DWWT Systems 359
12.3 DWWT Design Factors 359
12.4 Maintenance of DWWT Systems 363
12.5 Reuse of Wastewater 365
Appendix 371
xiv
List of Abbreviations
ABR Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
ANAMMOX Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation
BABE Bio-Augmentation Batch Enhanced
BCFS Biological Chemical Phosphate Nitrogen Removal
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CANON Completely Autotrophic Nitrogen Removal Over Nitrite
CBFP Continuous Belt Filter Presses
CETP Central Effluent Treatment Plant
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSTR Continuous Flow Stirred Tank Reactor
DAF Dissolved Air Floatation
DCC Dhaka City Corporation
DEAMMOX Denitrifying Ammonium Oxidation
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DoE Department of Environment
DPAO Denitrifying Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
DPHE Department of Public Health Engineering
DWASA Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
DWWT Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
EQS Effluent Quality Standards
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
FSS Fixed Suspended Solid
GoB Government of Bangladesh
HCB Hexa Chloro Benzene
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
HSSF Horizontal Sub Surface Flow
KW Kilo Watt
LDPE Low Density Poly Ethylene
MDG Millennium Development Goal
ML Million Liter
MLD Million Liter Per Day
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid
MLVSS Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solid
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
PAO Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PE Population Equivalent
xv
PF Plug Flow
POP Persisting Organic Pollutants
RAS Returned Activated Sludge
RBC Rotating Biological Contactors
ROEC Reed Odourless Earth Closet
SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor
SDI Sludge Density Index
SHARON Single Reactor for High Activity Ammonium Removal Over Nitrite
SOR Surface Overflow Rate
SS Sanitation Secretariat
STP Sewerage Treatment Plant
SVI Sludge Volume Index
TDS Total Dissolved Solid
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TN Total Nitrogen
TP Total Phosphorus
TS Total Solids
TSS Total Suspended Solids
UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UPVC Unplasticized Poly Vinyl Chloride
VIP Ventilated Improved Pit
VSS Volatile Suspended Solid
VSSF Vertical Sub Surface Flow
WAS Waste Activated Sludge
WSSD Water Supply and Sanitation Decade
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
xvi
1
Chapter
Introduction
Environmental engineering is concerned with the protection of the environment and
CHAPTER 1
natural resources. Environmental engineering imparts special attention on biological,
chemical and physical reactions of contaminants in air, land and water, and focuses on
developing improved technologies for minimizing the adverse impacts of such
components on the environment.
The people who are professionally involved with environmental engineering discipline, are
referred as environmental engineers. However, the descriptive title "environmental
engineer" was not used until the 1960s, when academic programs in engineering and public
health schools broadened their scope, and required a more accurate title to describe the
people practising this discipline. The roots of this profession, however, go back as far as
recorded history reaching into several major disciplines including civil engineering, sanitary
and wastewater engineering, public health, ecology, chemistry, and meteorology.
Sanitation, wastewater treatment and impact of pollutants on aquatic environments – all
interrelated subdivisions within the environmental engineering discipline, are subjected to
intensive research worldwide due to their rigorous impact on environmental sustainability.
In Bangladesh, their impact on environment is severe, and currently gaining attention in
both government and public sectors. As such, this chapter provides a brief summary on these
topics, with an aim to provide the reader a scope to think about the necessity of sustainable
environmental solutions for the country. Section 1.1 provides current scenario of sanitation
practices in Bangladesh, and their impact on the environment. Sections 1.2-1.4 deliver the
basic knowledge on wastewater treatment theory, and fate of major pollutants in aquatic
environments. Finally, section 1.5 assists the readers, in terms of understanding the scope
and contents of this book.
1.1 Environmental Sanitation

The term environmental sanitation has received numerous interpretations in different
countries. If restricted to narrower perspectives, such term refers to the safe disposal of
human wastes. However, in many cases, environmental sanitation includes safe water
supply, and disposal of human refuse in a particular community. In recent years, the concept
of environmental sanitation also extended towards controlling the elements, that generally
affect the environment, or human health.
Sanitation often does not receive rigorous attention by the policy makers of developing
countries, or aid donors (Ahmed and Rahman, 2000). For such reasons, the global scenario
of sanitation coverage is not satisfactory. More than 2.5 billion people, representing almost
half of the world population, do not have access to adequate or improved sanitation facilities
(WHO, 2008). Figure 1.1 depicts the proportion of the population across the world, without
sanitation access. As observed in Figure 1.1, the proportion of population without sanitation
access was very high in South Asia.
In South Asia, open defecation practice (by the population of the country) is still more than
50% in India, Nepal and Pakistan (Figure. 1.2). Approximately 668, 50 and 14 million people
in India, Pakistan and Nepal respectively, practice open defecation. In Bangladesh, about 18
million (11% of the population) people practice open defecation; 37% people use
unimproved sanitary means, and only 36% people use improved means for excreta disposal.
Introduction 3
Table 1.1 provides a brief comparison of sanitation progress (i.e. hygienic latrine coverage)
CHAPTER 1
in Bangladesh, as reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) of Department of Public Health

Engineering (DPHE), and other organizations.
Sub-Saharan Africa
South Asia
Middle East & North Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Europe & Central Asia
East Asia & Pacific
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 1.1 Population distribution (%) without sanitation access throughout the
world in the year 2010 (GMR, 2013).
100% 2%
11% 8% 12% 15%
90% 4%
80% 34%
58% 50% 31% 26% 58%
70% 37%
60% 0%
5%
50% 36%
16% 86% 9%
40% 4% 5%
10% 14% 6%
30% 0% 59%
52%
20% 36%
28% 27% 30% 31%
10%
0%
an
h
an
an
a
s
l
di
ve
nk
es
pa
ist
ist
ut
In
d
di
ila
Ne
Bh
k
an
la
al
Pa
Sr
ng
M
gh
Ba
Af
Open defecation Unimproved Shared Improved
Figure 1.2 Sanitation coverage of South Asia in 2006.
It is evident from Table 1.1 that a large number of population in Bangladesh are associated
with unsanitary systems, such as unhygienic latrine and open defecation. Even the
households in rural and slum areas, where sanitary facilities are available, children rarely use
them due to lack of health education. In addition, the generated faecal sludge from these
latrines are often discharged into open water bodies, thereby posing severe environmental
4 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Table 1.1 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation
CHAPTER 1
Secretariat (SS) and other organizations.
Organization Reporting % of % of household % of household % of

period household using hygienic using household
using latrine + latrine unhygienic practicing
hygienic without water latrine open
latrine seal defecation
NGO Forum 2006 33.2 69.7 24.8 5.5
SS 2006 81.6 - - -
UNICEF 2006 39.2 73.1 19.4 7.5
BRAC 2007 31.1 - - -
SS 2007 85.6 - - -
Dishari 2007 60.6 - - -
JMP 2011 55 27 14 4
threats (Rahman and Bache, 1993). According to Rahman and Bache (1993), slum
wastewater (in Bangladesh) comprises substantial pollutants (eg. BOD5 = 400-1700 mg/L,
suspended solids = 500-3000 mg/L), which can pose severe threats to the surrounding
environment. Such findings indicate the necessity of adequate wastewater transportation
and treatment systems, prior to environmental disposal in Bangladesh.
1.2 Wastewater Engineering

Wastewater, also referred as sewage, is produced from household wastes, human and animal
wastes, industrial wastes, storm water runoff, and infiltration of groundwater. Wastewater
possesses certain physical, chemical and biological properties, depending on water usage
and discharge characteristics of a community. Physical properties of wastewater include
color, temperature and solid contents. The chemical components of wastewater include
organic and inorganic materials. Organic components comprise of carbohydrates, fats, oil,
grease, proteins, surfactants, pesticides, agricultural, and toxic chemicals. Inorganics often
include heavy metals, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), pH, alkalinity, chlorides,
sulphur, etc. Gases, for example carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, methane, and hydrogen
sulphide can also be present in wastewater. Different types of microorganisms such as
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses, microscopic plants, and animals are also found in
wastewater. Some of these organism species can cause severe impact to human health.
Since wastewater contains many harmful elements, it requires treatment, prior to
environmental disposal (in order to protect the environment). Such objectives are often
achieved by wastewater treatment plants, that speed up the degradation of pollutants,
resulting in end products that do not interfere with the natural environment of receiving
water bodies. The treatment of wastewater can be classified into three categories: (a)
preliminary; (b) secondary; and (c) tertiary treatment process. Each category has specific
functions, for removing particular constituents of wastewater.
Figure 1.3 describes different stages of a typical wastewater treatment process.
Introduction 5
CHAPTER 1
Screening
Preliminary treatment
Comminutor
Grit and grease removal
Equalization
Primary sedimentation
Suspended growth Attached growth

Secondary treatment
Secondary
clarifier Disinfection
Secondary sludge
management
Nitrogen and phosphorus control Disinfection

treatment
Tertiary
Tertiary sludge
management
Figure 1.3 Flow chart of wastewater treatment process.
In Bangladesh, the only sewerage system has been developed and maintained by Dhaka
Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) to serve the inhabitants of the nation’s
capital. However, the sewerage network has a very small coverage (only 18% of the city, and
25% of the population) and the treatment plant of DWASA is not adequate for the treatment
of sewage to a satisfactory level. The overloading of the existing treatment plant and
uncontrolled discharge of wastewater into the surrounding water bodies are severely
degrading the aquatic environment of Bangladesh.
1.3 Wastewater Characteristics: Physical, Chemical and

Biological
The pollutants of wastewater are generally classified into three categories: (a) physical; (b)

chemical; and (c) biological. Some common wastewater pollutants and their sources have
CHAPTER 1
been illustrated in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Classification and sources of common wastewater pollutants.
Properties Parameter Sources

Physical Temperature Domestic, and industrial wastes.
Solids Domestic, industrial wastes, and infiltration.
Color Domestic, industrial wastes, and decay of organic
compounds.
Odor Industrial wastes.
Chemical Carbohydrates, Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
(organic) proteins, fats, oils, and
grease
Pesticides Agricultural wastes.
Phenols Industrial wastes.
Chemical Alkalinity, chlorides Domestic wastes, and infiltration.
(inorganic) pH Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes.
Phosphorus Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
Heavy metals Industrial wastes.
Sulfur Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
Chemical Surfactants Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
(priority pollutants) Volatile organic Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes.
compounds
Biological Bacteria Domestic wastes, surface water infiltration, and
treatment plants.
Viruses Domestic wastes.
Animals, plants Open watercourses, and treatment plants.
1.4 Fate of Major Environmental Contaminants

The efficiency of treatment plants is associated with the necessity of acquiring profound
knowledge on the physico-chemical and biological removal mechanisms, such as:
degradation of contaminants. Decomposition or biodegradation may take place (in
presence of microorganisms) in one of the two distinctly different ways: aerobic (using free
oxygen), and anaerobic (in the absence of free oxygen).
A schematic representation of the aerobic cycle for carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus
has been illustrated in Figure 1.4. This figure shows only the basic phenomena and simplifies
the actual steps and mechanisms. Carbon dioxide and water are two end products of aerobic
decomposition of organic materials. Both are stable, low in energy and are used by plants
during photosynthesis. Phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen compounds are often included in
the general discussion of decomposition, because the breakdown and release of these
compounds during decomposition of organic matter can contribute to water quality
problems. In aerobic environments, sulfur compounds are oxidized to sulfate ion (SO42-) and
phosphorus is oxidized to phosphate (PO43-). Any phosphate not rapidly taken up by
Introduction 7
microorganisms is bound by physical or chemical attraction to suspended sediments and
CHAPTER 1
metal ions, making it unavailable to most aquatic organisms. Nitrogen, another major
pollutant, is oxidized through a series of steps in the progression:
Organic Nitrogen → NH4+ (ammonium) → NO2- (nitrite) → NO3- (nitrate)
DEAD
ORGANICS
Proteins AEROBIC
DECOMPOSITION
Proteins
Figure 1.4 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles (De Camp 1963).
Anaerobic decomposition is usually performed in absence of oxygen by a completely

different set of microorganisms. Such microorganisms include obligate anaerobes (that can
only survive in anaerobic environments) and facultative anaerobes (which can survive in
aerobic or anaerobic environments).
Figure 1.5 represents a schematic of anaerobic decomposition. Note that the left half of the
cycle is identical to the aerobic cycle. Many of the end products of anaerobic decomposition
are biologically unstable. Methane (CH4) for example, is a high-energy gas commonly called
“marsh gas” (or “natural gas” when burned as fuel); methane can be oxidized as an energy
source (food) by a wide variety of aerobic bacteria. Sulfur is anaerobically biodegraded to
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which can be employed as an energy source by aerobic bacteria.
Phosphates released during anaerobic decomposition are soluble in water and do not bind to
metal ions or sediments. Soluble phosphate is easily taken up by plants and used as a nutrient.
Biologists often speak of certain compounds as hydrogen acceptors. When energy is released
from high-energy compounds, a C = H or N=H bond is broken and the freed hydrogen must
be attached somewhere. In aerobic decomposition, oxygen serves as hydrogen acceptor and
forms water. In anaerobic decomposition, oxygen is not available. The next preferred
hydrogen acceptor is nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-), forming ammonia (NH3). If no
appropriate nitrogen compound is available, sulfate (SO42-) accepts hydrogen to form sulfur
(S) and H2S, the compound responsible for toxic effects.

CHAPTER 1
DEAD
ORGANICS
Proteins ANAEROBIC
DECOMPOSITION
Proteins
Figure 1.5 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles (De Camp 1963).
The removal mechanisms of various heavy metals (from wastewater) such as: arsenic (As),
cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn) etc. are achieved via chemical
precipitation, ion-exchange, adsorption, coagulation, electro-coagulation and reverse
osmosis. In precipitation process, metal salts are converted into insoluble form, by adding
correct anions; the process requires addition of other chemicals. An ion exchanger is a solid
that is capable of exchanging either cations or anions from the surrounding materials;
commonly used matrices for ion exchange are synthetic organic ion exchange resins.
Electro-coagulation is an electrochemical method that uses an electrical current to remove
metals from solution. The contaminants present in wastewater are maintained in solution by
electrical charges. When these ions and other charged particles are neutralized with ions of
opposite electrical charges provided by electro-coagulation system, they become
destabilized and precipitate in a stable form. Reverse osmosis involves the use of semi-
permeable membranes for the recovery of metal ions from wastewater.
1.5 Organization of the Book

Tsections 1.1-1.4 illustrate that that sanitation and wastewater treatment must be integrated
properly, to protect the current degradation of aquatic environment in Bangladesh.
Considering such factors, this book has been written focusing on environmental sanitation,
wastewater treatment and disposal. The book consists of 12 chapters. Chapter 2 describes
engineered sanitation technologies in context of Bangladesh. Chapters 3-7 describe
wastewater transportation, and different treatment stages (i.e. preliminary, primary,
secondary, and tertiary process) for municipal wastewater treatment. Chapter 8 focuses on
industrial wastewater disposal information in Bangladesh; two case studies such as: chemical
constituents of tannery and textile effluents (two major industrial pollution sources in
Bangladesh), along with possible treatment options have also been provided. Chapter 9
Introduction 9
provides information on available technologies for sludge treatment, generated from
CHAPTER 1
conventional treatment plants. Chapter 10 provides brief information on natural treatment

technologies. Chapter 11 denotes the impact of major pollutants, on the aquatic
environments of Bangladesh. Finally, Chapter 12 provides information and design process
of decentralized wastewater treatment systems. Figure 1.6 describes a block diagram,
illustrating the structure, and organization of the book.
Source of wastes
domestic/municipal
/industrial
improper
treatmant
Wastewater Wastewater Disposal and

Sanitation water pollution
collection treatment
Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapters 4-10, 12 Chapter 11
Figure 1.6 Block diagram of book organization.

Questions
CHAPTER 1
1. Write short notes on: (a) environmental engineering; and (b) environmental engineers.
2. Explain the current scenario of sanitation systems in Bangladesh.
3. Provide a block diagram of wastewater treatment stages.
4. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic fate of major pollutants in environment.
Introduction 11
Reference
CHAPTER 1
Ahmed, M.F. and Rahman, M.M. 2000. Water Supply & Sanitation. Published by ITN- Bangladesh, BUET,
Dhaka.
De Camp, L. S. 1963. The Ancient Engineers. New York, Doubleday.
GMR 2013, Global Monitoring Report, World Bank Database 2013.
Rahman, M. H. and D. H. Bache. 1993. Bound Water Content of Digested Sludge. Resource Management
and Technology, 21(3), 142 - 148.
WHO. 2008. Sanitation (SACOSAN 2008). New Delhi, India.

2
Chapter
Sanitation
2.1 Introduction
Adequate sanitation is defined as the safe management of human excreta and includes both
‘hardware’ (sanitation technologies, such as toilets and hygienic latrines) and ‘software’
(hygiene promotion, such as hand washing with soap). Inadequate provision of sanitation is
CHAPTER 2
directly and indirectly related to the communicable diseases, health risk, poor health and
environmental pollution. Inadequate sanitation facilities and poor hygiene practice can
cause continued transmission of disease through several routes even after safe water supply is
secured at the point of use. If we consider, faeces as the source of pollution in the
environment, there are several pathways (e.g. ingestion through drinking water, food and
utensils, host intermediates, direct contact) through which contaminants can reach humans
and cause diseases(Figure 2.1). Sanitation is considered the first line of defense (primary
intervention) for the protection of the quality of the environment and control of all diseases.
Sanitation facilities, in the form of proper treatment and disposal of all forms of wastes both
liquid and solid including human excreta, interrupt the transmission of faecal pollution to
the environment (air, water and soil). Sanitation include all off-site or on-site waste/
wastewater treatment options the goal of which is to retain and confine materials of faecal
origin for a very long time, stabilize the organic matter through aerobic or anaerobic
processes eventually causing the destruction of pathogens.
THE ENVIRONMENT
SECONDARY INTERVENTION
PRIMARY INTERVENTION
Sanitation Drinking Hygienic

Water Practices
COMPONENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Water Supply
P O P U L A T I O N
Vegetables
(Water, Air, Soil)
FAECES
[FOCUS OF Foods & Utensils
POLLUTION]
Intermediate
Host, Insects
Contact (Direct, Soil, Water etc.)
Figure 2.1: Transmission routes of pollution and diseases in the human environment and
their intervention options.
2.2 International Commitments and the Global

Sanitation Scenario
Inadequate sanitation is not a new concern – indeed, the 1980s were the United Nations
International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WSSD). During that time
Sanitation 15
period, the international community set a target of achieving 100% coverage in water supply
and sanitation by 1990. It was an ambitious target and progress over the decade could not
keep up with population growth. By 2000, the World Health Organization estimated that 1.1
billion people still lacked access to a safe water supply, but over twice as many people, 2.4
CHAPTER 2
billion lacked access to basic sanitation. Development agencies believe the new sanitation
target agreed at the WSSD is more realistic, but still presents a significant challenge. The
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in September
2002, greatly emphasized on safe water and sanitation and urged that the population without
sanitation in developing countries be reduced to half by the year 2015. In 2010, the United
Nations General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council recognized access to safe
drinking-water and sanitation as a human right. The UN General Assembly proclaims the
period from 2005-2015 the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life”, to commence
on World Water Day, 2005. It is an international drive with focus on water related issue at all
levels to meet many of the 2015 Millennium Development Goals MDGs1)- particularly
MDG 7, target 10, which calls for the world to halve the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. This provides an international
commitment for an integrated approach to sanitation, water supply, and hygiene promotion.
It is recognised that delivering the new sanitation target will require considerable political
will together with significant financial, technical, and human resources.
Since 1990, almost 1.9 billion people have gained access to an improved sanitation facility
(JMP, 2013). By the end of 2011, there were 2.5 billion people who lacked access to an
improved sanitation facility. Of these, 761 million use public or shared sanitation facilities
and another 693 million use facilities that do not meet minimum standards of hygiene
(unimproved sanitation facilities). The remaining 1 billion (15% of the world population)
still practise open defecation. (JMP, 2013) The world remains off track to meet the
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) sanitation target, which requires reducing the
proportion of people without access from 51% in 1990, to 25% by 2015.Fulfilling this target
remains a substantial challenge. Unless the pace of change in the sanitation sector can be
accelerated, the MDG target may not be reached until 20262.
Box 2.1
Status of Sanitation in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, much attention was given to provide ample safe drinking water to the
people for health promotion during the last few decades but unfortunately sanitation did
not receive equal attention. As a result, the population coverage by proper sanitation
remains low. Although rate of diarrhoeal mortality has decreased significantly (due to
improved clinical interventions), the incidence of diarrhoea still remains high. The
strategy of providing safe water without adequate sanitation has failed to create expected
health impact in Bangladesh. Consequently Bangladesh is not on track in achieving the
1
The United Nations Millennium Summit agreed a set of time-bound and measurable goals called Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at combating poverty, hunger, illiteracy, child mortality, environmental degradation
and discrimination against women.
2
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/sanitation.shtml.

MDG target for improved sanitation coverage, in fact at the current rate of sanitation
coverage Bangladesh will fall around 6% short of the MDG target for 2015. Of course, this
has much to do with the definition of ‘improved sanitation’ as per JMP. JMP has a
stringent guideline of determining ‘improved sanitation’ and does not consider shared
CHAPTER 2
facilities (e.g. public toilets) as such. Bangladesh has made improvements in the coverage
of both ‘improved sanitation’ and ‘shared facilities’ in the last two decades and if
combined together, it may have reached the MDG targets. According to experts, with the
stringent definition for ‘improved sanitation’, it will be hard to achieve MDG targets for a
densely populated country like Bangladesh where in many urban slums, having
individual toilet facilities is quite an impractical proposal. In such cases, shared facility is
the best possible option that can be provided.
Bangladesh Sanitation Trends

100
3
12
34
80
28
60 16
40 17
57
20
33
0
1990 2000 2012
Open defecation
Other unimproved facilities
Shared facilities
Improved facilities
Figure: Sanitation coverage in Bangladesh (JMP, 2014) As per JMP definition, Flush or
pour-flush toilets (to Piped sewer system, Septic tank and pit latrine), Pit latrine,
Ventilated Improved Pit-latrine, Pit latrine with slab and Composting toilet together
comprise of improved sanitation. Unimproved sanitation include Flush or pour-flush
to elsewhere, Pit latrine without slab or open pit, Bucket, Hanging toilet or hanging
latrines and no facilities or bush or field (i.e. open defecation). Shared latrines (public
toilets) are also considered as unimproved as they require travel, waiting time or a
fee in the case of sanitation.
Sanitation 17
2.3 Disease Transmission Pathways and the Impact of
Sanitation on Public Health
Inadequate sanitation can cause several diseases, which are transmitted from faeces to
human through contaminated hands, soil, water, animals and insects (Figure 2.2). Water
CHAPTER 2
and excreta borne diseases can be classified into various groups via:
Ÿ Water related infections can be of following types -
Ÿ Water borne
Ÿ Water washed
Ÿ Water based
Ÿ Insect vector route
Ÿ Excreta related infections can be of following types -
Ÿ Transmission via infected excreta
Ÿ Transmission by an excreta related insect vector.
Ÿ Water and excreta related infections
Health Risks
Not washing food

before preparing
Not using latrine Flies on food
Not washing hands Not washing hands Not washing hands

after touching faeces before preparing food before preparing eating
Figure 2.2 Transmission of diseases due to inadequate sanitation.
Water related infections. Water related diseases are those that in some gross way related to
unclean environment and impurities in water. Water related disease may be broadly divided
into those caused by a biological agents (pathogens), and those caused by some toxic
chemical substances in water. The first group is called the water related infections which is
most common in developing countries. However, second group is also slowly gaining
importance in Bangladesh, particularly due to rapid industrial development and
urbanization.
There are four transmission routes that are water related:
Water- borne route: Water-borne transmission occurs when a pathogen is present in water
which when drunk by a person he/she gets infected. Potentially water-borne diseases
include the classical infections, like cholera and typhoid, but also include a wide range of
other diseases, such as infective hepatitis, some diarrheas and dysenteries.

Water-washed route:There are many infections of the intestinal tract and of the skin that are
significantly reduced following improvements in the domestic and personal hygiene as well
as increased volume of water. They depend on the quantity of water used such as bacterial
skin sepsis, scabies, fungal infections of the skin, trachoma etc.
CHAPTER 2
Water-based route: A water-based diseases are ones in which the pathogen spends a part of
its life-cycle in a water snail or other aquatic animal. All these diseases are due to infection by
parasitic worms (Helmenthses) which depend on the aquatic intermediate hosts to
complete their life-cycles. Important examples are schistosomiasis and Guinea worm.
Insect Vector route: The fourth route is via insects that either breed in water or bite near
water, eg. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue etc.
Excreta- related infections. Excreta-related infections are ones that are related to human
excreta (meaning urine and faeces). Two transmission mechanisms that are excreta related
are:
Ÿ Transmission via infected excreta:The pathogen is released into the environment in
the faeces or urine of an infected individual.
Ÿ Transmission by an excreta- related insect vector:An insect that visits excreta to
breed or feed may mechanically carry the pathogens to food.
Water and excreta related infections. The water and excreta related classifications are
overlapping because many water-related infections are excreta related and most excreta-
related infections are water-related. Some examples are:
Ÿ The Diarrhea- causing infections and enteric fevers
Ÿ Viral Diseases
Ÿ Worms with no intermediate host
Ÿ Worms with intermediate stages in the pig or cow
Ÿ Worms with aquatic intermediate stage
Ÿ Water borne re-infection
Ÿ Skin and eye infections and louse-borne infections
Ÿ The infections transmitted by water-related insects
The following table 2.1 summarizes the water and excreta related infections and their
transmission pathways:
Table 2.1 Transmission routes of water and waste related diseases.
Diseases Transmission Route

The Diarrhea- causing Transmission is faecal-oral; both water-borne and water-washed
infections and enteric fevers transmission occur
Diarrhoeal diseases: Food
ŸCholera Infected Susceptible
ŸE.ColiDiarrhoeas Person Person
ŸViral Diarrhoeas
ŸOther Diarrhoeas Water
Dysenteries:
ŸAmoebic Dysentery Soil
ŸBacillary Dysentery
Sanitation 19
Enteric Fever :
ŸTyphoid
ŸPara-typhoid
CHAPTER 2
Viral Diseases: Transmission is faecal-oral

ŸPoliomyelitis
ŸHepatitis-A Food
Poliomyelitis and hepatitis A
& E both caused by viruses
are entirely different Infected Susceptible
Person Person
infections but they have
several epidemiological
features in common. Water
Worm Infection with no They must remain in a suitable environment (usually warm, moist
intermediate host soil) for 5-6 week before they become infectious re-infect by oral
ŸAscariasis (round worm) route (ingesting food). Hookworm larvae cause re-infection by
ŸPinworm penetrating the unbroken skin, usually of the foot.
ŸHookworm
The adult worms live in the
Infected Soil Susceptible
human intestine, and their Person Person
eggs or larvae are passed in
the faeces
Vegetable
food
Worm Infection with

Infected Water Snail Fish Susceptible
aquatic host:
Person Person
ŸSchistosomiasis
(transmitted through
snails, not in India or
Crustacean
Bangladesh)
ŸGuinea Worm
c. Worm Infection with Eggs present in the faeces are eaten by a cow or pig following which
animal host: they hatch and form encysted larvae in the muscle, tongue, liver, or
ŸTape Worm other sites. Humans are re-infected by eating inadequately cooked
The beef and pork tapeworms beef or pork containing cysts.
are parasites. The adult
worms live in the intestine of Infected Susceptible
Soil Animal Food
humans. Person Person

Water/waste related insect-
borne diseases: Infected Mosquitoes Susceptible
ŸMalaria Person Flies Person
CHAPTER 2
ŸDengue & Yellow Fever
ŸKalazar
ŸFilariasis
ŸSleeping sickness
Skin, Eye and other

Infected Susceptible
diseases: Person Person
ŸSkin Infection
ŸScabies
ŸEye Infection
ŸLouse-borne Typhus
Sanitation provides a barrier to faecal diseases, by isolating human excreta and removing
traces of faecal material from hands after contact. The following diseases can largely be
prevented with basic sanitation and hygiene:
Ÿ Diarrhea, that causes an estimated two million deaths per year, mostly among
children under the age of five.
Ÿ Cholera.
Ÿ Schistosomiasis (bilharzia), which infects 100 million people per year, of which 20
million people suffer severe consequences. Improved water and sanitation may
reduce it by ~77%.
Ÿ Trachoma causes blindness in 6-9 million people per year. Access to sanitation may
reduce it by ~25%.
Ÿ Intestinal worms infect about a third of the population in developing countries;
improved sanitation would control their transmission.
Ÿ Hookworms cause malnutrition. Using concrete slabs to cover pit latrines can
prevent them from being transmitted to humans.
2.4 Benefits of Improving Access to Sanitation

Increasing access to sanitation is a key component of development and poverty reduction, as
it has major health benefits as well as associated social, economic and environmental
benefits. These include:
Ÿ public health – diseases related to inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene are among
the highest causes of illness and death in developing countries, especially among
children under five. Providing sanitation is also instrumental in meeting
international health targets.
Ÿ public services – the public health consequences of inadequate sanitation puts
pressure on health services in developing countries.
Ÿ human dignity – sanitation facilities provide privacy, safety, dignity, a cleaner
environment and greater convenience to users.
Sanitation 21
Ÿ gender – without access to household sanitation women and girls face safety and
dignity issues. They may only be able to defecate at certain times to ensure privacy
and/or avoid harassment and sexual assault. Lack of school sanitation is a barrier to
girls enrolling and staying at school, especially during menstruation.
Ÿ poverty elimination and economic growth – illness and death from poor sanitation
CHAPTER 2
results in lost economic activity, which reduces household income and the
productivity of the local economy. The contamination of rivers and aquifers from
human excreta can also damage agricultural production and tourism, which can
impact national economies.
Ÿ water supply – when human excreta enters a drinking water supply, it compromises
safety. Improving sanitation and hygiene practices maximises the benefit of
investments in water supply.
2.5 Hygienic Latrine

The linkage between sanitation and health leads to an understanding that the primary focus
of sanitation should be on the environmental transmission routes of excreta related diseases.
Based on this understanding, a ‘hygienic latrine’ is defined as a sanitation facility the use of
which effectively breaks the cycle of disease transmission. Improved hygienic practice is to
be emphasized and proper use of hygienic latrines be ensured because both play the vital role
in breaking the cycle of disease transmission.
The most fundamental health objective of sanitation must be achieved through proper
design, installation, and use of a sanitary or hygienic latrine. There is no universal design of a
hygienic latrine that could be effectively used under all socio-economic and hydrogeological
conditions. It is therefore important that a wide range of sanitary or hygienic latrine
technologies is available to suit different conditions.
A ‘hygienic latrine’ would mean to include all of the following:
Ÿ Confinement of faeces away from the environment.
Ÿ Sealing of the passage between the squat hole and the pit to effectively block the
pathways for flies and other insect vectors, thereby breaking the cycle of disease
transmission.
Ÿ Venting out of foul gases generated in the pit through a properly positioned vent pipe
to keep the latrine odor free and encourage continual use of the hygienic latrine.
2.6 Challenges in Sanitation

While sanitation appears to be a basic problem with a seemingly relatively easy solution,
recent international efforts have shown it to be a complex issue involving political, financial,
technical and institutional issues (Figure 2.3).
Political commitment. Sanitation, hygiene and safe water supply need to be integrated to
maximise their effectiveness to meet public health and environmental goals. However,
sanitation has not received the same level of investment as water supply. The difference in
investment between water supply and sanitation is partially responsible for the gap between
water and sanitation coverage. Political commitment for sanitation is seen by many as

Political Financing
commitment
CHAPTER 2
Sanitation
Institutional
Technology
capacity
Figure 2.3 Challenges of sanitation.
important in shaping government policy and investment priorities, and in implementing the
programmes required to meet the target.
Financing. Sanitation’s public health and environmental benefits make it a public good, but
sanitation is also a private good at the household level. Until recently, most countries and
donor agencies treated sanitation only as a public good that could not be provided by the
market, and which needed to be subsidised to provide greater incentives to expand coverage.
Inappropriate targeting of government subsidies has, however, affected government plans
for increasing access to sanitation, as subsidies did not reach those who needed them most.
In response, a demand approach to sanitation was developed. Most of the financing for
meeting the target is likely to come from users of the facilities, either through their
purchasing of materials and providing labour, or through cost recovery schemes. Low
interest bank loans are one option to help to ensure that poor families can generate enough
money to purchase adequate sanitation facilities. Some NGOs and community groups have
resisted full cost recovery for basic services to poor people, as they see this as exacerbating
poverty, but others note that many basic services are already paid by users.
Technology transfer and innovation. There are a number of known sanitation technology
options that are appropriate in many different contexts in developing countries. To facilitate
the appropriate transfer of technologies, there is a need for information to be disseminated to
local decision-makers as well as the technical capacity to adapt them to local circumstances.
This requires both networks for information exchange and skilled technicians to design and
market locally appropriate sanitation solutions. One way of increasing local capacity for
technical innovation is to assist developing countries’ institutions to adapt solutions to suit
local conditions. Some locations may require innovative solutions, for example in wetland
areas where groundwater contamination is an issue, or, in extremely poor areas, where
technologies might need to be altered to be more affordable. Technical innovation can also
aid sanitation suppliers by improving their products and incorporating local materials and
building practices into the design of new technologies.
Sanitation 23
Institutional capacity. Sanitation programmes need planners, decision-makers, and sector
professionals who are trained in evaluating different approaches to providing, operating and
maintaining sanitation. However, many point to a severe shortage of engineers and field
workers to provide the technical and social scientific skills to develop sanitation
CHAPTER 2
programmes. This shortage could jeopardise efforts to meet the sanitation target.
Historically the sanitation sector has been divided between different government agencies
such as health, water, and education. This has led to poor coordination. Some point out that
meeting the sanitation target and sustaining its progress require an increase in the capacity
and accountability of the public sector to promote, coordinate and regulate sanitation
provision. The private sector, mainly in the form of local enterprises, but also including large
corporations, has a role in improving access to sanitation. Local small scale suppliers who
deliver sanitation products to consumers include local masons, builders and market owners.
Individuals entering the sanitation sector may need help and training to provide effective
sanitation services to households. The banking sector could also play an important role in
providing low cost loans for sanitation improvements.
2.7 Sanitation and Waste Categorization

The major waste streams into the environment are excreta, grey water and solid wastes.
Waste streams have varying characteristics depending on the source and interaction with the
environment. Pollution in slums is a result of pathogens, nutrients, micropollutants and
other trace organics in waste streams. Understanding the components of the waste streams is
important in applying technology to overcome the unique challenges in the urban slum
environment.
Excreta. Excreta refer to urine and faeces. They form a major health risk due to the presence
of pathogens in faeces and the mobility of nutrients and micro-pollutants in urine. In urban
slums, where open defecation and excreta disposal in the open storm water drains is very
common, this health risk is a reality. Even when sanitation services are provided, the health
risk is not eliminated. Pit latrines, which are the simplest form of latrine, are designed to let
the liquids percolate into the soil. In the densely populated areas, pollution of soil and
groundwater is therefore another major public health risk.
Major contaminant constituents in sludge from pit latrines and septic tanks (see Chapter 3)
are organic matter in the form of COD, nutrients and pathogens (bacteria, viruses and
parasites). Their concentration is lower in the municipal wastewater treatment sludge
compared to pit latrine sludge and septage as shown in Table 2.2.
Grey water. Grey water is wastewater of domestic origin from bathroom, kitchen, and
laundry use, excluding wastewater from the toilets. Grey water accounts for 65% to 75% of
the domestic wastewater consumption in peri-urban areas of developing countries where
water consumption ranges from 20 L/ca.d to 30 L/ca.d(Morel and Diener, 2006). The
amount of water consumed can thus be used to estimate the return factor of grey water
generated in the urban poor areas or slums. It can be argued that the potentially negative
impacts from grey water disposal are in urban slums with water supply services and where
little or no consideration has been given to the planning and management of grey water. Grey
water contains contaminants of concern that include suspended solids, pathogens,

Table 2.2 Major contaminant constituents in sludge from pit latrines and septic tanks.
Faecal and WWTP sludge characteristics

Parameter (mean and range values)
References
Public toilet Septage WWTP
CHAPTER 2
sludge sludge
Total solid, TS (mg/L) 52,500 12,000– 35,000 Koné and Strauss (2004).
30,000 22,000 NWSC (2008).
≥3.5% <3% 1% Heinss et al. (1998).
Total volatile solids (% TS) 68 50–73 – Koné and Strauss (2004).

65 45 – NWSC (2008).
COD (mg/L) 49,000 1200–7800 – Koné and Strauss (2004).
30,000 10,000 47–608 NWSC (2008).
20,000– 50,000 <10,000 500–2500 Heinss et al. (1998).
BOD5 (mg/L) 7600 840–2600 – Koné and Strauss (2004).

20–229 NWSC (2008).
Total nitrogen, TN (mg/L) – 190–300 – Koné and Strauss (2004).
32–250 NWSC (2008).
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen, TKN (mg 3400 1000
N/L)
NH4–N (mg/L) 3300 150–1200 – Koné and Strauss (2004)
2000 400 2–168 NWSC (2008).
2000–5000 <1000 30–70 Heinss et al. (1994).
−
Nitrates, NO (mg N/L)
3
– – – Heinss et al. (1998).
– – – Koné and Strauss (2004)
Total phosphorus, TP (mg P/L) 450 150 9–63 NWSC (2008).
Faecal coliforms (cfu/100mL) 1×105 1×105 6.3 ×104 –6.6 ×105 NWSC (2008).
Helminth eggs 25,000 4000–5700 Heinss et al. (1998).
20,000–60,000 4000 300–2000 Heinss et al. (1998).
600–6000 Ingallinella et al. (2002).
Adapted from Katukiza, A., Y. (2012).
nutrients, grease and also organic micro pollutants (Table 2.3) from household chemicals
and pharmaceuticals that may be present due to urine contamination (Elmitwalli and
Otterpohl, 2007; Eriksson et al., 2009; Li et al., 2009). Kitchen grey water contains a higher
level of COD and total suspended solids (TSS) than grey water from the bathroom and
laundry (Li et al.,2009). It has a nutrient content close to the COD:N:P ratio of 100:20:1
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003) while other streams of grey water have low concentrations of
nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrient content is a limiting factor in application of
conventional biological treatment processes for grey water treatment (Jefferson et al.,
2001). Typically, all grey water types have a good biodegradability as indicated by their
BOD5 :COD ratio which is close to 0.5 (Knerr et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009).
Solid waste. Solid waste management is one of the major problems to the environment and
to public health faced by developing countries. The growth of cities in developing countries
Sanitation 25
CHAPTER 2
26
Table 2.3 Characteristics of grey water.
Types of grey water

Parameter Christova- Li et al. Surendran Li et al. Christova-Boal Surendran and Li et al. (2009) Siegrist et Hargelius et Li et al. Gerba et al.
(units in Boal et al. (2009) and (2009) et al. (1996) Wheatley al. (1976) al. (1995) (2009) (1995)
mg/L (1996) Wheatley (1998)
unless (1998)
otherwise
stated) Bathroom Bathroom Bathroom Laundry Laundry Laundry Kitchen Kitchen Bathroom & Mixed Mixed
Kitchen
Turbidity 60–240 44–375 92 50–444 50–220 108 298 – – 29–375 15.3–78.6
(NTU)
TSS – 7–505 631 68-465 – 658 134–1300 2410 – 25–183
pH 6.4–8.1 6.4–8.1 7.6 7.1-10 9.3–10 8.1 5.9–7.4 – 6.3–8.1 6.7–7.6
Electrical cond. 82–250 – – – 190–1400 – – – – –
(μScm−1) – –
BOD5 76–200 50–300 – 48–472 48-290 – 1460 1460 – 47-456
COD – 100–633 425 231–2950 – 725 26–2050 – 100-700 –
TOC – – 104 – – 110 – 880 – – –
Oil and grease 37–78 – – – 9.0–88 – – – – – –
Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Total N – 3.6-19.4 – 1.1–40.3 – 11.4–74 74 – 1.7–34.3 –
TKN 4.6–20 – – – 1–40 – – – – – –
NH4–N <0.1–15 – 1.56 – <0.1–1.9 10.7 – 6 – – –
NO3–N – – 0.9 – – 1.6 – 0.3 – – 1.8–3.0
Total P – 0.11–>48.8 – ND–>171 – 2.9->74 74 – 0.11–22.8 –
PO4–P 0.11–1.8 – 1.63 – 0.062–42 10.1 – 31 – – –
Total coliforms 500–2.4 ×107 10–2.4 ×107 6×106 200.5–7×105 2.3 ×103 -3.3 ×105 7× 105 >2.4 ×108 – – 56–8.03 ×107 107.2 –108.8
(CFU/100ml)
Faecal 170–3.3 ×103 0–4.4 ×105 600 50–1.4 ×103 110–1.09 ×103 728 – – 40×106 0.1–1.5 ×108 105.4 –107.2
coliforms
(CFU /100ml)
E. coli – – – – – – – – 236 ×106 – –
(CFU/100ml)
Source: adapted from Katukiza, A., Y. (2012).
has resulted in growth of periurban areas that generate large amounts of organic solid waste.
However, this growth has not been matched with the provision of suitable solid waste
management practices at affordable costs in terms of collection, transport and treatment or
safe disposal (Chanakya et al., 2009; Okot-Okumu and Nyenje, 2011). In developing
CHAPTER 2
countries, less than 50% of the solid waste generated in urban areas is collected centrally by
the municipalities and private sector with limited recycling or recovery of recyclable
materials (Jingura and Matengaifa, 2009; Okot-Okumu and Nyenje, 2011). This is a missed
opportunity for resource recovery, economic benefits, and to reduce the waste quantities
disposed in landfills. The substantial amount of solid waste that remains uncollected is likely
to result in environmental pollution and negative public health effects (Bhatia and Gurnani,
1996). Solid waste generated in urban slums has a large portion that is organic (Table2.4).
Poor management of organic solid waste can lead to emission of methane from solid waste
dumps as well as leaching of nutrients, micro-pollutants and organic matter to the natural
environment. The increasing volume of solid waste generated with varying characteristics
calls for a system approach from source separation to treatment options that promote
resource recovery and finally disposal to a landfill of solely the inert fraction for which at the
time no useful application can be found.
Table 2.4 Composition of municipal solid waste in developing countries.
Composition (%)
Solid waste
type Henry et al. KCC Ogwueleka Rajabapaiah Sharholy et al.
(2006) (2006) (2009) (1998) (2007)
Food residues 53 74 76 65 45.3
Paper 16.8 11 6.6 8 3.6
Textile 2.6 1 1.4 2.2
Plastic 12.6 12 4 6 2.9
Grass/wood 5.6 – – 7
Leather 1 – – –
Rubber 1.5 – – –
Glass 2 2 3 6 0.7
Metal 2.3 0.4 2.5 3 2.5
Other waste (leather, 2.6 0.4 6.5 5 42.8
rubber, cardboard, wood,
bricks, ash and soil)
Adapted from Katukiza, A., Y. (2012).
2.8 Sanitation Technologies

Treatment of waste streams in using sustainable technologies preserves their reuse potential
to recover resources. Examples of resources are bio-energy generated from transformation
of organic material, plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium as macro nutrients;
calcium and sulfur as micro-nutrients) and water treated to the desired discharge standards.
Innovative waste disposal and treatment technologies have been developed in an attempt to
address the sanitation crisis in urban slums, but they can only be sustainable if they function
as elements within a sanitation system.
Sanitation 27
A sanitation system is complete when it has a defined flow stream for each of the products.
Technologies and institutional aspects complement each other in the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal or reuse of the waste. The settlement dynamics in urban slums have
triggered new thinking because improved onsite sanitation will still play a key role in the
CHAPTER 2
foreseeable future in order to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG).

Sanitation systems may have varying combinations of these functions depending on the
local conditions. Sanitation systems can, however, be classified based on various other
criteria. For instance, the classification of on-site or off-site sanitation systems depends on
whether the waste is stored, treated and disposed of at the point of generation or transported
to somewhere else for treatment and/or disposal. Sanitation systems can also be classified as
wet or dry systems based on the methods of collection and conveyance of wastes produced in
a community. Wet and dry systems can be either on-site or off-site systems.
On-site systems. When the wastes are collected, treated and disposed of at the point of
generation it is called an on-site system e.g., pit latrines and septic tank systems. On-site
sanitation systems are widely used in rural areas of both developed and developing countries,
and in the absence of more costly sewerage system, is also extensively used in urban areas of
developing countries. The simplest on-site sanitation system is a pit latrine, which consists of
a manually dug pit covered by a concrete, wooden or bamboo slab with a squatting hole.
Some form of superstructure is erected over the pit to ensure privacy to the user.
The on-site sanitation system has, over the years, been developed and improved into a lot of
different designs (e.g., ventilated improved pit latrine, pour-flush single and double-pit
latrines, aqua privies, septic tanks and so on) which will be discussed in detail in the following
article. The basic principles of on-site systems, however, remain the same: liquids infiltrate
into the soil and the solids are retained, anaerobically digested and have to be removed, or a
new pit has to be dug at regular intervals. The basic on-site systems are primarily designed to
dispose of human excreta. Wastewaters from cooking, clothes washing, and bathing are
collected in small drains and disposed of in soakaways for infiltration.
Where on-site sanitation systems are not feasible because of high population density, high
water consumption, low infiltration rate of soil or high groundwater table, wastes have to be
collected and transported off-site for treatment and/ or disposal.
Off-site systems. When the waste is collected and transported to somewhere else for
treatment and disposal, the system is called off-site, e.g., bucket latrine systems and
conventional sewerage system. The basic elements of off-site sanitation systems therefore
include collection, transportation, treatment, disposal and/ or reuse. The waste is collected
either through house sewers or manually using buckets or vaults, transported either by cart,
truck or sewer system to a suitable distant place where it is treated prior to disposal or reuse.
Collection and transportation of the wastes through a sewer reticulation system requires that
the waste be diluted by water. Hence it is essential that piped water supply be available in
areas where this system is to be applied. This waterborne system is by far the most
satisfactory system of waste disposal provided sufficient funds are available for its
construction and maintenance.
Since costs of waterborne sanitation systems are prohibitive, it may be preferable to

introduce such systems gradually, and where possible existing sanitation systems should be
upgraded and reused for improvement. For instance, the so-called small bore sewerage
system can be employed by making use of the existing septic tanks or upgraded aqua privies.
In this system, the costs can be significantly reduced because of smaller sewer sizes and lower
CHAPTER 2
gradients.
Dry systems. In dry systems no water is used for the dilution of the waste. They are usually
applied in unsewered areas with no piped water supply, e.g., pit latrine systems (on-site) and
bucket latrine systems (off-site).
Wet systems. In the wet system the waste is diluted with flushes of water. Wet systems are
suitable where piped water supply systems are available, e.g., septic tank systems (on-site)
and conventional sewerage systems (off-site).
Sometimes a sanitation system can be classified as either permeable or confined depending
on whether the system allows infiltration. Confined systems do not allow infiltration of the
liquid portion of the wastes into the ground, e.g., aqua privies, septic tanks etc. In the
unconfined or permeable system the liquid part of the wastes is allowed to infiltrate, causing
potential pollution of the groundwater, e.g., pit latrines.
Sanitation systems may be considered as a combination of several components of unit
operations and processes. Each component may imply several different alternatives for
1. Overhung latrine 8. Pour flush latrine, soakaway 14. Low-volume cistern-flush, 17. Conventional 18. Vault and vacuum
2. Trench latrine 9. Pour flush latrine, aquaprivy, soakaway or sewer sewerage tank
3. Pit latrine soakaway 15. Low-volume cistern-flush, 19. Vault, manual
4. Reed odorless earth 10. Pour flush, septic tank, vult aquaprivy, soakaway or removal, truck or
closet 11. Sullage-flush, aquaprivy, sewer cart
5. Ventilated improved pit soakaway 16. Low-volume cistern-flush, 20. Bucket latrine
latrine 12. Sullage-flush, septic tank, septic tank, soakaway or 21. Mechanical bucket
6. Batch composting soakaway sewer latrine
latrine 13. Conventional septic tank
7. Continuous-composting
latrine
Figure 2.4 Categorization of sanitation technologies.
Sanitation 29
choice of unit operation and/ or facility. Thus, a sanitation system can be combined in many
ways. For instance, effluents from septic tanks can be disposed of into a soakage pit where
feasible or can be connected to a small bore sewer system for off-site treatment and disposal.
Figure 2.4 illustrates the categorization of sanitation technologies.
CHAPTER 2
2.9 Major Sanitation Technologies

Pit latrines are basic structures that can be adapted easily into different types of latrines such
as VIP latrines and ecological sanitation systems. Other latrines share many common
features of simple pit latrines; therefore, focusing first on pit latrines will help to understand
the other sanitation technologies. This section considers a selected range of low-to medium-
cost sanitation technologies beginning with the least-cost pit latrine technology, focusing on
its design considerations, merits, demerits and suitability.
Pit latrine with slab. Pit latrines are the simplest form of dry latrine. They consist of a pit dug
in the ground and a cover slab or floor above the hole (Figure 2.5). Pit latrines must have a
cleanable cover slab in order to be considered as improved sanitation systems. The excreta
(both faeces and urine) drop through the hole to enter the dry pit. Pit latrines should be
constructed on a slight mound so they are higher than the surrounding ground and water at
the surface will flow away from the hole. They should also have a lid that can be placed over
the hole to reduce problems with flies and odours. They may have a squat pan or a raised
footrest to make using the latrine more convenient. The pit is often lined but the bottom
remains open, allowing the liquid to drain into the soil and leaving the solids behind.
Figure 2.5 Diagram of a simple pit latrine.
Pit latrines should also have an upper part, called the superstructure, to provide protection
from the rain and sun, and privacy and comfort for the user. Pit latrines can have a single pit or

double pit. In double pits, while one is filling with excreta, the second pit remains out of
service. When the first pit is filled with excreta up to about 50 cm below the slab, it is taken out
of use and the remaining space is filled with grass and vegetation materials that can be
composted. One then use the second pit until that is full. Meanwhile, the first pit will stay
CHAPTER 2
sealed for a period of 6–9 months, during which time the waste will decompose and any
pathogenic microorganisms will die. After this period, the material (humus soil) in the first
pit can be taken out manually. Humus or humic substance is used to describe organic matter
that has been stabilised by decomposition processes. It is safe to handle and readily used as
fertiliser in agriculture or can be disposed of safely. This is the main principle of ecological
sanitation.
In general, pit latrines with a slab isolate human excreta from the surrounding environment
and prevent the transmission of faeco-orally transmitted diseases. They also have other
advantages:
Ÿ They do not require water so are appropriate in areas where there is no adequate
water supply.
Ÿ Squatting is normal to many people and thus is acceptable to users.
Ÿ Alternating double pits will allow the excreta to drain, degrade and transform into a
nutrient-rich, safe humic material that can be used to improve soils.
Ÿ They avoid contamination of surface water and top soil if properly installed and
maintained.
Ÿ They can be constructed with minimum cost using local material and local skills.
Ÿ The presence of properly constructed slabs will allow easy cleaning and avoid flies
and unsightliness.
However, pit latrines are not without limitations. There may be a foul odour from the pit and
they can be a favourable place for the breeding of flies and mosquitoes. With single pits, a new
pit needs to be dug every time one gets full. They can be susceptible to failure/overflowing
during floods. Other disadvantages can be overcome by proper design, construction and
usage. For example, if the superstructure is not properly constructed, it may discourage use
of the latrine by family members. Children may be discouraged from using the latrine if the
slab is not designed with them in mind and is too big for them. Use of excess water or less
compostable materials for anal cleansing should be avoided because it may affect the
decomposition rate of human excreta.
The design of a pit latrine should follow the following criteria:
Ÿ The site of a latrine should preferably be in the backyard of the house and away from
an alley in the village. It should not be nearer than 6 m or farther than 50 m from the
house. The direction of the wind should be away from the main house.
Ÿ If there is a well in the compound, the latrine should be located as far away from it as
possible on the downhill side to avoid possible seeping and contamination of
groundwater.
Ÿ The faecal microorganisms may migrate from the pit through the soil, however, the
degree that this happens varies with the type of soil, moisture levels and other
environmental factors. It is, therefore, difficult to estimate the necessary distance
between a pit and a water source, but 30–50 m is the recommended minimum, with
an absolute minimum of 15 m.
Sanitation 31
Ÿ The size of the pit depends on the number of people using it and the design period, i.e.
the length of time before it is full. Typically, the pit should be at least 3 m deep for a
family of five for a design period of three to five years. The diameter should be at least
1 m; up to 1.2 m diameter will make it easier to dig but if it exceeds 1.5 m there is an
CHAPTER 2
increased risk of collapse, especially in sandy soils.

Ÿ In flood-prone areas, it is advisable to raise the mound of the latrine and prepare
diversion ditches around it. When the soil condition is rocky and it is impossible to
dig a deep pit, the depth of the pit can be extended by building upwards with concrete
rings or blocks. However, care must be taken to ensure the structure remains
watertight.
Ÿ The level of the water table must also be taken into consideration. The pit must be
entirely above the water table at all times of the year. If the water table is near the
surface of the ground, the waste in the pit may contaminate the groundwater.
Ÿ Lining the pit prevents it from collapsing and provides support to the superstructure.
The pit lining material can be brick, rot-resistant timber, concrete, stones, or mortar
plastered on to the soil. If the soil is stable (i.e. no sand or gravel deposits or loose
organic materials), the whole pit need not be lined. The bottom of the pit should
remain unlined to allow the percolation of liquids out of the pit.
Ÿ The superstructure should be built using locally available materials. These may
include a masonry wall made of cement blocks, bricks, or stone with cement or mud
bindings; or a wooden structure covered with timber, bamboo, grass/thatch, sticks,
leaves of banana or enset trees, or canvas made of sacks. However, the type of
superstructure depends on several factors such as a household’s financial capacity,
the availability of construction material locally, local customs and traditions, and the
availability of skilled artisans.
The cover slab needs to be strong and have a smooth surface so it can be cleaned easily. It may
be made of concrete or termite- or rot-resistant timber, with or without stones and mud
covering. Various designs of slab are used.
Pit latrines must be properly maintained to function properly. It is advisable to keep the
squatting or standing surface clean and dry. This will help to prevent pathogen/disease
transmission and limit odours.
If the pit has been dug to an appropriate size for the number of users, then it may never
become full. The liquid will drain into the soil and the solid waste will slowly decompose so
the volume remains stable.
Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine. The VIP latrine is an improvement over the simple
dry pit latrine. The distinctive feature that gives the VIP latrine its name is the vent pipe
installed into the pit, which is used to exhaust the foul odour from the pit and control flies
(Figure 2.6).
The principle is that a continuous flow of air comes in through the superstructure and enters
the pit through the hole. This cold air will go down into the pit displacing (pushing up) the
hot smelly air upward through the vent pipe. The other advantage of the vent is controlling
flies. As we discussed earlier, dry pit latrines potentially serve as breeding places for flies.

CHAPTER 2
Figure 2.6 Diagram of VIP latrine.
Newly-emerging adult flies will try to escape through the vent pipe because the pipe allows
sunlight to enter into the pit and flies are photopositive (meaning they move towards light)
by nature. A mesh screen tied at the top of the vent pipe will prevent flies from escaping to the
outside of the latrine.
VIP latrines can have a single pit or double pit. They share the advantages of simple pit
latrines with slabs described above but they also have unique advantages that improve on the
limitations, namely, that flies and odours are significantly reduced. It should be noted,
however, that the health risks from flies are not completely removed by ventilation.
As these latrines are based on a simple pit latrine, discussion is focused on only the improved
features of VIP latrines. The vent pipe should have an internal diameter of 110–150 mm and
reach more than 300 mm above the highest point of the superstructure. The vent works
better in windy areas but where there is not much wind its effectiveness can be improved by
painting the pipe black. This makes the vent pipe warmer and the heat difference between
the pit (cool) and the vent (warm) creates an updraft that pulls the air and odours up and out
of the pit. To test the efficacy of the ventilation, a small, smoky fire can be lit in the pit; the
smoke should be pulled up and out of the vent pipe and not remain in the pit or the
superstructure. The mesh size of the fly screen must be large enough to prevent clogging with
dust and allow air to circulate freely. Aluminum screens with a holesize of 1.2–1.5 mm have
proved to be the most effective.
The maintenance requirements are similar to simple latrines. In addition, dead flies, spider
webs, dust and debris should be removed from the ventilation screen to ensure a good flow of
air.
Reed Odourless Earth Closet (ROEC). The Reed odourless earth closet (ROEC) is a
variation on the ventilated improved pit latrine. With ROEC, the pit is fully off-set from the
Sanitation 33
superstructure and is connected to the squatting plate by a curved chute as shown in
Figure 2.7.
The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control odour and insect nuisance. It is claimed that
the chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack, encourages vigorous air circulation
CHAPTER 2
down the latrine, thereby removing odours and discouraging flies. This latrine is common in
southern Africa. The design considerations and design principles of ROEC are similar to
those of a single pit VIP latrine.
Figure 2.7 ROEC sanitation technology.
The important advantages of ROECs are as follows:

Ÿ ROEC pit can be made larger as the superstructure is fully off-set and thus can have a
longer life than VIP latrine;
Ÿ pit can be easily emptied without disturbing the superstructure and it can be a
permanent facility;
Ÿ there is no danger of users, particularly children, falling into it;
Ÿ it may be more acceptable to users because the excreta cannot be seen.
The main disadvantages are as follows:
Ÿ the ROEC chute easily becomes fouled with excreta, thereby providing a possible site
for fly breeding and odour nuisance;
Ÿ the chute has to be regularly cleaned with a long-handled brush or a small amount of
water.
Ecological sanitation. Also known as ecosan, it describes an approach to human waste
management rather than a single method. In ecosan systems, human excreta is considered to
be a resource, not waste. The principle is to make use of excreta by transforming it into an end
product that can be used as a soil improver and fertiliser for agriculture. Ecological sanitation
aims to decrease contamination of the environment caused by human excretion and to
prevent faeco-orally transmitted diseases. An additional benefit of using waste in this way is

that the amount of artificial fertiliser used in cultivation of fields is decreased. This saves
money for the farmer and protects lakes and other water bodies from eutrophication caused
by runoff of these additional fertilisers.
There are, however, some constraints for communities to consider before adopting the
CHAPTER 2
ecosan approach. Ecosan systems require a little more space than conventional latrines. At
the end of the process the decomposed waste, known as compost or ecohumus, has to be dug
out before it can be spread on the land. There may be a cultural taboo against handling of
excreta, even though it should be more like soil than waste by this stage. Some people may be
unwilling to use the crops and foods produced. Nonetheless, ecological sanitation is a more
sustainable approach to waste management than other systems and should therefore be
promoted as the preferred option.
Arborloo – a single pit ecosan method. A simple form of ecological sanitation is the Arborloo
(Figure 2.8). This consists of a single, unlined shallow pit with a portable ring beam (circular
support), slab and superstructure. It is used like a normal latrine but with the regular addition
of soil, wood ash and leaves. When it is full, it is covered with leaves and soil and a small tree is
planted on top to grow in the compost. (The tree gives the system its name; ‘arbor’ is Latin
for ‘tree’.) Another pit is dug nearby and the whole structure is relocated over the new pit. No
handling of the waste is required. If a fruit tree or other useful variety is grown there is the
added benefit of food or income.
Figure 2.8 Arborloo – a single pit ecosan system.
Fossa Alterna – a double pit method. The double pit latrine system can be constructed to be
an ecosan system. The alternating waterless double pit is also known as Fossa Alterna, which
means alternate ditch. The physical structure is constructed in a similar way to a single pit
latrine except that it has two pits and they are shallower than a normal pit with a maximum
depth of 1.5 m. The slab and superstructure may be movable between the two pits (Figure
2.9) or may be a larger permanent structure that covers both pits.
Like the Arborloo, soil, wood ash, vegetable kitchen waste and leaves are added regularly. A
small amount should be added after each defecation (not urination). This introduces
necessary plant material to mix with the human waste and also adds a variety of organisms
like worms, fungi and bacteria that help in the degradation process.
Sanitation 35
CHAPTER 2
Figure 2.9 Fossa alterna – double alternating compost pit toilet.
When the first pit is full, after about 12–24 months depending on the size of the pit and the
number of users, everyone starts using the second pit instead. The first pit is covered and the
material in it will degrade into a dry, earth-like mixture. This takes about 6–12 months. After
this time, the composted mixture is dug out manually and can be used to spread on soil. It is
important in the construction to make sure the slab is movable or has a manhole large
enough to allow access to the pit for digging out. The health risk for the people who empty
the compost is minimal if the pit has been left for over one year. However, good personal
hygiene should always be promoted in activities related to sanitation.
2.10 Water Carriage Systems

Cistern flush toilet. The cistern flush toilet, also known as a water closet or WC, is usually
made of ceramic material (Figure 2.10). The flush toilet consists of two parts: a tank
(cistern) that supplies flushwater for carrying away the excreta and a bowl into which the
Figure 2.10 Cistern flush toilet cistern or tank is behind the raised lid.

excreta are deposited. It also needs connection to constant running water and a discharge
pipe to take the wastewater away to a sewer or septic tank. WCs are rarely found in rural
households but are quite common in government offices, some schools and health facilities.
The attractive feature of the flush toilet is that it has a water seal to prevent odours from
CHAPTER 2
coming back up through the plumbing. A skilled plumber is needed to install a flush toilet.
From the users’ perspective, it is a safe and comfortable toilet to use provided that it is kept
clean, but the high capital cost for installation and the need for skilled personnel makes it not
affordable by every family, especially those living in rural areas.
Pour-flush toilets. A pour-flush toilet is like a cistern flush toilet except that instead of the
water coming from the cistern above, it is poured in by the user. When the water supply is not
continuous, any cistern flush toilet can become a pour-flush toilet. Water is simply poured
into the bowl manually from a bucket or a jug to flush the excreta; approximately 2–3 litres of
water is usually sufficient. Pour-flush toilets share all the advantages of cistern flush toilets
but use a lot less water. The wastewater should be disposed of to a septic tank or seepage pit,
also known as a leach pit (Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11 Pour-flush latrine design.
The pit will contain excreta, cleansing water and flush water. As this leaches from the pit and
migrates through the soil, faecal organisms are removed. In some geological conditions,
there is a risk of groundwater pollution; therefore, this method is not always recommended.
The basic functions of a pour-flush latrine are:
Ÿ After each use, the latrine is manually pour-flushed through the pan and trap with
about 2-3 litres of water. Some of the clean flushwater remains in the trap and
maintains the water seal, thus providing the barrier against odours and insects as in
the case of conventional cistern-flush toilets which use between 10 and 20 litres of
water per flush.
Sanitation 37
Ÿ From excreta and flushwater around 5-10 litres per capita per day (lcd) of wastewater
enter the pit, together with an additional usually equal amount if water is used for anal
cleansing. The pit has to provide sufficient volume for solids storage, as well as
sufficient area for the wastewater to infiltrate into the soil, which requires that the soil
CHAPTER 2
has sufficient long-term infiltrative capacity. If the soil is unsuitable for infiltration,
the liquid effluent can be removed by other means e.g., by connecting to the sewerage
system if available.
Aqua privy. The aqua privy is a single pit latrine which has a watertight pit filled with water.
Excreta drop into the pit and wastewater is displaced into a storage chamber, a seepage pit or
a sewer line. It needs to be topped up regularly, so a nearby water supply is required.
Urinals. Urinals, used by men and boys, are only used for collecting urine. Urinals are either
wall-mounted units or a drainage channel constructed on the floor in connection with the
wall. Most urinals use water to flush although waterless urinals are now becoming popular. In
public places and schools, urinals for men and boys help to keep toilets cleaner and decrease
the demand for more toilet-seats.
2.11 Handwashing Facilities

Every latrine or toilet must have handwashing facilities. As you know, hygiene is an essential
component of health promotion and one of the critical times for handwashing is after visiting
the toilet. A latrine without a proper handwashing facility will not serve its ultimate objective
of disease prevention.
If there is no running water, handwashing stations can be made using jerrycans, tin cans,
wooden bowls, or pottery depending on the local culture and custom of the community.
Simple devices/jars can be made using very basic materials. They should have also the
provision of soap or ash for washing.
2.12 People’s role in Latrine Construction

Sanitation contributing to attaining the MDGs suffers from one major difficulty; any
sanitation facility shared by more than one household is considered to be unimproved by
WHO and UNICEF (2013). An improved sanitation facility is defined by WHO as one that
hygienically separates human excreta from human contact and not shared by more than one
household.

Do you want to build which type of latrine
Yes should I construct?
a new latrine?
CHAPTER 2
No, I already
have latrine. Your choice may depend
on your financial capacity.
Modern latrines cost more
than traditional ones.
Don't forget
you may need
to upgrade or
maintain it.
Traditional Modern
latrine latrine
Do you want to get

No Do you have
valuable compost from
your waste? adequate piped
water?
Yes Does your

house have
No connection to Yes
Do you have sewer lines?
adequate space
You can construct a in your backyard
VIP latrine of just a or garden? You can construct a
simple pit latrine. WC in connection with
Yes
septic tank and/or
Yes sewer
You can construct a

You can construct a pour-flush or aqua privy
double pit latrine or latrine in connection
Fossa Alterna or with seotic tanks and/or
Arborloo latrine. seepage pits.
Figure 2.12 Decision tree for latrine options (Source: http://labspace.open.ac.uk).
Sanitation 39
Box 2.2
The national Sanitation Campaign of Bangladesh
The Government of Bangladesh has taken up an extensive program of “National
Sanitation Campaign” in order to ensure construction of sanitary latrines, its use and
CHAPTER 2
personal hygiene practice by 100 % of the population to achieve MDGs. The aims of this
campaign are to:
Ÿ Change the attitude and practice of population towards use of sanitary latrines by
creating awareness through cooperation and collaboration of the government, and
Non-Government Organizations, Development Partners and better-off people of
the society with full commitment at all levels;
Ÿ Encourage setting out targets by Local Government Institutions (LGIs) and NGOs
in three phases of the years 2005, 2008 and 2010 to achieve the goal of 100 %
sanitation coverage;
Ÿ Discourage open defecation; and
Ÿ Provide importance to maintenance of personal hygiene and capacity building of the
population.
Penalties for Penalties for

non-compliance non-compliance
Incentives for Education for

conversion behavioral change
Support with available Incentives/support for

appropriate technologies building hygienic facilities
Removal/replacement
of hanging/ Elimination of open
unhygienic latrines defecation
Total Sanitation
Solid waste and

Promotion of
wastewater
hygiene practice
disposal
Involve the entire Take Integrated

community approach
Make available
Frequent monotoring of appropriate
impacts and feedback technologies
Communicate healthy Economic

messages through primary Incentives
schools, madrasas, mosques
and temples, health centers, Generate employment
NGOs opportunities
Figure Objectives of total sanitation campaign.

The objectives of the total sanitation campaign are mentioned in the Figure above.

Questions
1. Establish a linkage between inadequate sanitation and transmission of epidemic
diseases.
2. Write a short note on sanitation challenges.
CHAPTER 2
3. Write short notes on: (a) Reed Odourless Earth Closet; and (b) Ventilated improved pit
(VIP) latrines.
4. What are the main advantages of ecological sanitation technologies?
5. Distinguish between cistern flush and pour flush toilets.
Sanitation 41
References
Bhatia, M. S. andGurnani, P. T. 1996. Urban waste management privatization. Urban waste management
privatization. Reaching the unreached: challenge for 21st century. 22nd WEDC conference, New Delhi,
India.
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Chanakya, H. N., Sharma, I. and Ramachandra, T.V. 2009. Micro-scale anaerobic digestion of point source
components of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Waste Manage, 29, 1306–1312.
Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R. E. and McFarlane S. 1996. An investigation into grey water reuse for urban
residential properties. Desalination, 106(1–3), 391–397.
Elmitwalli, T. andOtterpohl, R. 2007. Anaerobic biodegradability and treatment of grey water inupflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Water Res, 41(6),1379–1387.
Hargelius, K., Holmstrand, O. and Karlsson, L. 1995. Hushallsspillvatten
Framtagandeavnyaschablonvärdenför BDT-vatten. Vadinnehalleravloppfranhushall?
Näringochmetalleriurinochfekaliersamti disk-, tvätt, bad- and duschvatten. Stockholm: Swedish EPA (in
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septage and public toilet sludges in tropical climate — lessons learnt and recommendations for preliminary
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Heinss, U., Larmie, S. A. and Strauss, M. 1994. Sedimentation tank sludge accumulation study.
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Sanitation 43
3
Chapter
Sewer Systems
Sewers are underground pipes used to collect and transport the municipal/ industrial
wastewater to the disposal point (i.e. natural channels/treatment plants). The network of
sewers, that collect the generated wastewater is referred as collection systems. This chapter
provides a brief description of on-site and off-site systems, often employed for the collection
of wastewater. In addition, a brief description on existing sewerage networks of greater
Dhaka has also been included in this chapter, along with future upgrading plans.
3.1 Wastewater Collection Systems
CHAPTER 3
The collection systems of the generated wastewater (from municipal/industrial sources)
can generally be classified into three groups as illustrated below.
Sanitary sewers. Sanitary sewers are developed to collect domestic, industrial and
commercial wastewaters. These sewer types are useful when rainfall is uneven, for areas with
rocky strata, and in areas with steep drainage. Since the sizes of sanitary sewers are usually
smaller, they are effective particularly when finance availability is a constraint. However,
these sewers often do not promote self cleansing velocities, unless laid at steep gradients. As
such, flushing is often mandatory for such systems, which in turn increases operational costs.
Storm sewers. These sewers are employed for the collection of storm runoff from roofs,
streets etc., followed by disposal of the collected runoff toward a receiving water channel.
Storm sewers are usually larger than sanitary sewers, and are generally operated under
gravity flow.
The main advantages of separate sewerage systems (i.e. sanitary and storm sewers) can be
enlisted as:
Ÿ Smaller waste water treatment works are required.
Ÿ Storm water can be pumped when necessary.
Ÿ Wastewater and storm sewers may follow optimum route and depth.
Ÿ Less variation in terms of wastewater flow and strength.
Ÿ Absence of road grit in wastewater sewers.
However there are also some disadvantages of separate sewer systems, such as:
Ÿ Additional costs are required for the construction of two separate pipes.
Ÿ No flushing of deposited wastewater solids by storm water.
Ÿ Lack of storm water treatment.
Combined sewers. In a combined sewer system, domestic, industrial and storm sewage are
carried together. The advantages of combined sewer can be illustrated as:
Ÿ Lower pipe construction costs.
Ÿ Economical in terms of occupying space.
Ÿ Allows dilution of sewage, which can reduce input load into the treatment plants.
Ÿ Bigger sizes render adequate cleaning provisions.
Ÿ Allows some treatment of stormwater.
Despite of the benefits of combined sewers, they also incur some disadvantages as illustrated
below:
Ÿ Combined sewers allow solid siltation, due to lower flow velocity in dry weather. As
such, these systems are not feasible in regions, where annual rainfall distribution is
uneven.
Sewer Systems 47
Ÿ May demand higher pumping cost, if the flow is pumped into treatment plants.
Ÿ Can incur greater variation of wastewater flow and strength to treatment plants.
Ÿ Grit removal is necessary.
3.2 Classification of Sewers
Despite the types of sewers can vary according to the collection and treatment of wastewater,
the major sewer types often found in a network are: building sewer, lateral or branch, main,
trunk, and intercepting sewer, as shown in Figure 3.1.
CHAPTER 3
Building sewer. These sewers typically begin outside the building foundation, and are used
to convey wastewater from building to lateral or branch sewers.
Lateral/branch sewer. These sewers are usually constructed in streets. They are used to
collect wastewater from building sewers, and to convey the collected wastewater to a main
sewer.
Main sewer. Main sewers collect wastewater from either a single or multiple lateral sewers,
and transfer it to trunk or intercepting sewers.
Trunk sewer. These sewers convey wastewater from main sewers to treatment plants, or
other disposal facilities.
Intercepting sewer. These are employed to intercept several main or trunk sewers, and to
transfer the wastewater to the treatment plants or other disposal facilities.
Figure 3.1 Types of sewers in a network.
3.3 Sewage Quantity

The wastewater generally produced from different sectors depends on water usage, life
status, economical conditions, climatic changes, public awareness etc. Typical average
generation of wastewater in the United States is 265 lpcd. Wastewater generation from
commercial facilities ranges between 7.5-28 m3/ha.d. If the sewer is laid below the water
table, ground water infiltration can also contribute to the additional increase of sewage loads

Box 3.1
Sewerage networks of Dhaka (DWASA, 2013)
The sewer system of Dhaka was originally designed as a conventional separate sewerage
system, i.e. sanitary sewer system, to transport wastewater from domestic premises and
commercial establishments. The sewer systems (of Dhaka) exclude storm/surface water
which is managed separately by drainage channels/khals. There are three main
recognized trunk sewers in the city:
CHAPTER 3
The Eastern Trunk Sewer: Length of the eastern trunk sewer is 14 km, and diameter
ranging from 450 mm to 1360 mm This trunk sewer is routed from Asad Gate to Pagla
treatment through the lift stations of Tejgaon, Basaboo and Swamibagh. There are ten
pumping stations, such as: Japan Garden City, Asad gate, Bijoy Shawrani, DOHS Banani,
DOHS Mohakhali, Tejgaon, Goran, Modertek, Basaboo and Swamibagh. The pumping
stations are used for collection and transportation of sewage towards the Pagla sewage
treatment plant.
The Western Trunk Sewer: The length of this sewer system is 6 km, and diameter ranging
from 600 mm to 900 mm. It is routed from Bashbari and Mohammadpur to Narinda,
through Hazaribagh, Nilkhet, Segunbaghicha, Purana Paltan and Motijheel. There are
five sewage lift pumping stations associated with this trunk sewer, such as: Hazaribag,
New Market, Moghbazar T&T and Zikatola. These lift stations collect wastewater from
the related catchments and deliver to the western trunk sewer, which forwards flow by
gravity to the Narinda central pumping station.
The South Western Trunk Sewer: The length of the south western trunk sewer is 6 km,
and diameter ranging from 400 mm to 1000 mm. It is located in the south-west part of the
city, and is routed from Nawabgong to Narinda via Lalbagh, Jailkhan Gate, Abul Hasnat
Road, Nawabpur Road and Tipu Sultan. This trunk main was rehabilitated in the year
2003.
into the sewer networks. Such ground water infiltration is dependent on the size of sewer
pipes: 3500 to 5000 gal/d per mile of 8 inches sewer, 4500 to 6000 gal/d per mile of 12 inches
sewer, and 10000 to 12000 gal/d per mile of 24 inches sewer.
Estimation of storm run-off entering the sewer pipes via manholes is essential for design.
ASCE tests on leakage through manhole covers show that 20-70 gal/min of water may enter
a manhole cover, submerged by 1inch of rain water.
The quantity of sewage also fluctuates on hourly and daily basis, depending on the usage
pattern. Table 3.1 gives typical ratios of minimum and maximum hourly and daily sewage
flow rate, with respect to average flow.
The following equations can be employed to estimate typical variation in daily sewage flows,
with respect to Table 3.1.
Sewer Systems 49
Table 3.1 Ratio to average and maximum /minimum flows.
Flow description Ratio to average
Maximum daily 2.5 to 1
Maximum hourly 3.00 to 1
Minimum daily 0.67 to 1
Minimum hourly 0.33 to 1
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
where, Qmax = maximum rate of flow of domestic sewage

Qav = average rate of domestic sewage flow
Typical components of sewage and their impact on the environment have been illustrated in
Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Typical sewage components and their environmental impact.
Component Environmental impact

Pathogen bacteria, virus, worms, and eggs Impact on human health.
Biodegradable organic Oxygen depletion in receiving water channels.
Other organics (Detergents, pesticides, fats, oil, Toxic impact, and bioaccumulation.
grease, solvents, phenol, and cyanide)
Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) Eutrophication, and oxygen depletion of the water
bodies.
Metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni) Toxic impact, and bioaccumulation.
Inorganics (acids, bases, and hydrogen Corrosion, and toxic effect.
sulphides)
Odor Aesthetic inconveniences.
Example 3.1. Determine the maximum hourly, average daily and minimum hourly
residential sewage flows from an area occupied by 1000 people. The average per capita
sewage flow is 40 gpcd. Consider the sewer length and house connections to be 1.5 miles, and
infiltration to be 35,000 gpd.
Solution:
Total average daily flow=
Infiltration = 35000 ´ 1.5 = 52500 gal/d

From Table 3.1:
Minimum hourly flow =
Maximum hourly flow =
3.4 Sewer Velocity

Several formulas are available for the hydraulic design of sewers. Among these equations, the
formula developed by Robert Manning in 1889, referred as Manning equation is commonly
CHAPTER 3
used for accomplishing the hydraulic design of sewers, as illustrated in Equation 3.5.
3.5
The flow rate (Q) can be computed via Equation 3.6:
3.6
where, V = mean velocity, ft/s

R = hydraulic radius, ft
S = hydraulic gradient
n = manning’s roughness coefficient
Q = flow discharge, ft3/s
A = pipe area, ft2
The choice of suitable roughness coefficient is the most important factor in sewer design. If
the sewer materials consist of concrete, asbestos cement and corrugated steel pipe (with
smooth asphalt lining), the typical values of roughness coefficient are: 0.012 for clear water,
0.015 for sewage (0.013 is a common design value). For cast iron pipes, the value ranges
between 0.015-0.035.
For partially filled sewer pipes (as shown in Figure 3.2), the Manning equation (Equation
3.5) can be applied. The required parameters angle , area of flow A, wetted perimeter P, and
hydraulic radius R can be computed by the following equations.
r = D/2
D
q q
Figure 3.2 Flow in partially filled pipe, circular in shape.
Sewer Systems 51
Calculation of q,
3.7
For triangle ABC, the area can be computed as =

CHAPTER 3
3.8
Figure 3.3 Nomograph for the solution of Manning’s equation,

for full flowing circular pipes.

Flow area 3.9
Wetted Perimeter, 3.10
Hydraulic radius, 3.11
CHAPTER 3
The Manning equation (Equation 3.5) can also be solved by the nomograph, as shown in
Figure 3.3. For partially filled circular pipes, with variable Manning roughness coefficient
and depth, Figure 3.4 is generally employed.
Full
Figure 3.4 Ratios of sewer hydraulic elements.
Example 3.2. Flow discharge capacity of sewers. A 20 inches sewer with n = 0.013 is laid
on a grade of 0.015.
a. What will be the velocity when depth of flow is 5 inches?
b. What will be the capacity when flowing half full?
Solution:
a. Discharge capacity when depth of flow is 5 inches
From Equation (3.7):
Sewer Systems 53

CHAPTER 3
From Equation (3.6): Discharge capacity,
b. Capacity when depth of flow is half of the pipe diameter
The full-flow depth can be determined from Equation (3.6), and can be rearranged as:
3.12
Flow discharge, at full depth
Discharge capacity when flowing half of the full depth =
Example 3.3. Determination of sewer flow velocity by graphical method. A 915 mm

(36 inches) sewer is laid in a slope of 0.003; what will be the depth of flow and velocity when
the flow is 8.5 m3/ min?
Solution
From the Figure 3.3, the flow velocity is 1.57 m/s, and flow rate is 62 m3/min for full-flowing
sewer.
The ratio of actual to full flow,
From Figure 3.4 employing this ratio, the ratio of depth (DP to DF) is 0.28;
Using this, from Figure 3.3,
So, depth of flow

Velocity

3.5 Materials of Sewage Pipes
Since the sewer pipes are buried underground, the sewer materials should be able to tolerate
stress, resistive to corrosive gases, and should encounter temperature variations. To prevent
infiltration of groundwater or exfiltration of sewage, it is essential to select impervious
materials. The common materials employed for the construction of sewage pipes include
asbestos-cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, polyvinyl chloride and virtified clay. The
first three materials are highly susceptible to acid corrosion and H2S attack, whereas the latter
CHAPTER 3
two materials are highly resistive to corrosion.
The H2S corrosion of sewer materials is commonly observed, particularly in sanitary sewers.
Organic material often accumulates in sanitary sewers, as a result of deposition at lower flow
velocities and grease coagulation. This accumulated material is degraded by the sewage
bacteria under anaerobic conditions, thereby producing short chain volatile acids, followed
by pH suppression. In addition, biological sulfate reduction also occurs simultaneously. The
combination of sulfate reduction and low pH can stimulate the release of H2S, which can be
dissolved in condensed moisture accumulated at the sewer crown. Such dissolved H2S can be
oxidized into H2SO4 acid in presence of O2 (by Thiobacillus bacterium), leading to the sewer
failure if the materials are acid soluble.
3.6 Sewer Appurtenances

The major sewer components include inlets, basins, manholes, flushing devices, inverted
siphons, vertical drops, energy dissipaters, regulators, outlets and pumping stations. The
following sections describe some of the major sewer appurtances.
Inlets. Inlets are the structures, which permit entrance of storm water in the sewers. The
location of the inlets is critically dependent on traffic safety. Street inlets are generally placed
near the street corner; the distance between the inlets depends on storm water amount,
water depth, and the depression to the gutter.
Gutter inlet is more efficient than curb inlet to capture gutter flow. Flow in the street gutter
can be calculated by Manning formula (for triangular gutter cross section), as shown in
Equation (3.13):
3.13
Where,Q = gutter flow, m3/s

K = constant = 22.61m3/(min. m)
z = reciprocal of the cross transverse gutter slope
n = roughness coefficient = 0.015 (for concrete gutters)
s = gutter slope
y = gutter water depth at the curb, m
Manholes. Manholes, generally cylindrical in shape, are used to inter-connect two or more
sewers, to provide entry for sewer cleaning and to allow ventilation. For sewers that are 48
inches and smaller, manholes should be located at changes in size, slope and direction (of the
Sewer Systems 55
sewer network). In large sewers, these changes can be made without using a manhole. The
spacing of manholes differs within 90-150 m, in straight alignments.
When the elevation difference between higher and lower sewer exceeds 0.6 m, the inflow is
usually dropped to the elevation of the outer sewer pipe through drop manhole or drop inlet,
as denoted in Figure 3.5. As the sewage falls from higher to lower elevation, the fall is
generally interrupted by staggered horizontal plates within the shaft. These devices prevent
excessive kinetic energy, thereby hindering the damages of the bottom structure.
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of a drop manhole.
Inverted Siphons. An inverted siphon (or depressed sewer) is a section of the sewer,
dropped below the hydraulic grade line in order to avoid an obstacle such as a railway,
highway cut, subway, and stream. Inverted siphons normally include multiple pipes and an
entrance structure designed to divide the flow, so that flow velocity (in those pipes) is
sufficient to prevent solid deposition. To maintain such flow characteristics, the velocity in
these sections should be kept at least 0.9 m/s for domestic wastewater, and 1.25-1.5 m/s for
storm water to prevent soil deposition. The diameter of inverted siphons is generally 150 or
200 mm for sanitary sewers, and 300 mm for storm sewers.
Figure 3.6a shows front view of inverted siphons to avoid an obstacle. Simultaneously,
Figure 3.6b shows the design of pipes for inverted siphons to convey minimum flow,
difference between minimum and average flow, and the difference between average and
maximum flow. The inlet structure has two side flow weirs which direct flow to the central
pipes. As the flow increases, the excess flow spills over the lower weir, and enters the second
pipe. Further increase in flow diverts it to the third pipe.
Sewer outlets. Sewers discharging wastewater into large water bodies are usually extended
beyond the banks into deep water. The outfall lines are constructed of either iron or

(a) (b)
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.6 (a) front view; and (b) top view of inverted siphons.
reinforced concrete. Iron is generally preferred, having outfalls 610mm diameter or less. For
intensified wave action, outfall can be protected, by placing it in a degraded trench.
3.7 Sewers Construction and Maintenance

Excavation techniques. Mechanical experiment should be used for excavation. A chain
drive with a bucket can be employed; the bucket cuts the soil, brings it to the surface and
discharges it to a conveyor which carries it to the side of the trench. The trench should be
excavated 8 inches below the final grade, to allow the placement of bedding material below
the pipe. Excavation in rock should be carried below the bottom of the pipe, and to a depth
equal to ¼th the pipe diameter or 4 inches (whichever is greater). The space between the
pipe and rock is filled with proper bedding material.
Excavation dewatering. The extension of excavators below the ground water promotes
passage of fluid. As such, for permeable subsurface the flow can fluidize the soil resulting
quick condition and failure of the trenches.
Quick condition can be prevented with the help of well points which can lower the water
table. Such wells are situated in parallel positions to the trench which are pumped to depress
groundwater table. Well points may be placed along either or both sides of trench, 2m from
the centerline, 1m apart, extending well below the trench bottom. These wells are connected
with a common pump. For unexpected water problem, bottom trench can be stabilized
temporarily with gravel, rock.
If the flow is not substantially higher to cause fluidization, it can be removed by letting it flow
along the trench bottom to a sump from which it is being pumped. For large sewer
construction, an under drain can be placed in the trench bottom to provide drainage.
However after the sewer construction, the drain should be plugged to prevent permanent
drainage of soil.
Sheeting and bracing. Unstable trench soil requires sheeting and bracing to prevent
collapse of side walls. Sheeting is the support material that is in contact with the excavation
wall. Bracing are crosspieces, extending from one side to another. Ranges are members for
load transfer from sheet to brace (Figure 3.7).
Vertical sheeting is the strongest method in trench construction, and used in soft soils where
groundwater may be faced. Box sheeting consists of horizontal sheeting and vertical rangers;
Sewer Systems 57
these sheeting types are best suited to unconsolidated soils. Poling boards consist of short
board pieces against the trenches, supported by rangers and cross bracing (Figure 3.7).
Poling boards are used in materials, which can stand without support at a depth of 1.0m-1.5m.
CHAPTER 3
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.7 (a) Vertical sheeting; (b) poling boards; and (c) box sheetings for
sewer construction.
Pipe laying. The pipe should be inspected for its soundness and damage. If sections are
joined by ring, it should be installed on one end before the assembly is lowered in the trench.
The pipe sections are placed on line and grade in the bottom of dewatered trench, and
pressed together with a hand lever. The trench should be filled as soon as possible after the
pipe installation and inspection. If concrete bedding is needed, backfill is delayed until
concrete achieves sufficient strength to support the weight of pipes.
Fill material should be free of bush, debris, rocks. Presence of rock should be inhibited within
900 mm of the top of the pipe, and within 400 mm of the ground surface. Filling materials
must be placed in layers; the thickness of each layer should be 150 mm, and tampered under,
around and over the pipe to a height of 600 mm above the crown.
Sewer maintenance. Sewer systems can be clogged by root penetration, rain water
infiltration causing overflow, deposition of solids (i.e. grease, bones, broken dishware,
garbage, concrete, and debris) and defects in manholes/pipes. Root problems can be
prevented by eliminating leakage. Troublesome parts can be replaced by iron pipes. The
roots (that enter in the sewers) can be removed in sewers (up to 380 mm diameter) by
flexible rods with an auger like cutter; the auger can be rotated by hand, or by a machine.
Grease, another critical pollutant, often causes blockage of household sewers. Such sewers
can be cleaned with rotating tools, driven by hand or electric motor.
Sand and grit can be removed (from sewers) with buckets pulled by a cable. If deposits are
not extensive, they can be removed by devices similar to the turbine cleaner (Figure 3.8);
such turbine has a rotating cutter which is positioned in the sewer by a cable, to allow flushing
of the deposits.
Flushing of water by fire hydrants can also remove grit deposits, but cannot remove grease
and roots. Flushing should be done carefully, as these devices may create backflow into
household plumbing fixtures.

CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.8 Turbine sewer cleaner.
A rubber ball having size slightly less than sewer diameter facilitates in removing grit and
grease materials. The ball is being adjusted by the pipe irregularities; water behind the ball
escapes around the edges of the ball at higher velocity. Such greater velocity allows the
flushing of sewer deposits. The dislodged material (of sewer) should be removed at the next
manhole, to prevent downstream blockage. For the maintenance of the broken sewer pipes,
the damaged portion may be removed from the sewer line, and the flow can be diverted from
manhole to manhole by pumping.
Overall, following steps should be executed by the municipal authorities during
maintenance program, to prevent frequent sewer blocking.
Ÿ Regular cleaning of sewer lines should be established to remove grease, grit, and
other debris, that often block sewer systems.
Ÿ Sewer cleaning should be conducted at an established minimum frequency, and
more frequently for areas where restaurants are located.
Ÿ During routine maintenance the condition of sewers structures should be inspected
closely to identify cracks, joint leaks, suspected infiltration/ exfiltration.
Ÿ Repairing should be prioritized based on the nature and severity of the problem.
Ÿ Previous sewer maintenance records should be reviewed for identifying the areas,
that require frequent maintenance.
3.8 Septic System

The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank and
that decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. A septic tank is a key
component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system common in areas
with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private
corporations. Other components, typically mandated and/or restricted by local
governments, optionally include pumps, alarms, sand filters, and clarified liquid effluent
disposal means such as a septic drain field, ponds, natural stone fiber filter plants or peat moss
beds. Septic systems are a type of On-Site Sewage Facility (OSSF). In North America,
approximately 25% of the population relies on septic tanks; this can include suburbs and
small towns as well as rural areas (Indianapolis is an example of a large city where many of the
city's neighborhoods are still on separate septic systems). In Europe, they are in general
limited to rural areas only. In Bangladesh, it is a common technology in the suburban
areas/towns to treat wastewater as an onsite technology, especially where municipal services
are not present.
Sewer Systems 59
A septic tank system may include the following:
Ÿ sanitary plumbing fixtures connected to drain pipes that enable sewage and sullage
wastes to be conveyed from the fixtures to the septic tank
Ÿ a septic tank
Ÿ a pumping sump
Ÿ an effluent disposal system
Ÿ a roof, surface and subsurface water disposal system
Ÿ single chambered, usually brick built (Figure 3.9) or double chambered, usually
CHAPTER 3
brick and concrete built (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.9 Typical brick built single chambered septic tank.
A A
Figure 3.10 Typical double chambered septic tank (BNBC 2011).

Where a septic tank effluent disposal scheme is not available, the site must be suitable for
subsurface disposal within the allotment boundaries, otherwise an alternative system will be
required. This may entail the collection of effluent in an impervious sump for subsequent
removal from the property, or the installation of another recognised form of effluent/sullage
disposal.
Physical processes of septic system. Septic tanks allow the separation of solids from
wastewater as heavier solids settle and fats, greases, and lighter solids float. The solids
content of the wastewater is reduced by 60-80% within the tank. The settled solids are called
CHAPTER 3
sludge, the floated solids are called scum, and the liquid layer in between is called the clear
zone as shown in Figure 3.11. Although the liquid in the clear zone is not highly treated, it is
greatly clarified compared to the wastewater entering the tank, the larger particles having
migrated to either the sludge or scum layers. Another important function of the tank is
storage of these accumulated solids. The tank is sized large enough to hold solids until
maintenance (i.e., tank pumping) is performed. The effluent, or wastewater, that leaves the
septic tank comes from the clear zone to minimize the solids loading on the downstream
components of the system. The baffle, tee, or effluent screen at the outlet is designed to draw
from the clear zone retaining floatable or settleable solids in the tank. The settling process
requires time to occur, so the tank must be large enough to retain the wastewater in a
turbulence-free environment for two to four days. Excessive flow and turbulence can disrupt
the settling process as shown in Figure 3.12, so tank volume, size, shape, and inlet baffle
configuration are designed to minimize turbulence.
Biological and chemical processes. Septic tank solids include both biodegradable and
non-biodegradable materials; although many of the solids will decompose, some solids will
accumulate in the tank. Anaerobic and facultative biological processes in the oxygen-
deficient environment of the tank provide partial digestion of some of the wastewater
components. These processes are slow, incomplete, and odor producing. Gases (hydrogen
sulfide, methane, carbon dioxide, and others) result from the anaerobic digestion in the tank
and may create safety hazards for improperly equipped service personnel. The gases
accumulate in bubbles in the sludge that, as they rise, may re-suspend settled solids. This will
elevate the total suspended solids (TSS) concentration in the clear zone and ultimately send
more suspended solids to downstream system components. This scenario often results
when active digestion occurs during warm temperatures.
Treatment achieved with domestic sewage. The septic tank provides primary anaerobic
treatment (dissolved oxygen < 0.5 mg/L) in an onsite sewage treatment system of the raw
wastewater. The effluent from the septic tank is typically treated so that it contains 140 - 220
mg/L BOD, 45 - 70 mg/L TSS, and 10-30 mg/L fats, oils and greases (FOGs). If
concentrations of biochemical oxygen demands, total suspended solids, and oil and grease
from the sewage are expected to be higher than 170 mg/L, 60 mg/L or 25 mg/L respectively,
an estimated or measured average concentration must be determined and be acceptable to
the local unit of government. System design must account for concentrations of these
constituents so as not to cause internal system malfunction, such as, but not limited to,
clogging of pipes, orifices, treatment devices, or media.
Factors affecting septic tank performance. The anaerobic digestion processes in tanks are
affected by temperature in the tank and by substances that have an adverse impact on
Sewer Systems 61
biological organisms. Higher temperatures will enhance the rate of biological processes and
inhibiting substances will reduce it. Too high of temperatures may liquefy fats, oils and
greases (FOGs). Ideal temperatures in the tank allow for FOGs to solidify and bacterial
activity to take place. Some factors that affect the way a tank functions include:
Ÿ strength (concentration) of the incoming wastewater.
Ÿ pH.
Ÿ introduction of harsh chemicals, drain cleaners, paint, photo processing chemicals or
other inappropriate substances into the waste stream which may affect pH and
CHAPTER 3
biological activity.
Ÿ introduction of fats, oils and grease (FOG).
Ÿ highly variable flow patterns that affect detention time.
Ÿ introduction of pharmaceuticals (especially those for chemotherapy and dialysis;
long term use of antibiotics, etc.).
Ÿ introduction of process discharge, including backwash from a water softener, and;
lack of maintenance resulting in excess accumulation of solids, reducing effective
volume and reducing detention time.
Advantages of septic tank. Subsurface infiltration systems are ideally suited for
decentralized treatment of wastewater because they are buried. The tanks are relatively
inexpensive and can be installed in multiple tank installations.
Disadvantages of septic tank. The sludge may pose an odor problem if the sewage remains
Figure 3.11 Zones of septic tank.
Figure 3.12 Effect of excessive flow and turbulence in septic tank.
untreated for an extended period. Provisions for alarms and pumping are necessary if the
downstream treatment units go off-line due to power loss or equipment failure.

Design criteria of septic tank. A holding tank must be the proper size, have a watertight
design, and stable structure for proper performance.
Ÿ Tank size: The size of a tank for a single residence depends upon the number of
bedrooms, the number of inhabitants, the home’s square footage, and whether or not
water-saving fixtures are used. For example, a three-bedroom house with four
occupants and no water-saving fixtures would require a 1,000-gallon septic tank.
The tank should be designed to hold at least one week of waste flow. Holding tank
systems for multiple units should include the above parameters for each residence.
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Commercial inputs should be evaluated on a case by case basis and may need
pretreatment to remove oil, grease, or solids.
Ÿ Tank design: A key factor in the holding tank’s design is the relationship between the
liquid surface area, the quantity of sewage it can store, and the rate of wastewater
discharged. Each of these factors will impact the tank efficiency and the amount of
sludge it retains.
The greater the liquid’s surface area, the more sewage the tank can accommodate. As
solids collect in the tank, the water depth decreases, which reduces the time sewage
flow is retained in the tank. Less solids will settle in the tank, resulting in increased
solids in the tank effluent that may have a negative impact on the final treatment
process.
Placing risers on the tank openings makes it easier to access the tank for inspection
and maintenance. If a septic tank is buried more than 12 inches below the soil surface,
a riser must be used on the openings to bring the lid to within 6 inches of the soil
surface. Generally, the riser can be extended to the ground surface and protected with
a lid.
Ÿ Hydraulic loading rate: The design capacity of the holding tank is related to the
hydraulic loading rate of the treatment system. For a ground absorption system, it is
determined by soil characteristics, groundwater mounding potential, and applied
wastewater quality. Prolonged wastewater loading will clog the infiltrative surface,
reduce the capacity of the soil to accept the wastewater, and may back up the
wastewater into the holding tank. However, if the loading is controlled, biological
activity at the infiltrative surface will maintain waste accumulations in relative
equilibrium so that reasonable infiltration rates and pass through in the holding tank
can be sustained.
Performance of septic tank. To keep a holding tank system operating efficiently, the tank
should be pumped periodically. As the system is used, sludge accumulates in the bottom of
the tank. As the sludge level increases, wastewater spends less time in the tank, and solids are
more likely to escape into the absorption area. Properly sized tanks can accumulate sludge
for at least three years.
The frequency of pumping depends on:
Ÿ Tank capacity.
Ÿ Amount of wastewater flowing into the tank related to size of household(s).
Ÿ Amount of solids in the wastewater. For example, there will be more solids if garbage
disposals are used.
Ÿ Performance of the final treatment system.
Sewer Systems 63
Operation and maintenance of septic tank. A well-designed holding tank requires limited
operator attention. Management needs include tracking system status, testing for solids
accumulation, evaluating pump performance, and monitoring system controls. Monitoring
performance of pretreatment units, mechanical components, and wastewater ponding levels
above the filtration surface is essential. If a performance or level change is noted, the operator
should inspect the system to determine if additional service is required. Routine servicing of
a holding tank is limited to annual or semiannual inspection and cleaning, if necessary.
Septic tank capacity estimation.
CHAPTER 3
a) For residential dwellings:

The following Table 3.3 shows the typical volume needed to construct septic tank for
residential dwellings
Table 3.3 Typical volume of septic tank for residential dwellings.
All wastes Litres

Receiving all water closet pan and household liquid wastes for up to 6 persons 3000
For each additional 2 persons Add 1000
Sewage only Litres
Receiving sewage from a water closet pan for up to 6 persons 1620
For each additional 2 persons Add 540
For multiple occupancy residential premises such as flats, units and town houses the capacity
of the septic tank is calculated on the basis of total number of bedrooms plus one bedroom
and multiply by 2 persons per bedroom.
b) For non-residential dwellings:
Calculation of the septic tank for non-residential installations requires determination of two
factors:
Ÿ volume for accumulation of sludge/scum.
Ÿ volume for daily flow, into the septic tank.
The effective capacity is obtained by calculating: (S ´P1´ Y) + (P2 ´ DF)
where, S = Rate of sludge/scum accumulation per person per year
P1 = Number of persons using the system
Y = Desludging frequency
P2 = Number of persons using the system
DF = Daily inflow in litres per person per day
Table 3.4 provides a range of load factors (S, P1, P2 and DF) to assist in determining the
capacity of the septic tank, and it may be necessary to add a number of individual uses to
obtain the sludge/scum and daily inflow total.
Where the system load varies from day to day, an average load figure is used to calculate
capacity for sludge/scum accumulation. Calculation of the daily inflow shall always be made
using the maximum daily load. The minimum capacity of any non-domestic septic tank shall

be 1620 litres or the effective capacity as calculated using Table 3.4, whichever is the greater.
The data presented in the Table is provided to assist with determining the capacity of the
septic tank based on use conditions. In some cases it may require the addition of a range of
uses to obtain the total capacity.
Where the specific use is not listed, it may be necessary to select a similar use to determine the
capacity. The rates listed below should be used, except in situations where actual rates have
been determined from appropriate monitoring of the sludge scum accumulation rate and
water meter readings that exclude non septic tank use, i.e. garden, swimming pool,
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evaporative cooling etc. The term average or highest daily number over an "x" day period
means the highest number in any 12 months period.
Table 3.4 Typical value of parameters determining capacity of septic tank based on use
conditions.
Sludge/scum rate Daily inflow rate
Number of Rate Rate
Parameters Fixtures persons L/person/year No. of persons L/persons/day
P1 S P2 DF
Hospital & Nursing homes
Accommodation WC/urinal Total number 80 Total number 150
and resident staff basin or beds plus of beds plus
bath/shower resident staff resident staff
laundry
kitchen sink
dishwasher
Non resident WC/urinal Number of 25 Number of 30
staff basin employees per employee's per
kitchen sink shift ´ shift ´
(tea service number of number
area only) shifts of shifts
with shower As above 10

Hotels/Motels
Accommodation WC/urinal Total number 48 Total Number 100
basin of beds (single of beds
bath/shower equivalents) (single
kitchen sink equivalents)
laundry
Non resident WC/urinal Number of 25 Number of 30
staff basin employees per employee's per
kitchen sink shift ´ shift ´
(tea service number of number
area only) shifts of shifts
Sewer Systems 65
Sludge/scum rate Daily inflow rate
Number of Rate Rate
Parameters Fixtures persons L/person/year No. of persons L/persons/day
P1 S P2 DF
Public toilets
WC/urinal Average daily 20 Highest daily 5
basin number over 7 number over
day period 7 day period
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shower provided as above 5 as above 10

Restaurants
WC/urinal Average daily 35 Highest daily 15
basin kitchen number over number over
sink 7 day period 7 day period
dishwasher plus staff plus staff
Schools
with canteen kitchen sink Total number 10 Total number 5
facilities dishwasher of students of students
plus staff plus staff
Staff WC/urinal Number of 25 Number of 30
basin kitchen employees per employee's per
sink (tea shift ´ shift ´
service area number of number
only) shifts of shifts
Public WC/urinal average daily 20 Highest daily 5
basin number over number over
7 day period 7 day period
3.9 Small Bore Sewer Systems

Small bore sewer systems (Figure 3.16), which is sometimes referred as SBS system are
designed to receive only the liquid portion of household wastewater for off-site treatment
and disposal. Grit, grease and other troublesome solids which might cause obstruction in the
sewers are separated from the waste flow in interceptor/septic tanks installed upstream of
every connection to the sewers; the solids which accumulate in the tanks are removed
periodically for safe disposal. However, if the wastewater is channel is not connected to any
offsite system/wastewater treatment sites, the system is called septic system or sometimes
simply it is termed as conventional sewerage system (Option A of Figure 3.16)
Advantages of using SBS system. Collecting only settled wastewater using SBS sytem has
four principal advantages:
Ÿ Reduced water requirements. Since the sewers are not required to carry solids, large
quantities of water are not needed for solids transport. Thus, unlike conventional sewers,
small bore sewers can be employed without fear of blockages where domestic water
consumption is low, where water-saving plumbing fixtures and appliances are widely
used, or where long flat runs with few connections are necessary.

CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.13 SBS (Option B) and conventional (option A) sewerage system.
Ÿ Reduced excavation costs. With the troublesome solids removed, the sewers do not
need to be designed to maintain a minimum flow velocity for self-cleansing. Therefore,
rather than being installed on a straight path with a uniform gradient, they may be laid
with curvilinear alignment with a variable or inflective gradient. This reduces excavation
costs, since the sewer can follow the natural topography more closely than conventional
sewers and avoid most obstructions within its path.
Ÿ Reduced materials costs. Peak flows which the small bore sewers must be designed to
handle are lower than those experienced with conventional sewers because the
interceptor tanks/septic tanks provide some surge storage which attentuates peak flows.
Therefore, the sewer and any pumping equipment can be reduced in size (and pumps
handling only liquids are simpler). In addition, expensive manholes can be replaced with
much less costly cleanouts or flushing points, since mechanical cleaning equipment is
not necessary to maintain the sewers in a free-flowing condition.
Ÿ Reduced treatment requirements. Screening, grit removal and primary sedimentation
or treatment in anaerobic ponds is not needed at the treatment works, since these unit
processes are performed in the interceptor tanks.
Thus, small bore sewer systems provide an economical way to upgrade existing sanitation
facilities to a level of service comparable to conventional sewers. Because of the lower costs of
construction and maintenance and the ability to function with little water, small bore sewers
can be used where conventional sewerage would be inappropriate. Small bore sewers
therefore offer an opportunity of improving sanitation in areas which otherwise might not be
upgraded.
Disadvantage of SBS system. The principal disadvantage of the small bore sewer system is
the need for periodic evacuation and disposal of solids from each interceptor tank in the
system. Experience with the system is limited and mixed. Consequently, in spite of its
Sewer Systems 67
obvious advantages it must be used judiciously and adopted only in situations where there is
sufficient provision to ensure a strong organization for maintenance. This organization must
also be able to exercise effective control over connections to the system. Special precautions
should be taken to prevent illegal connections, since it is likely that interceptor tanks would
not be installed in such connections, thereby introducing solids into a system which is not
designed to handle solids. This could create serious operational problems.
Component parts of SBS system. Small bore sewer systems consist of: (a) house
connections; (b) interceptor tanks; (c) the sewers and their appurtenances; and (d) a
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sewage treatment plant. Occasionally, individual pumping stations may be required to lift
the effluent from the interceptor tank into the sewer to overcome adverse elevation
differences; additionally, pumping stations may be required in the sewer system itself in very
flat areas.
Ÿ House connection. The house connection is made at the inlet to the interceptor tank.
All household wastes, except for garbage and trash which must be removed for disposal
elsewhere, enter the system at this point. Storm water must be excluded.
Ÿ Interceptor/septic tank. The interceptor tank is a buried watertight tank with baffled
inlet and outlet. It is designed to detain the liquid flow for 12 to 24 hours and to remove
both floating and settleable solids from the liquid stream. Ample volume is also provided
for storage of the solids, which are periodically removed through an access port.
Typically, a single-chamber septic tank is used as an interceptor tank.
Ÿ Sewers. The sewers are small bore plastic pipe (minimum diameter of 100 mm) which
are trenched into the ground at a depth sufficient to collect the settled wastewater from
most connections by gravity. Unlike conventional sewers, small bore sewers are not
necessarily laid on a uniform gradient with straight alignment between manholes or
cleanouts. The sewer may have an inflective gradient; that is to say, the sewer may have
dips so that sections of it remain full under static conditions. Also, the alignment may
curve to avoid natural or manmade obstacles. The objective in the design and
construction of small bore sewers is to utilize to the maximum extent the energy resulting
from the difference in elevation between the upstream and downstream ends.
Ÿ Cleanouts and manholes. Cleanouts and manholes provide access to the sewers for
inspection and maintenance. In most circumstances, cleanouts are preferable to
manholes because they cost less and can be more tightly sealed to eliminate most
infiltration and grit which commonly enter through the lids and walls of manholes. Also,
they can be easily concealed to prevent tampering. They function as flushing points
during sewer cleaning operations.
Ÿ Vents. The sewers must be ventilated to maintain free-flowing conditions. Vents within
the household plumbing are sufficient, except where inflective gradient sewers are
installed. In such cases, the high points of the sewer should be ventilated either by
locating the high points at connections or by installing a cleanout with a ventilated cap.
Ÿ Lift stations. Lift stations are necessary where elevation differences do not permit
gravity flow. Either residential or major lift stations may be used. Residential lift stations
are small lift stations pumping wastes from the interceptor tank of one home or of a small

cluster of homes to the sewer, while major lift stations are located in the sewer line and
service all connections within a larger drainage basin. Whenever pumping becomes
necessary, the difference in total annuitized costs between a small bore sewer system and
conventional sewerage may be greatly reduced. Consequently, a close cost comparison
would be required between the two before selection between them. Therefore, the most
important characteristic of small bore sewers is that they are designed to handle only the
liquid portion of domestic wastes. Although the term "small bore sewers" has become
commonly accepted, it is not in fact a very accurate description of the system, since the
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pipes need not be small diameter (the size being determined by hydraulic
considerations and not constrained by other conditions), and the pipe system is not
designed according to sanitary sewer practice. A more accurate description would be
"solids-free sewers", but the best term is probably "effluent drains", as is used in the
systems widely employed in Australia; this emphasizes the essential purpose of the
sewers to remove liquid effluents (from interceptor/septic tanks) that cannot otherwise
be disposed of on site and so forms a natural link to the most likely application of small
bore sewers in developing countries: to upgrade on-site disposal systems such as pour-
flush latrines when changes in water use, housing densities or other conditions lead to
difficulties in on-site effluent disposal. However, for consistency with other recent
publications on this subject, in this book, the authors have retained the term "small bore
sewers (SBS)".
Analogy between SBS and conventional sewerage system. In new schemes small bore
sewerage often appears to have little advantage over conventional sewerage when compared
to the latter in present worth terms. Yet the distribution of its costs between capital
investment and operation and maintenance is quite different to those of conventional
systems and is generally more appropriate to developing country conditions: capital costs
with their commonly high foreign exchange requirements are lower; less skill is required in
its construction; and its operation and maintenance are quite different to those of
conventional systems and are more labor-intensive, and these costs (which are generally
lower than those for conventional systems) can be mainly paid for in local currency out of
revenue. Small bore sewerage is inherently a much more flexible system than conventional
sewerage and its feasibility should always be evaluated during the technology selection stage
of a feasibility study since it can offer a viable solution in many situations where conventional
systems are technically or economically infeasible.
Hydraulic design of SBS system. Unlike conventional gravity sewers which are designed
for open channel flow, small bore sewers may be installed with sections depressed below the
hydraulic grade line. Thus, flow within a small bore sewer may alternate between open
channel and pressure flow. In making design calculations, separate analysis must be made for
each sewer section in which the type of flow does not vary and the slope of the grade line is
reasonably uniform. Manning's equation (Equation 3.5) may be used in this analysis.
Sewer Systems 69
Box 3.2
Learning from failure of SBS systems at Mirpur, Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
The area of Mirpur, located approx. 12km north-west from the centre, covers an area of
about 6,000ha and entirely lies within MODS Zone 4 of DWASA. In 1991 the Dhaka
Urban Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUIIP) was a multi-stakeholder initiative
to improve sanitation, inter alia, in Mirpur. A Small Bore Sewer (SBS) System was
constructed which is an option for sewage collection in developing countries when
CHAPTER 3
financial and water resources are limited. However the small bore system was not
effectively commissioned. Reasons which led to failure of the system are mentioned
below:
1. The institutional responsibilities were not defined for the various activities required to assure
operations and maintenance.
2. Lack of maintenance of the sewer system and de-sludging of the interceptor tanks may have lead to
early failure of the system.
3. Only 50-60% of the original appraised pipe connections to interceptor/septic tanks were installed
by the DUIIP. Un-served houses were probably never connected to the sewer pipes in order to
minimize expenditure.
4. The SBS system was developed for low income areas with single storey houses and one toilet per
family. Presently most of the low income areas have developed to middle income areas with fully
developed multi-storey buildings. The SBS system was reportedly not designed to serve the
increased number of people and it is likely that parts of it have been destroyed during later
development. The sizing of the pipes and interceptor tanks cannot meet the current needs in the
middle income areas.
5. Community participation is a critical factor to ensure proper O&M of the facilities and ultimate
delivery of services. Periodic cleaning of the interceptor tanks is the responsibility of the owners.
However there are no septic tank sludge management facilities available in Dhaka City and there is
limited incentive for sludge tank emptying. The awareness of periodic interceptor tank de-sludging
has not developed, as most of the tanks are not in use and are currently filled with garbage.
Based on the experience in Mirpur, the SBS system is not considered suitable for areas of
excessive population growth which includes:
ŸThe DWASA service area except in specific conditions, e.g. in slum areas where development is
not expected to grow to high rise buildings.
ŸArea within the RAJUK area which are adjusted to the DWASA service area (i.e. across the
natural river boundaries) where there is a risk of fast development dueto population overspill.
ŸPourashavas within the RAJUK area which are subjected to fast growth (e.g.>4% anaual) caused
by concentrated industrial and commercial activities.
3.10 Wastewater Production and Sanitation Coverage in

Dhaka
Dhaka presently relies heavily on ground water, with approximately 80-90% of demand
coming from this source. Groundwater is being extracted primarily from the upper Duptilia
aquifer and the lower Duptilia aquifer under Dhaka city. DWASA also operates some surface
water treatment plants, such as Saidabad treatment plant Phase 1 (capacity of 225 ML/d),
and Phase 2 (capacity of 225 ML/d).

Table 3.5 illustrates drinking water supply and wastewater generation rates in different zones
of Dhaka, and Narayongonj (an adjacent district of Dhaka district). Table 3.5 indicates that
drinking water supply in Dhaka and Narayongonj is predominantly dependent on
groundwater source.
The produced wastewater (in and around Dhaka) as illustrated in Table 3.5 is managed
mainly via onsite sanitation and offsite treatment technologies. Within the DWASA service
area, it is estimated that only 20% of the population is potentially served by the centralized
separate sewerage system. Another 30% of the population is estimated to dispose of sewage
CHAPTER 3
by connecting into the drainage networks and open channels. An estimated population of
approx. 320,000 in Mirpur area was designed to be served by a small bore waterborne
sewerage system, which was never utilized; the generated sewage from these areas is also
directed to the drainage system. Improved on-site sanitation is estimated to be the sanitation
system utilized by approx. 25% of the population within the DWASA service area, with the
remaining 22% served by unhygienic on-site sanitation means, including pit, hanging
latrines and open spaces. These figures are shown in the following table 3.6 (DWASA,
2013).
Table 3.5 Water production and wastewater generation rates in different zones of
Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
Zone Area Pop. Existing water production (MLD) Water Wastewater

(km2) (million)DTW WWTP PTW Total consumption (70% of
production (MLD) (39.43% of water (60% of total)
(MLD) groundwater) production production) (MLD)
(MLD) (MLD) (MLD)
Zone-1 27.53 1.58 187.15 49.14 121.83 358.12 214.87 150.41
Zone-2 9.16 0.94 164.00 76.60 106.76 347.36 208.42 145.89
Zone-3 24.18 1.09 278.00 12.32 180.97 471.29 282.77 197.94
Zone-4 26.03 1.33 180.00 --- 117.18 297.18 178.31 124.82
Zone-5 15.76 0.65 123.00 26.09 80.07 229.17 137.50 96.25
Zone-6 28.21 1.63 194.00 55.79 126.29 376.08 225.65 157.95
Zone-7 29.49 0.77 101.00 16.07 65.75 182.82 109.69 76.78
Zone-8 47.89 0.74 106.00 --- 69.00 175.00 105.00 73.50
Zone-9 62.94 0.69 126.00 --- 82.02 208.02 124.81 87.37
Zone-10 32.55 0.80 145.00 --- 94.39 239.39 143.63 100.54
N.gonj 54.77 1.24 43.26 18.57 28.16 89.99 53.99 37.80
Total 358 11.46 1,647 254 1,072 2,974 1,785 1,250
Note: DTW = Deep Tubewell, PTW = Private Tubewell.
3.11 On-site Sanitation Technologies of Dhaka: Septic

Tanks
In Dhaka a large number of septic tank systems are utilized in areas which are not covered by
the conventional sewerage system. The soil properties of Dhaka have low porosity and are
not suitable for the drainage of septic tank effluent; as such, the overflow is often discharged
Sewer Systems 71
Table 3.6 Total sanitation coverage by population in Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
Current population estimated to be covered by the various sanitation

systems
Separate Combined Small Bore Improved On-site Unhygenic
Sewerage Sewerage System Sanitation Sanitation
2010 population 2,110,000 3,200,000 320,000 2,600,000 2,300,000
% of total population 20% 30% 3% 25% 22%
CHAPTER 3
to a nearby drainage system. The sludge, collected and accumulated in the tanks, should
regularly be removed and disposed of in a safe and controlled manner; however there are no
septic tank sludge treatment and disposal facilities in and around the city. The sludge
collected by private septic tank cleaning services is generally disposed into local low lands,
drains and khals. Such collected septic sludge is also disposed into municipal waste
collection points, on road sides, in drainage canals and into sewer lines via manholes. This
practice is illegal, highly hazardous, unregulated and contributes to the uncontrolled
spreading of pollution and pathogenic organisms over large areas.
Based on previous estimates of septic tank usage of 45% in the non-sewered areas, a zone-
wise scenario of the population using septic tanks is given in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Septic tank usage in DWASA service area (DWASA, 2013).
Zone Pop. Sewer Unsewered Septic tank Septic tank use

(million) coverage (%) coverage population
(%) (45% of (million)
unsewered)
Zone-1 1.58 58.47% 41.53% 18.69% 0.295
Zone-2 0.94 54.37% 45.63% 20.53% 0.193
Zone-3 1.16 42.43% 57.57% 25.91% 0.30
Zone-4 1.33 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.60
Zone-5 0.65 54.41% 45.59% 20.52% 0.133
Zone-6 1.62 26% 74.00% 33.30% 0.539
Zone-7 1.35 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.61
Zone-8 0.78 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.35
Zone-9 0.55 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.25
Zone-10 0.20 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.09
Naryanganj 1.38 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.62
Kamrangir char 0.19 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.09
DND (part) 0.72 0% 100.00% 45.00% 0.32
Total 12.44 21.74% 78.26% 35.22% 4.39
Table 3.7 indicates that a significant number of population of Dhaka utilize septic tanks, that
contribute to substantial dry solids production. The following table estimates the annual
septic tank sludge production in each zone in the DWASA service area, assuming an
estimated sludge production of 0.25L/P/day.

Table 3.8 Septic tank sludge production in DWASA service area (DWASA, 2013).
Zone Septic tank Liquid Dry solid Dry solid

use Pop. volume (t/d) (t/year)
(million) (m3/d)
Zone-1 0.295 69 8.85 3231
Zone-2 0.193 45 5.79 2114
Zone-3 0.30 70 9 3285
Zone-4 0.60 141 18 6,570
CHAPTER 3
Zone-5 0.133 31 3.99 1457
Zone-6 0.539 126 16.17 5902
Zone-7 0.61 143 18.3 6,680
Zone-8 0.35 82 10.5 3,833
Zone-9 0.25 59 7.5 2,738
Zone-10 0.09 21 2.7 986
Naryanganj 0.62 145 18.6 6,789
Kamrangir char 0.09 21 2.7 986
DND (part) 0.32 75 9.6 3,504
Total 4.39 1028 131.7 48075
Since there are no formal collection, transportation, treatment and disposal systems of septic
tank sludge in DWASA service area, a proposal has been placed by DWASA for septic tank
sludge management, as illustrated in Box 3.3. A proposal for the treatment of such
transported septic tank sludge has also been proposed by DWASA, as indicated in Box 3.4.
Box 3.3
Proposal for Septic Tank Sludge Management (DWASA, 2013).
Options for septic sludge management
Options to ensure proper systematic control of the septic sludge management may
include: i) DWASA takes the lead role in septic tank sludge management (either via own
sludge collection vehicles or through service agreements with service providers), or ii)
allowing private sector service providers to deal directly with the households, and
DWASA takes a monitoring function. In any case, a department/division (sludge
management division) should be created within DWASA, similar to the Water Supply
and Sewerage Divisions of DWASA, or the Solid Waste Division of DCC. All households
with septic tanks should pay a septic tank cleaning fee in order to recover costs for septic
sludge management.
Engagement of sludge contractors and other measures
In the short term, DWASA would engage one or more contractors for the collection and
transportation of septic tank sludge to a special facility located at a wastewater treatment
plant, operated by DWASA. The possibility of utilizing an NGO as a contractor for these
operations can be considered.
Sewer Systems 73
Applying the Service Fee
DWASA may consider adding sludge collection charges to the water bill and outsource
the collection and transport of sludge. In order to encourage households, septic tank
owners shall be required to pay a fee whether they wish to empty their septic tanks or not.
There will be a provision that DWASA may do the inspection of each septic tank of the
house owners.
Public Awareness
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An intensive publicity drive should be implemented, by means of advertising in printed

and electronic media along with rallies and workshops. The purpose should be the
creation of public awareness about the benefits of the paid service, in contrast with the
danger of sludge disposal into drains, canals and land, and its hazardous impacts to water,
air and the environment in general.
Box 3.4
Septic Tank Sludge Treatment (DWASA, 2013).
In order to provide septic tank sludge reception, treatment and disposal facilities, it is
proposed to construct septic tank sludge treatment systems at the centralized
wastewater treatment plants, which will include a screening facility (nominally 10 mm
gap width), anaerobic sludge treatment in ponds, drying and disposal. As an urgent
priority, it is recommended to pilot scale this type of system at the Pagla Sewage
Treatment Plant (PSTP), in order to gain experience in construction and operation
procedures for future projects. Initially, such pilot scale testing might include DWASA in
developing, and implementing a service contract with a septic tank service provider for a
specified region adjacent to Pagla STP. However this should be broadened to allow
private contractors to approach households directly throughout the city, once septic
tank sludge facilities are constructed at the various treatment plant sites. Consequently it
will be essential for the pilot scale test to determine the market interest and associated
costs for private sector participation. Concerning the septic tank sludge treatment
facilities, in the case of Pagla, there are two options: a) introduction into the existing
sludge lagoons; and b) introduction into the treatment plant via a dedicated process such
as Anaerobic Primary Settlement Ponds (APSP). Option b is more advantageous, but
would require an upgrading of Pagla treatment plant in order to be effective.
3.12 Sewerage System of Dhaka

Dhaka central sewer consists of networks of relatively small diameter sewers, that are
connected via branch lines to the main transmission trunk sewers. Within the city, there are
24 sewage lift stations and one central pumping station at Narinda that are designed to raise
the hydraulic level of the sewage, so that it can flow by gravity via the trunk sewers to the main
treatment plant at Pagla. Manholes have been provided on the route of the mains but most

are now inaccessible and in a very poor state of repair, with many being used as receptacles for
household waste. Currently only 30% of the city area is served by the sewer system of which
only 20% of the population have connections. The total length of the sewer network is 882
km (DWASA, 2010) of varying pipe materials, and sizes from 100 mm to 1350 mm.
Unplanned sewage discharges occur on a regular and prolonged basis throughout the
DWASA sewerage system due to its inadequacy, and lack of maintenance. Such phenomena
become critical in the rainy season due to infiltration.
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.9 indicates the overall scenario of sewer networks in different zones of Dhaka.
Subsequently, Figure 3.14 depicts the areas covered by sewer networks within DWASA
service area.
Table 3.9 Sewerage system statistics of Dhaka (DWASA, 2010).
Zone Area Population Existing sewer (km) Total sewer

(km2) 2010 <450mm >450mm (km)
(million)
Zone-1 27.53 1.58 143 29 172
Zone-2 9.16 0.94 146 6 152
Zone-3 24.18 1.09 127 1 128
Zone-4 26.03 1.33 95 0 95
Zone-5 15.76 0.65 167 0 167
Zone-6 28.21 1.63 168 0 168
Zone-7 29.49 0.77 0 0
Zone-8 47.89 0.74 0 0
Zone-9 62.94 0.69 0 0
Zone-10 32.55 0.8 0 0
N.Gonj W/S Div. 54.77 1.24 0 0
Total 358.51 11.46 846 36 882
3.13 Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant

DWASA operates a sewage treatment plant at Pagla located on an area of 110.5 ha,
approximately 8 km away from the city centre in the south-east of Dhaka City, and
approximately 1 km north of the Buriganga River. The Pagla treatment plant was originally
constructed in 1978. It provides treatment of the wastewater collected by the central
sewerage system, and is currently the only treatment facility in the city. However,
construction of another treatment plant has been proposed at Dasherkandi for Hartijheel
scheme.
The existing wastewater treatment plant at Pagla treats an average wastewater flow rate of
96,000 m3/day and diurnal peak of 120,000 m3/day. Due to damage of the trunk mains and
sewerage system, the actual flow rate entering the Pagla treatment plant is approximately
30,000-40,000 m3/day. Pagla treatment plant utilizes primary sedimentation, facultative
ponds and disinfection, as treatment units. The mechanism of such units is described in the
following chapters of this book. However, the existing treatment plant is subjected to some
Sewer Systems 75
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.14 Sewerage system coverage in DWASA service area (adapted from DWASA,
2013).

operational and maintenance problems such as: (a) primary sedimentation tank scrapers do
not efficiently cover the tank floor, hence sludge is not collected and removed; (b) the
facultative ponds have accumulated sludge which should be emptied; and (c) the
disinfection system is not operational. These operational problems are decreasing the
quality of the effluent from the treatment plant.
As such, upgrading of the treatment plant is necessary to improve effluent qualities. Due to
the land intensive nature of the treatment process, insufficient land is available for
augmenting the capacity of the treatment plant on the existing site, illustrating the necessity
CHAPTER 3
of alternative process. Based on a comparison of various options, the trickling filter process
has been proposed to be installed in phased modules.
Table 3.10 illustrates typical organics and suspended solids removal performances of Pagla
treatment plant.
Table 3.10 Organics and solid removal performances of Pagla treatment plant (DWASA,
2013).
Inlet Primary sedimentation Facultative Overall removal

(mg/L) tank effluent lagoon effluent (%)
(mg/L) (mg/L)
BOD SS BOD SS BOD SS BOD SS
Average 340 351 127 119 49 58 85 83
3.14 Upgrading Sewerage Systems of Dhaka

According to the master plan of DWASA, sewage transportation and treatment facilities will
be upgraded in three phases, as summarized below.
The Phase 1 priority investment program (nominally 2010-2015) focuses on the Dhaka South
(Pagla) and Dhaka East (Dasherkandi) catchments and includes: a) the first phase of Pagla
treatment plant trickling filter system (and existing facultative ponds which has a combined
capacity of 200,000 m3/d); b) replacement of the eastern trunk sewer from Madhubag (near
Tejgaon) to Pagla; c) and associated pump stations at Bashaboo and Golapbagh (near
Swamibagh); d) re-directing wastewater via a new trunk sewer from Tejgaon and Gulshan to
the new Dasherkandi treatment system; e) and associated pump stations at Tejgaon and
Gulshan; f) new sewerage systems in Gulshan/Banani; g) re-connection of the existing
lateral mains to the new eastern trunk sewer so that existing sewerage systems can be re-
connected; h) construct new sewerage lift stations in the Khilgaon thana area, nominally
Khilgaon and Rampura.
The Phase 2 investment program (nominally 2015-2025) focuses on the Pagla and
Dasherkandi catchments and includes: a) the second phase of Pagla treatment plant
trickling filter system (and existing facultative ponds which has a combined capacity of
250,000 m3/d); b) rehabilitation of the trunk sewer to Tejgaon pump station and associated
sewage collection system; c) construct new collection system and trunk mains servicing the
Baridhara, Baridhara DOHS, West Badda and Niketan areas; d) a subsequent third phase of
the Pagla treatment plant (decommissioning the facultative ponds hence providing a
Sewer Systems 77
treatment capacity of 300,000 m3/d) will then be commissioned; e) a program of
rehabilitation and replacement of the remaining existing sewerage systems in Pagla
catchment will be undertaken; f) extensions to new sewerage systems to be constructed
within the Pagla catchment; g) refurbish Nerinda old pump station in order to increase
capacity. The second component of the Phase 2 investments will include: a) construction of
a parallel trunk sewer from Golapbagh (near Swamibagh) to Pagla treatment plant; b)
construction of the sewerage systems, transmission mains and wastewater treatment plants
for each of the remaining urban centre, such as: Rayerbazar, Mirpur, Uttara and
CHAPTER 3
Narayanganj, in the current DWASA service area.

The Phase 3 investment program (nominally 2025-2035) includes the 4th and 5th phases of
Pagla trickling filter system (which has a cumulative capacity of 500,000 m3/d), and will
service the Pagla catchment. The Phase 3 investment program will also construct the
sewerage systems, transmission mains and wastewater treatment plants for each of the
remaining urban centre, such as: Savar, Tongi/Gazipur, Purchabal and Keraniganj, in the
greater Dhaka region.

Questions
1. Write short notes on: (a) sanitary; (b) storm; and (c) combined sewers.
2. Why sewer networks are often subjected to H2S corrosion?
3. Illustrate the main theory of inverted siphons in sewer network.
4. Determine the maximum hourly, average daily and minimum hourly residential sewage
flows from an area occupied by 3000 people. The average per capita sewage flow is 50
CHAPTER 3
gpcd. Consider the sewer length and house connections to be 4 miles, and infiltration to
be 25,000 gpd.
5. A 24 inches sewer with n=0.013 is laid on a grade of 0.016. Compute the flow velocity
when depth of flow is 6 inches.
6. A 25 inches sewer with n=0.011 is laid on a grade of 0.020.What will be the velocity when
depth of flow is 3 inches?
7. State the comparison between small bore sewerage and conventional sewerage system.
Sewer Systems 79
References
Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) 2013 draft, p.8-269.
DWASA, 2010. DWASA Management Information Report, Dhaka, 2010.
Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), 2013. Updating/Preparation of Sewerage Master
Plan of Dhaka City and Preparation of Detail Design & Bidding Documents for Priority Works for Existing
Sewerage System of Dhaka City. Master plan report, Dhaka Sewerage Master Plan Project (Package DS-
1A), Dhaka, March, 2013.
CHAPTER 3

4
Chapter
Preliminary Treatment
of Municipal Wastewater
Large floating solids, grit, and grease are the common components of raw municipal
wastewater (collected through sewerage networks-Chapter 3), which can cause corrosion,
blockage of the pumps, and equipments of wastewater treatment plants. In addition, these
pollutants can also reduce the efficacy of the biological units of treatment plants. The proper
functioning of the treatment plants is critically dependent on efficient removal of such
pollutants, which is usually achieved through preliminary treatment process.
This chapter provides a brief description of the common preliminary treatment processes,
employed for the treatment of raw wastewater. Figure 4.1 illustrates a flow diagram of the
required operations, associated with preliminary treatment process; subsequently, sections
4.1-4.6 provide a brief description of each stage, along with necessary design criteria.
Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater
CHAPTER 4
Raw
wastewater Effluent
Screening Grit Grease and Equalization
Removal Oil Removal
coarse constant skimming in-line
screen velocity tanks system
chamber
fine aerated
screen chamber
microstrainers circular DAF system off-line
chamber system
Figure 4.1 Flow diagram of preliminary treatment process.
4.1 Screening
Screening devices are usually employed as the first units, for the treatment of incoming
wastewater. Screens can be defined as devices, with generally uniform openings for
capturing the solids of influent wastewater. Depending on the operating mechanisms,
screens can be classified into: (a) coarse screens; (b) fine screens; and (c) microstrainers.
Coarse screens. Coarse screens usually consist of equally spaced inclined vertical bars,
predominantly made of steel. Coarse screens can further be classified into bar racks or bar
screens, according to the bar spacing. Bar racks have clear spacing ranging between 5.08-
10.16 cm (Figure 4.2), while bar screens have clear spacing of 0.64-5.08 cm.
Figure 4.2 Bar racks employed for wastewater treatment.
Preliminary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 83

Screens can be cleaned manually, or mechanically raked and cleaned. Manually cleaned
screens are only used in small treatment plants, typically servicing a population equivalent
(PE) of lower than 5000. Mechanically raked screens are used for plants servicing a PE
greater than 20000.
Figure 4.3 shows a schematic of a manually cleaned screen that is manually raked on to a
perforated plate. Cleaning of the screen must be carried out frequently to avoid clogging.
Infrequent cleaning may result in significant upstream flow problems that are caused by the
buildup of solids. A schematic of a mechanically raked bar screen is shown in Figure 4.4.
Typically, the maximum clear space between the bars is 25 mm, although American practice
permits spaces up to 38 mm. A space of 18 mm is considered typical, sufficient for the
protection of downstream equipment.
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.3 Schematic of a manually cleaned screen.
Figure 4.4 Schematic of mechanically raked bar screen.
Mechanically raked screens are normally set at an angle between 0 and 45o from the vertical.
The use of such screens reduces labor cost and improves flow condition. They are available
commercially, and manufacturers normally provide design charts to facilitate the selection
of correct screen size for a particular service.
Figure 4.5 shows a special type of mechanically cleaned screen – a drum screen; materials
being screened out naturally fall into a hopper as the screen rotates. A water spray assists in
cleaning the screen.

CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of a drum screen.
Typical design values for manually and mechanically cleaned bar racks have been provided
in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Typical design criteria for manually and mechanically cleaned bar racks.a
Method of Cleaning
Parameter Unit
Manual Mechanical
Bar size
Width mm 5-15 5-15
Depth mm 25-38 25-38
Bar clearing space mm 25-50 15-75
Approach velocity
Maximum m/s 0.6-1.0
0.3-0.6
Minimum m/s 0.3-0.5
Allowable headloss mm 150 150-600
a
after Metcalf and Eddy, (2003).
The accumulation of solids across the bar racks can create hydraulic loss, which is a function
of upstream and downstream velocity through the bars (Figure 4.6), along with a discharge
coefficient. Bernoulli’s equation can be used to compute such headloss through bar racks, as
illustrated in Equation (4.1):
4.1
and
4.2
where h1 = upstream depth of water, m

h2 = downstream depth of water, m

h = headloss, m
V = flow velocity through bar rack, m/s
v = approach velocity in upstream channel, m/s
g = gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
C= discharge coefficient, typically 0.84 (C2= 0.7)
h1 v
h2
V
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.6 Water flow profile across a bar screen.
Equation (4.2) can be rearranged into Equation (4.3), after considering the value of C.
4.3
Kirschmer (1926) proposed the following equation for computing headloss through racks:
4.4
where h = headloss, m
w = maximum width of the bar with flow facing, m
b = minimum bar clear spacing, m
v = approach velocity towards the rack, m/s
g = gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
θ = horizontal angle of the rack
B = bar shape factor
The value of bar shape factor (B) can be obtained from Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Typical bar shape factors.a
Bar Type B
Sharp edged rectangular 2.42
Rectangular with semicircular face 1.83
Circular 1.79
a
after Lin (2007).
Example 4.1 Headloss across coarse screens. Calculate the velocity through a rack,
when approach velocity is 0.60 m/s, flow open area through clean bar rack is 0.15 m2 and
headloss across the rack is 30 mm. Also estimate the headloss, when 50% area of the flow area
is blocked off due to coarse solids accumulation.

Solution
1. Calculation of velocity through bar rack
The headloss across the rack can be computed employing Equation (4.3):
CHAPTER 4
2. Calculation of headloss through the clogged bar rack
Reduction of screen area by 50% is associated with doubling of the velocity; as such, the
velocity through the clogged bar screen (V) is:
Assuming the flow coefficient for the clogged bar screen to be 0.6, the estimated headloss is:
Fine screens. Fine screens, which usually consist of wire, perforated plate, or closely spaced
bars (with openings 1.5-6.4 mm), are usually employed after coarse screens to retain finer
materials from the incoming wastewater (such as: agro and food processing industries).
Stainless-steel mesh or special wedge-shaped bars are commonly used as screening medium.
The clean water headloss through fine screens can be obtained by common orifice equation,
as illustrated in Equation (4.5):
4.5
where h = headloss, m
v = approach velocity, m/s
C = discharge coefficient of screen (i.e. 0.60 for a clean screen)
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Q = discharge through screen, m3/s
A = effective area of submerged screen, m2
Although the headloss of clean water through a clean screen is less, it depends on the cleaning
method and frequency, size and quantity of suspended solids in the wastewater, and screen
opening size.
Microstrainers. Microstrainers are sometimes employed after fine screen, to achieve: (a)
removal of algae; and (b) further reduction of suspended solids from incoming wastewater.
Microstrainers are made of very fine fabric, or screen wound around a drum. The drum

which is usually 75% submerged continues to rotate, with water flowing from inside to the
outer portion of the drum. The solids retained by the strainers are removed by water jets
directed towards drum surface, and collected in a channel beneath the drum. Figure 4.7
illustrates the components of a microstrainer, to facilitate wastewater treatment.
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of a microstrainer for wastewater treatment.
Continuous operation of microstrainers promote slime growth (on the surface), which can
be mitigated by washing the fabric with Cl2 solution. Frequent slime build up can be
corrected by installing ultra violet radiation. Table 4.3 indicates typical design values of
microstrainers.
Table 4.3 Microstrainer design parameters.a
Item Typical Value
Screen mesh 20-25 μm
Submergence 75% of height
Hydraulic loading 12-24 m3/m2/h of submerged drum surface area
Peripheral drum speed 4.5 m/min at 7.5 cm headloss
Typical drum diameter 3m
a
after USEPA (1975).
4.2 Comminuting
Comminutors, an alternative to racks or screens (Figure 4.8), cut coarse solids (from raw
wastewater) to 6-10 mm, so that they do not interfere with other systems. Chopped solids
are removed from the flow during sedimentation process.
The basic parts of a comminutor include a slotted drum rotating in the vertical plane, and a
cutting tooth. Stationary teeth shred the material intercepted by the screen; the shredded
materials pass through the drum slots. Barminutor is the most widely implemented
comminuting device, which uses a vertical screen with cutting head travelling up and down
the rack of bars, thereby cutting the intercepted materials.

CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.8 Comminutors for wastewater treatment.
Shredding devices should be located in parallel with bar screens, ahead of pumping facilities
at the treatment plant. Grit removal prior to shredder saves wear on the cutting head of the
comminutor.
4.3 Grit Removal

Grit materials are common components of domestic and municipal wastewater, stormwater
runoff, and industrial sewage. These materials include inorganic solids such as pebbles,
sand, silt, cinders, cigarette filters, metal fragments etc; in addition, eggshells, bone chips,
coffee grounds, and seeds are an inherent proportion of grit materials. The composition of
grit varies with moisture and volatile contents. The moisture content of grit ranges from 13-
63%; the volatile content ranges from 1-5%. The specific gravity of clean grit can be as high as
2.7 with inert material, and as low as 1.3 when the inert material contains higher organic
matter.
Grit materials can promote substantial wearing of mechanical equipments, pumps and
clogging of piping networks. As such, grit chambers are extremely important units of
wastewater treatment plants, which eventually protect the mechanical equipments from
abrasion, reduce the deposition in pipelines and digester cleaning frequency.
The settling phenomenon in a grit chamber is based on free settling of particles (i.e. discrete
settling of particles), which can be described by Stokes formula (Equation 4.6) applicable for
spherical shaped particles:
4.6
where Vs = settling velocity, m/s

g = gravity acceleration, m/s2
ρs = solid density, kg/m3
ρL = liquid density, kg/m3
µ = liquid viscosity, kg/s/m
d = particle diameter, m

Grit chambers employed for the treatment of wastewater can be classified into three
categories, such as: (a) constant velocity grit chamber; (b) aerated grit chamber; and (c)
circular grit chamber.
The constant velocity grit chamber is usually equipped with two components (Figure 4.9);
the two components must be matched to have constant forward velocity (i.e. 0.3 m/s). The
retention time usually varies between 1-2 min for grit settling, with low yield capacity. This
system is applicable for small treatment plants.
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.9 Constant velocity grit chamber.
In larger treatment plant, the trend is toward aerated grit chambers (Figure 4.10). In such
systems, turbulence is created by the injection of compressed air to provide a constant rate
cross-current allowing settlement of heavier grit, whereas lighter organic particles remain
suspended and pass through the tank. Proper control of the turbulence is essential for
efficient functioning of aerated grit chambers. Extremely high turbulence washes away grit
from the chambers; on the other hand, lower turbulence promotes the removal of organic
matter, along with grit. Typically 0.0005-0.00236 m3/s of air per foot of chamber length is
required with 3-5 min retention time, to maintain the efficiency of aerated grit chambers.
Typical design values for aerated grit chambers are illustrated in Table 4.4.
Figure 4.10 Aerated grit chamber.

a
Table 4.4 Aerated grit chamber design parameters.
Item Unit Typical Design Values
Dimensions
Depth m 2-5
Length m 7.5-20
Width m 2.5-7
Width-depth ratio 1:1.5-1:2
Detention time at peak flow min 2-5
Grit quantities m3/10 m3 0.004-0.2
a
after Peavy et al., 1985
An additional advantage of air supply into aerated grit chambers can be attributed to the
CHAPTER 4
freshening of wastewater, leading to notable odor reduction. If desired, the chamber can also
be used for chemical addition, mixing and/or flocculation ahead of primary treatment. If
correctly designed, an aerated grit chamber with a minimum hydraulic detention time of 3
minutes (operating at peak flow) can capture approximately 95% of the grits, that have sizes
larger than 0.2 mm.
In circular grit chambers, velocity is controlled through the paddles on a vertical shaft. The
retention time in such chambers varies between 2-3 min.
4.4 Grease and Oil Removal

Effluent from kitchens, restaurants, oil refineries, and slaughter houses contains substantial
amount of grease and oil; such components, if not removed (from wastewater) can cause
deposits in air diffusers of biological units, and adversely effect bacteria and protozoa life in
biological reactors. As such, grease and oil removal are extremely important for proper
functioning of the treatment plants, and are usually achieved through skimming tanks or
floatation methods.
Figure 4.11 Components of a skimming tank.

Skimming tanks. These units have baffled subsurface entrance and exit structures (Figure
4.11), which permit the floating material to be retained. Skimming tanks are usually
designed with retention time 15 min or less. Horizontal velocity of water is kept between 50-
250 mm/s, to prevent deposition of organic particles on the bottom.
Floatation. Floatation is required to separate solid or liquid materials from the liquid phase,
which is achieved by introducing fine gas bubbles into the bulk liquid. The bubbles are
attached into particulate materials, and the buoyant force of combined particles and gas
bubbles is adequate to cause particles to rise to the water surface. Particles, thus having
higher density than liquid can be forced to rise.
Dissolved air floatation systems (DAF) are often implemented as floatation chambers. The
basic components of a DAF system comprises of pressurizing pumps, air injection facilities,
CHAPTER 4
retention tank, pressure reducing valve and floatation tank. The operation mode of a DAF
system can be classified into: (a) full flow mode; and (b) recycle flow mode.
When a DAF system is operated under full flow mode (Figure 4.12), air is dissolved in
wastewater under a pressure of several atmospheres, followed by the release of pressure to
the atmospheric level. For small pressure systems, the total flow can be pressurized up to
275-350 kPa by a pump, with compressed air added at the pump suction. The entire flow is
held in a retention tank under pressure for several minutes, to allow air dissolving. The flow is
then admitted to the floatation tank through a pressure reducing valve, where air comes out
of solution in very fine bubbles attaching the particulate matter, and is removed by the
skimmer from the surface water. The main advantages of a full mode flow DAF system can be
enlisted as: (a) the entire flow is exposed to air pressure; (b) formation of bubbles; and (c)
moderate pressure requirement.
Figure 4.12 DAF system with full-flow mode.
In a recycle flow mode DAF system (Figure 4.13), a portion of the DAF effluent (15-120%)
is recycled, pressurized and semi saturated with air. The recycled flow is mixed with
unpressurized main stream, prior to the entrance point of the floatation tank. Air comes out
of the solution associated with particulate matter, at the entrance zone. Since relatively
cleaner DAF effluent is utilized in recycling mode system, the blockage of diffusers is
generally reduced. However, the size of the floatation unit must be higher, for
accommodating the combination of incoming wastewater flow and recycled water.

CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.13 DAF system with recycle-flow mode.
The performance of a DAF system depends on the ratio of air volume (A) to the mass of
solids (S) i.e. A/S. The relationship between A/S ratio, air solubility, pressure, and solids
concentration for a system in which the flow is pressurized is illustrated in Equation (4.7).
4.7
where A/S = air to solids ratio, mL air/mg solids

sa = air solubility, mL/L
f = air fraction dissolved at P pressure
P = pressure, atm
Sa = influent suspended solids, mg/L
Equation (4.8) is employed for DAF system with only pressurized recycle.
4.8
where R = pressurized recycle, m3/d

Q = mixed liquor flow, m3/d
4.5 Equalization Basin

The purpose of equalization basins is to achieve mixing of wastewater of different volumes,
in order to obtain a uniform flow rate. Equalization basins eliminate or reduce shock
loadings, dilute inhibiting substances, and stabilize pH, thereby enhancing smooth
operation of the following biological reactors. Such basins also enhance effluent water
quality and thickening performances of secondary sedimentation tanks, through consistent
loading of solids.
The arrangement of equalization basins in a treatment plant can be classified as in-line
(Figure 4.14a) and off-line (Figure 4.14b) arrangement. In the in-line system, the entire flow

is passed through an equalization tank, allowing substantial flow damping and constituent
concentration. In the off-line system, a portion of the incoming wastewater is diverted into
the equalization basin; despite such operation reduces pumping cost, the flow rate damping
is significantly reduced.
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.14 Arrangement of equalization tank: (a) in-line system;

and (b) off-line system.
4.6 Design Examples

This section describes detailed design procedures of the important units of preliminary
treatment process (i.e. coarse screen, grit chambers, and equalization tank). Firstly, the
design of coarse screens and grit chambers has been illustrated in example 4.2; secondly,
example 4.3 denotes the procedure of computing the volume of an equalization tank.
Example 4.2 Design of coarse screens and aerated grit chambers. Design a coarse
screen and aerated grit chambers for wastewater treatment, employing the following
information:
Ü Peak flow through the rack, Qp = 0.9 m3/s
Ü Velocity through rack during peak flow, v = 0.8 m/s
Ü Angle of the rack to the horizontal, θ = 60°
Ü Upstream depth of wastewater, d = 1.5 m
Ü Retention time in aerated grit chamber during peak flow = 3 min
Ü Air supply = 0.00236 m3/s per ft
Ü Volume of grit to be produced during peak flow= 80 mL/m3

Solution
a. Design of coarse screen.
Step 1. Determine total clean area (A) through the rack
Step 2. Determine total width (w) of the opening at the rack
CHAPTER 4
Step 3. Calculate number of opening
Choose a 25 mm clear opening
Number of opening,
Use 29 bars with 10 mm (0.01 m) width, and 50 mm thickness.
Step 4. Calculate width (W) of the chamber
Step 5. Calculate height of the rack
Allowing at least 0.6 m of freeboard, the total height 2.5 m is selected.

b. Design of aerated grit chambers.
Step 1. Calculate the volume of the grit chambers
Provide two chambers; as such, the volume of each unit can be computed as:
Step 2. Calculate the size of a rectangular grit chamber

Assuming the width of the tank to be 2m, and employing a depth-to-width ratio of 1.5:1
(Table 4.4):

The dimension of each chamber is 13.5m×2m×3m.
Step 3. Calculate the required air supply
Given 0.00236m3/s per ft (0.3m) length.
Air required =
Step 4. Estimation of the production of grit volume during peak flow

Given the volume of grit to be produced (during peak flow) is 80 mL/m3.
Grit volume =
CHAPTER 4
Example 4.3. Volume of equalization tanks. Calculate the volume of the equalization
tank of a treatment plant, subjected to variable inflow rate (with time) as illustrated below.
Time Interval Flow (m3/h)

6.00 A.M-10.00 A.M 330
10.00 A.M -14.00P.M 150
14.00 P.M -18.00 P.M 400
18.00 P.M -22.00 P.M 80
22.00 P.M -2.00A.M 90
2.00A.M-6.00 A.M 150
Solution
Assuming the wastewater inflow is Q(t), constant pumping rate is Qp, and the process cycle
time is T, the volume of wastewater collected during the process cycle can be illustrated in
Equation (4.9).
4.9
If the volume of pumping rate is , then the volume of the equalization tank can be
computed as the maximum difference between influent and pumped wastewater; such
relation can be illustrated as = Employing the above relations the volume
of the equalization tank can be calculated, as illustrated below.
Time, ∆t Flow åQ(t)Dt åQpt åQ(t)Dt - åQpt

4 330 1320 800 520
4 150 1920 1600 320
4 400 3520 2400 1120
4 80 3840 3200 640
4 90 4200 4000 200
4 150 4800 4800 0
Qp =
V= 1120 m3

Questions
1. Briefly describe the importance of preliminary treatment process, to facilitate the
performance of wastewater treatment plants.
2. Write a short note on aerated grit chamber.
3. Enlist the basic differences between full flow mode and recycle flow mode DAF systems
in wastewater treatment plants.
4. Calculate the velocity through a rack, when approach velocity is 0.40 m/s, flow open area
through clean bar rack is 0.15 m2 and headloss across the rack is 35 mm. Also estimate the
headloss, when 40% area of the flow area is blocked off due to coarse solids accumulation.
5. Design aerated grit chambers (assuming two compartments) for the treatment of
wastewater, when influent peak flow is 0.7 m3/s, and the design retention time in aerated
CHAPTER 4
grit chamber during peak flow is 3.5 min.

References
Kirschmer, O. 1926. Untersuchungen uber den Gefallsverlust an rechen. Trans. Hydraulic Inst. 21, Munich:
R. Oldenbourg.
Lin, S.D. 2007. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual. Second Edition, The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc, USA.
Metcalf and Eddy. 2003. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., New Delhi, India.
Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R., and Tchobanoglous, G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. International Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore.
USEPA. 1975. Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids Removal. No. EPA 25/1-75-003a, USEPA,
Washington DC.
CHAPTER 4

5
Chapter
Primary Treatment
Primary treatment of wastewater can be achieved by employing septic tanks (Chpater 3), or
sedimentation basins. The former technologies are preferred in those areas, that do not have
sewer networks for transporting wastewater into treatment plants. The latter systems are
usually included as integrated units of treatment plants, and are heavily dependent on
sedimentation mechanism.
Sedimentation depends on physical separation of the suspended materials (from
wastewater) by gravity settling. Sedimentation process removes solids (heavier than water),
particulate matter, and grit from preliminary treated effluent (Figure 5.1) through
sedimentation basin; such basin is also denoted as primary sedimentation tank, clarifier,
settling basin or settling tank. It is the most widely employed treatment unit, to provide
treatment of raw sewage. Properly designed sedimentation tanks often remove 50-70%
suspended solids, and 25-40% BOD from wastewater.
Primary Treatment of Wastewater
Influent from preliminary

Effluent
CHAPTER 5
treatment prosess
Sedimentation
rectangular
basin
circular
basin
tube and lamella
basin
Figure 5.1 A schematic diagram of wastewater flow profile across a sedimentation tank.
Depending on solids concentration, four types of settling process contribute to solids

removal in sedimentation tanks such as: (a) discrete; (b) flocculant; (c) hindered; and (d)
compression settlings. A brief description of these settling phenomena has been provided in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Typical settling types of particles in sedimentation tanks.
Settling Phenomena Description
Discrete settling Discrete settling is often observed in wastewater with low solids concentration.
(Type-1) Discrete settling involves individual settling of particles which do not change
size, shape and mass during settling, and do not influence each other by being
too close.
Flocculant settling Flocculant settling is observed when wastewater comprises of coalesced, or
(Type-2) flocculate particles during settling process. Such settling results particles
coalescing, and formation of bigger particles which settle at a faster rate.
Hindered settling Observed in wastewater consisting closely packed particles. The settling
(Type-3) velocity of these particles is obstructed, causing upward water displacement (by
particles), which in turn reduces the settling velocity.
Compression settling Observed in wastewater where particle concentration is such that a structure is
(Type-4) formed, and further settling can occur only by the compression of the formed
structure.
Primary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 101

This chapter focuses on the detailed analyses of the settling mechanisms usually observed in
sedimentation tanks. In addition, this chapter also provides a brief description of the
important design factors applicable for the sedimentation tanks, along with a design
example.
5.1 Discrete Particle Settling

Analyses of discrete settling (Type-1). This type of settling is easier to analyze. If a particle
is suspended in water, two forces initially act upon it such as: (a) gravity force, fg (Equation
5.1); and (b) buoyant force, fb (Equation 5.2).
5.1
and 5.2
where rp = particle density
rw = water density
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g = gravity constant
Vp = particle volume
Since these forces act in opposite directions, there will be no net force on the suspended
particle when rr=rw . However, if the density of particle and water differs a net force will be
exerted, resulting in acceleration (of the particle) in the direction of force, as expressed in
Equation (5.3):
5.3
When the particle is in motion a third force is created due to viscous friction defined as drag
force (fd), expressed through Equation (5.4):
5.4
where CD = drag co-efficient

Ap = particle cross section area, perpendicular to the movement direction
v = particle velocity
Drag force (Equation 5.4) acts in the opposite direction to the driving force (Equation 5.3),
and increases to the square of velocity; acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady
velocity is reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving force:
5.5
For spherical particles, the ratio of volume (Vp) and particle cross-sectional area (Ap) can be
expressed through Equation (5.6):
5.6
Substituting the ratio of volume and particle cross-sectional area in Equation (5.5) yields the
following equation:

5.7
The value of CD changes with different flow regimes. As such, the expression of CD values for
laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow regimes are defined in Equations (5.8)-(5.10).
(laminar flow) 5.8
(transitional flow) 5.9
=0.4 (turbulent flow) 5.10

where Re is the Reynolds number, and can be expressed by Equation (5.11).
5.11
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where d = particle diameter
µ = kinematic viscosity of water
Reynolds number (Re) values less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, while values greater than
104 indicate turbulent flow; intermediate values denote transitional flow. The shape factor is
added to correct lack of particle spherosity. For perfect spheres, the value of is assumed to be
1.0.
In case of laminar flow, substituting Equation (5.8) into Equation (5.7) yields Equation
(5.12).
5.12
Equation (5.12) is defined as Stokes equation, often employed for determining the settling
velocity of discrete particles.
Sedimentation tank configuration. Rectangular, square or circular shaped sedimentation
tanks are usually designed for wastewater treatment. An ideal continuous horizontal flow
sedimentation tank (Figure 5.2a and b) comprises of four zones such as: (a) inlet zone; (b)
settling zone; (c) sludge zone; and (d) outlet zone. The inlet zone provides uniform
distribution of influent wastewater over the cross-sectional area of the tank in such a way
that, the flow follows horizontal path to prevent short-circuiting. In the settling zone,
uniform concentration of particles settle at terminal settling velocity to the sludge zone
(beneath the settling zone). In the outlet zone, the clarified effluent is collected through an
outlet weir, and is discharged to the following treatment units.
For the design of sedimentation tanks, a particle settling velocity Vs (Figure 5.2b) is
considered as design overflow settling velocity, and can be defined as the settling velocity of a
particle that settles through the total effective depth H in theoretical detention time. The
particles, having a terminal velocity (Va) equal or greater than Vs are also removed in the
sedimentation tanks (Figure 5.2b). Equation (5.13) expresses the design overflow settling
velocity (Vs) in terms of flow, area, width and length of the sedimentation tank.

5.13
where Q = flow, m3/d

A = surface area of the settling zone, m2
Vs = overflow rate, m3/m2.d
W, L = width and length of the tank, m
Equation (5.13) can also be defined as the SOR, that represents the settling velocity of the
slowest settling particle that is 100% removed. As such, particles settling at velocities, equal
or greater than the SOR will be entirely removed.
Flow through a sedimentation tank is independent of the clarifier depth; such depth can be
expressed as a product of the particle settling velocity and detention time (t), as expressed
through Equation (5.14):
H = Vst 5.14
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(a)
Vs Vr H
V
Va
h
L
(b)
Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic diagram of a rectangular sedimentation tank; and (b) discrete
settling in rectangular sedimentation basin.

Considering the relationship as illustrated in Equation (5.14), the removal ratio (r) of
particles with settling velocity equal to Va, can be expressed by Equation (5.15):
5.15
Equation (5.15) indicates that particles with settling velocity Va (less than Vs) will also be
removed, provided that they enter the settling zone at a depth (h), less than H (Figure 5.2b).
For actual particle suspension with size variety and density, prediction of a sedimentation
basin performance requires either particle size distribution or column analysis. From either
technique, a cumulative settling velocity frequency distribution curve may be obtained,
according to Figure 5.3.
For a given flow rate Q, particles having settling velocity ³ Vs will be completely removed. If y0
represents particles portion with a settling velocity < Vs, then the percentage totally removed
(in the sedimentation tank) can be expressed as 1- y0. Also, for each particle size with Va<Vs,
the removal proportion can be expressed according to Equation (5.15). For various particle
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sizes in this group, the percentage of removal is:
The overall fraction of particles removed would be:
5.16
Equation (5.16) can be rearranged as:
5.17
Example 5.1. Analyses of type-1 settling. A clarifier is designed to have a surface

overflow rate of 30.0 m3/m2.d. Compute the overall removal efficiencies with settling
analyses data, illustrated in Table 5.2. The water temperature is 15°C, and particle specific
gravity is 1.20.
Table 5.2 Results of settling test analyses.
Particle size Weight fraction
mm <size, %
0.10 10
0.08 20
0.07 38
0.06 70
0.05 82
0.04 92
0.02 99
0.01 100

Solution
1. Determining settling velocities employing Stokes law
At 15°C the kinematic viscosity of water, µ is 0.00113kg/(s.m) and specific gravity of water
is 0.9990.
The settling velocities of the fraction of particles (Va- Equation 5.16) to be removed by the
clarifier can be computed, by applying Stokes law (Equation 5.12):
2. Calculate Va for each particle size from Table 5.2

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Particle size, d = 0.1 mm = 0.0001 m

Therefore,
For other particle sizes, the calculation of settling velocities is similar, as recorded below.
Particle size Weight fraction <size Settling velocity V

mm % mm/s
0.10 10 0.969
0.08 20 0.620
0.07 38 0.475
0.06 70 0.349
0.05 82 0.242
0.04 92 0.155
0.02 99 0.039
0.01 100 0.010
3. Construction of settling velocities vs. cumulative distribution curve

The graphical representation of settling velocities (V) vs. fraction of particles with less than
stated velocity is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
4. Calculation of SOR (Vs)
Vs = 30 m/d = 0.34 mm/s
Particles with settling velocities greater than 0.34 mm/s will be completely removed.
5. Find the fraction (1-yo)
For Vs = 0.34 mm/s, y0 = 0.297 (from Figure 5.3)
and 1-y0 = 1-0.297 = 0.703

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Figure 5.3 Cumulative percentage removal vs. settling velocities graph.
6. Graphical determination of åVDy from Figure 5.3
Dy 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.047

V 0.08 0.12 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.31
VDy 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.02 0.02
åVDy 0.068
7. Determine overall removal F

The overall removal efficacy can be computed, employing Equation (5.17).
Settling column analysis. Direct application of the procedures, as described in the previous
sections is limited in wastewater treatment due to uncertainty of particles sizes, and lack of
spherical shapes. As such, an indirect method of measuring settling velocities of discrete
particles in dilute suspension was proposed by Camp (1943), commonly referred as settling
column analysis. According to the process, a settling column is employed as demonstrated in
Figure 5.4; the suspension to be tested is placed in a column, and is being mixed completely
to ensure uniform particle distribution. The suspension is then allowed to settle.
If a particle (of the solution) is just at the surface at time equal to zero (Figure 5.4), and its
settling velocity is such that it arrives at a later time i.e. t = t0, then the average settling velocity
of the particle is:

If another particle is suspended at a distance ZP above the sampling port (Figure 5.4), and its
terminal settling velocity is such that (less than v0) it arrives at the port at the same time as
previous particle. So, its settling velocity can be computed as,
Water level
ZO
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Zp
Sampling port
Figure 5.4 Settling column for type-1 suspension analyses.
Since, the time of travel is equal for the two particles, it can be shown:
and
Some generalized statements can be made on the above equation:

Ÿ Particles with diameter equal or greater than d0, will have settling velocities equal or
greater than v0; these particles will arrive or pass sampling port in time t0.
Ÿ Particle with diameter dp<d0 will have a terminal settling velocity vp<v0; such particles
will arrive at or pass sampling port at time t0, provided its original position was at or
below a point Zp.
Ÿ If the suspension is mixed uniformly (all particle size are randomly distributed from
top to bottom), then the fraction of particles (of size dp and settling velocity vp)
arriving at the sampling port in time t0 can be expressed as Zp/Z0 = vp/v0. So the
removal efficiency of any particle size from suspension, is the ratio of settling velocity
of that particle to v0, defined by Z0/t0 .

In column settling process, an apparatus (Figure 5.4) is filled with suspension, maintaining a
water depth of 2m. The suspension is mixed to ensure an initially uniform particle
distribution, and an initial concentration C0 is measured. After the suspension is allowed to
settle for a time period t1, a second sample is drawn off, and another concentration C1 is
measured. Particles having concentration C1, must have settling velocities less than Z0/tl ; So,
the mass fraction of particles with v1< Z0/tl is:
The process is repeated several times with xi being the mass fraction of particles with vi< Z0/tl;
the values are plotted on a graph, as shown in Figure 5.5, and the particles fraction with any
settling velocities can be computed.
For a given detention time t0, an overall percent removal can be obtained. All particles, with
settling velocities greater than v0 = Z0/t0will be 100% removed. So the fraction (1-xo) will be
removed completely in time t0. The remaining particles will be removed according to the
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ratio vi/v0. If the equation relating to v and x is known, the area can be computed by
integration, as expressed in Equation (5.18).
5.18
Example 5.2. Settling column analysis of type-1 suspension. A settling analysis is run on
a type 1 suspension. The column is 2m deep, and the dataset are given below. Compute the
removal efficiency in a settling basin with a load of 25 m/d.
Time, min 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

Conc., mg/L 400 200 175 150 140 110 70 10
Solution
1. Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding settling rate
The mass fraction at 60 min can be computed as 200/400 = 0.5; the procedure is similar to
compute mass fractions, for the following time periods. The settling rates at corresponding
time period can be obtained from the ratio of travelled distance (i.e. column height) and
corresponding time.
Time, min 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

Mass fraction 0.5 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.28 0.18 0.02
remaining
vs ×102 m/min 3.3 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.83 0.48

2. Plot mass fraction remaining vs. settling velocity
D
M
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Figure 5.5 Plot of mass fraction remaining vs. settling velocity.
3. Determine the value of v0
4. Determine the value of x0

From Figure 5.5, x0 can be determined as, x0 = 36%
5. Determine Dxvt by graphical integration
∆x vt ∆xvt
0.06 0.49 0.03
0.06 0.60 0.04
0.06 0.73 0.04
0.06 0.90 0.05
0.06 0.98 0.06
0.06 1.21 0.07
åDxvt = 0.29
6. Determine overall removal efficiency

5.2 Flocculant Settling
Particles in sedimentation tanks often do not follow discrete settling due to their extremely
light size. In fact, they come into contact with each other resulting in agglomeration of
particle size, allowing faster settling.
To analyze such flocculant settling of particles, settling column analyses is generally
employed. The samples are drawn off at several time intervals and depth of the column.
These concentrations are used to calculate mass fraction removed (instead of mass fraction
remaining), at each depth for each time interval, as illustrated in Equation (5.19):
5.19
where Xij = mass fraction (in percentage) removed at ith depth at jth time interval.
The values are plotted in graphical forms (Figure 5.6), and isoremoval lines are drawn. The
CHAPTER 5
slope at any point on any line is the velocity of the fraction of particles represented by that
line.
Example 5.3. Flocculant settling analyses. A column analysis of a flocculating
suspension is being performed. The initial solids concentration is 300 mg/L, with the
resulting matrix as illustrated below. What will be the overall efficiency of the removal of a
settling basin, having 3 m depth with 90 min detention time?
Sampling time, min

Depth, m
30 60 90 120 150 180
0.5 120 70 45 33 25 20
1 125 115 91 60 50 40
1.5 210 140 110 80 60 50
2 215 160 130 105 90 60
2.5 230 190 155 120 100 70
3 240 195 165 130 115 90
Solution
1. Determine the removal rate at each depth and associated time interval
The mass fraction removed, at each depth for each time can be computed employing
Equation (5.19).
The velocity becomes greater (e.g. slope of isothermal lines become steeper) at greater
depth. These common characteristics of flocculating suspensions indicate agglomeration of
particle size and settling velocity, due to continuous collision and aggregation with other
particles.

Sampling time, min
Depth, m
30 60 90 120 150 180
0.5 60 76 85 89 92 93
1 58 62 70 80 83 87
1.5 30 53 63 73 80 83
2 28 47 56 65 70 80
2.5 23 37 48 60 66 76
3 20 35 45 56 62 70
2. Plot concentration lines as in the graph, and construction of vertical line t0 = 90min
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Figure 5.6 Plot of concentration lines.
3. Calculation of removal efficacy

The removal efficiency can be calculated employing the following formula:
Removal efficiency,
where r0 = fraction removed on curve with t

Dr = ith increment of removal
zi = depth to midpoint of increment

Dr zi Drzi
0.05 2.60 0.13
0.1 2.10 0.21
0.1 1.25 0.12
0.1 0.80 0.08
0.1 0.48 0.05
0.1 0.20 0.02
S Drzi = 0.61
5.3 Tube and Lamella Clarifiers

In a typical sedimentation tank, the upflow velocity of the incoming fluid must be less than
the velocity of the slowest settling particle to be removed. Such criteria can also be achieved
by inserting a number of subfloors into horizontal sedimentation basins; tube and lamella
clarifiers are the examples of such alternative concepts. Tube settlers employ plastic
modules, inclined and spaced uniformly. Lamella settlers comprise of uniformly spaced
inclined panels, constructed with plastic, rawhide materials (Figure 5.7). The resultant
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velocity (on a particle), due to upward water flow and vertically downward settling velocity
directs the particle to the bottom wall of a tube, or toward the lamella. The particle slides
down the surface towards the bottom of the tank.
Figure 5.7 Configuration of lamella clarifier.
The plates or tube settlers are set at an angle between 45° and 60° above the horizontal
(Figure 5.8), to promote self-cleaning. If the angle is increased above 60°, solid removal
efficiency is decreased; on the other hand, the solids will accumulate on the plates or tubes,
when inclined at angles less than 45°. The plates are usually spaced 50 mm apart, having an
inclined length of 1-2 m. The accumulated solids (on plates or tube settlers) must be washed
out periodically, to prevent biological growth.

CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.8 Configuration of tube settlers or plates at 60° angle.
5.4 Guidelines for the Design of Sedimentation Tanks

This section provides a brief discussion of the important factors, necessary for the design of
rectangular and circular sedimentation tanks. Subsequently, the design procedures of these
sedimentation tanks have also been illustrated in Example 5.4.
a. Rectangular sedimentation tank design criteria
Ÿ Overflow rate: The overflow rate in rectangular sedimentation tank usually ranges
between 24.5-49 m3/m2.d, depending on application.
Ÿ Side depth: The side depth of rectangular clarifiers should be shallow, but should not
be less than 3 m.
Ÿ Detention time: Primary sedimentation tanks are designed to provide detention
time ranging between 1.5-2.5 h. Tanks providing shorter detention periods (0.5h-
1h), which generally exhibits less removal of suspended solids, are sometimes used
prior to biological treatment units.
Ÿ Weir loading rate: Large weir overflow rates are associated with excessive velocities at
the outlet. These velocities extend backward into settling zone causing rise of
particles and flocks, thereby degrading the effluent water quality. Weir loading must
not exceed 250 m3/d linear meter (based on design peak hourly flow), for plants with
an average of 3785 m3/d inflow; for plants with an average inflow greater than 3785
m3/d, weir loading must not exceed 373 m3/m.d linear meter (based on design peak
hourly flow).
Ÿ Scour velocity: To avoid resuspension (scouring) of the settled particles, horizontal
velocities through the tank should be kept low. The calculation of scouring velocities
is performed employing Equation (5.20).

5.20
where VH = horizontal velocity to produce scour, m/s

k = constant depending on material type being scoured
s = specific gravity of particles
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2
d = particle diameter, m
f = Darcy- Weisbach friction factor (unit-less), 0.02-0.03
Ÿ BOD and TSS removal: The estimation of BOD and total suspended solid (TSS)
removal efficacy in sedimentation tanks is defined through the following formula:
5.21
where R = expected removal efficiency, %
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t = nominal detention time
a, b = empirical constants, as illustrated in Table 5.3
Table 5.3 Typical empirical values for sedimentation tank designa.
Typical empirical values

Pollutant a b
BOD 0.018 0.020
TSS 0.0075 0.014
a
Metcalf and Eddy (2003)
The calculation of BOD and TSS removal efficacy (from wastewater) in sedimentation
tanks can also be computed graphically from overflow rate, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 Graphical relation of BOD and TSS removal efficacy vs. overflow rate in
sedimentation tanks (Steel and McGhee, 1979).

b. Circular basin design
Despite the functional zones of circular basins are similar to rectangular ones, the flow
regime is different; the flow is directed upward through the inlet baffles in circular basins.
These inlet baffles are designed to be 10-20% of the basin diameter, extending 0.9-1.8 m
below the wastewater surface (McGhee, 1991). Circular basins are usually designed with a
sidewall depth of 3 m; floor slope is typically 300 mm (horizontal) to 25 mm (vertical)
(Aqua-Aerobic Systems, 1976).
Outlet weirs are extended around the basin periphery. Excessive weir overflow should never
be a problem in these basins, due to the usage of the entire circumference. To prevent
extremely thin sheet outflow, the effective overflow area is reduced by providing V-notched
plates on overflow weirs. The schematic diagram of circular basins has been provided in
Figure 5.10.
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Figure 5.10 Diagram of circular basin for wastewater treatment.
Table 5.4 and 5.5 indicate typical design guidelines, and dimensional data of sedimentation
tanks.
Table 5.4 Typical design information of primary sedimentation tanks.

Surface settling rate Depth Detention time Source
Treatment type m3/m2.d m h
Average Peak
Primary settling 33-50 81-122 3-3.7 - US EPA, 1975
followed by 30-50 80-120 - 2.0 Metcalf and
secondary treatment Eddy. 2003
Primary settling with 24-33 49-61 3.7-4.6 - US EPA, 1975
waste activated sludge 24-32 48-70 - 2 Metcalf and
return Eddy. 2003

Table 5.5 Typical dimensional values of sedimentation tanks.a, b
Parameter Unit Value

Range Typical
Detention time h 1.5-2.5 2
Overflow rate m3/m2.d 20-70 -
Average flow 32-48 -
Peak flow 80-120 -
Weir loading m3/m.d 125-500 250
Dimensions
Rectangular
Depth m 3-5 3.6
Length m 15-90 25-40
Width m 3-24 6-10
Circular
Depth m 3-5 4.5
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Diameter m 3.6-60 12-45
Bottom slope mm/m 60-160 80
a
Value after Droste, (1997), bMetcalf and Eddy, (2003).
c. Inlets of the sedimentation tanks

Inlets of the sedimentation tanks need to be designed to distribute the flow of wastewater as
uniformly as possible, so that the best possible flow pattern is maintained.
For rectangular sedimentation tanks, various baffled inlet arrangements have been used
which are effective for flow distribution. Typical arrangements are shown schematically in
Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11 Schematic diagram of typical rectangular sedimentation tank inlets.
With circular tanks, the radial flow pattern of the wastewater from the inlet is inherently less
stable than the horizontal flow in a rectangular tank. Careful design is needed to achieve a
stable radial flow pattern. Typical arrangements are shown in Figure 5.12 for: (a) side feed;
(b) vertical pipe feed; and (c) slotted vertical pipe feed. In all these cases, the primary design
principles are that the energy of flow must be dissipated and flow velocity distribution must
be uniform.

cL cL
Figure 5.12 Standard arrangements of centre-feed inlets for circular clarifiers: (a) side
feed, (b) vertical pipe feed, (c) slotted vertical pipe feed.
CHAPTER 5

Step 4. Determine volume of the tank
Volume of the tank V = 169 m2 ´ 4 m = 676 m3
Step 5. Check detention time
At average design flow,
At peak design flow,
Step 6. Check overflow rate (v) at peak flow
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Step 7. Compute length of outlet weir
Length=flow/weir load rate
Step 8. Compute scour velocity (VH)
Step 9. Compare scour to peak flow horizontal velocity

Peak flow horizontal settling velocity through the tank:
Horizontal settling velocity at peak flow is less than scour velocity (VH-step 8); therefore, the
settled matter should not be resuspended.
Step 10. BOD and TSS removal at peak flow
Removal percentages of BOD and TSS removal can be calculated employing Equation
(5.21):

BOD removal =
TSS removal =
b. Circular tank design

Step 1. Calculating surface area
Use two circular clarifiers; the average incoming flow will be equally divided between two
tanks.
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Surface area
Therefore
Radius
Diameter
The required surface area for each tank ,
Step 2. Calculate the overflow rate

d
Overflow rate = d
Step 3. Compute the detention time (t)

Provide a sidewall depth of 3m.
h
d
Step 4. Determine wire loading rate
Provide an inboard weir of 12.2 m.
Periphery length
d
Weir loading d

Step 5. Engineering diagram
The engineering diagram of the designed circular tank has been provided in Figure 5.13.
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.13 Engineering diagram of a circular sedimentation tank.

Questions
1. With necessary conditions derive the Stokes law equation, for the analyses of discrete
particle settling in sedimentation tanks.
2. Enlist the important factors for the design of rectangular and circular sedimentation
tanks.
3. A settling analysis is run on a type 1 suspension. The column is 2m deep, and the
dataset are given below. Compute the removal efficiency in a settling basin with a
load of 30 m/d; use settling column analyses method.
Time, min 0 50 1000 120 150 220 280 450

Conc., mg/L 450 300 225 200 120 80 50 15
4. Design rectangular sedimentation tanks for wastewater treatment, employing the

following dataset. Assume necessary values, indicated in Example 5.4.
3
· Average flow rate, Qav = 15,000 m /d.
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3
· Peak hourly flow rate, Qp = 45000 m /d.
· Specific gravity of the particles to be removed, s = 1.25.
· Diameter of the particles, d = 120 µm.
· Darcy-Weisbach fraction factor, f = 0.025.
· Scouring material constant, k = 0.05

References
Aqua-Aerobic Systems. 1976. Clarifiers design. Rockford, Illinois: Aqua-Aerobic Systems.
Camp, T.R. 1943. Velocity gradients and internal work in fluid motion. J. Boston Society of Civil
Engineering, 30, 219.
Droste, R.L. 1997. Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment. Printed by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., Canada.
McGhee, T.J. 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage. 6th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
Metcalf and Eddy. 2003. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., New Delhi, India.
Steel, E.W. and McGhee, T.J. 1979. Water Supply and Sewerage. 5th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
USA.
US EPA. 1975. Process design manual for suspended solids removal. EPA 625/1-75-003a, Washington DC,
USA.
CHAPTER 5

6
Chapter
Secondary Treatment
Wastewater after receiving primary treatment (Chapter 5), generally contains 40-50% of the
original suspended solids, along with substantial amount of initial dissolved organics and
inorganics. As such, the effluent quality of primary treatment process does not often meet the
discharge criteria in most countries. To polish such effluent (to discharge criteria),
secondary treatment mechanism, commonly referred as biological treatment mechanism,
usually follows primary treatment process. A typical secondary treatment process includes
an aeration basin, followed by a secondary clarifier (Figure 6.1); the effluent quality (from
secondary treatment) is enhanced due to: (a) removal of organics (i.e. soluble and colloidal
form) through biodegradation; and (b) capturing of solids into biological films.
Secondary treatment
Return sludge
Sludge
waste
Influent Effluent
Biological Secondary
reactor clarifier
CHAPTER 6
suspended
growth
attached
growth
Figure 6.1 Flow diagram of secondary treatment process.

The volatile organic compounds such as: benzene, toluene and the dichlorobenzenes may
be lost by volatilisation process during wastewater and sludge treatment at thickening,
particularly if the sludge is aerated or agitated and by dewatering. The majority of
volatilisation occurs through air stripping in aerated vessels. However, some studies (Melcer
et al., 1992) reported that the stripping of volatiles may not be significant; biodegradation
during secondary biological wastewater treatment may be the main mechanism of loss of the
potentially volatile compounds. For example, Melcer et al. (1992) reported that
biodegradation processes removed ³ 90 % of the dichoromethane, 1,1,1-trichoromethane,
trichloroethylene, toluene and xylene from a municipal wastewater. Volatilisation was only a
significant mechanism of removal for 1,4-dichlorobenzene (20 %) and tetrachloroethylene
(60 %).
This chapter provides a comprehensive description of organics removal kinetics, and
biodegradation routes in secondary treatment plants. Sections 6.1-6.5 provide information
on the common microorganisms observed in biological reactors, and associated kinetic
equations that accelerate the removal of organics from wastewater. Sections 6.6-6.13
emphasize on the common variations of the treatment plants employed for the removal of
organic materials from wastewater. Subsequently, section 6.14 demonstrates a step-wise
procedure required for the design of secondary treatment units.
Secondary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 127

6.1 Common Organisms of Biological Process
Biological treatment plants are generally designed to facilitate substantial growth of different
types of microorganisms, for wastewater treatment. The most common organisms that grow
in biological reactors are bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and rotifiers.
Bacteria. Bacteria are the most common microorganisms in biological reactors; they are
unicellular prokaryotic organisms (Figure 6.2), and distinguishable according to their shape
(coccoid, spherical, rod-like, spiral, and filamentous). Bacteria are capable of stabilizing
colloidal and solid organic matter outside the cell by means of extra cellular enzymes, thereby
contributing to organics removal (from wastewater). Each type of bacteria lives and
multiplies (through binary fission) under specific environmental conditions, such as: light,
air, water, food, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO).
C C
M
N
CHAPTER 6
F P
Figure 6.2 Single cell bacteria.
According to the metabolic requirements, bacteria can be classified as autotrophic and

heterotrophic bacteria. Autotrophic bacteria use carbon from carbon dioxide; heterotrophic
bacteria utilize organic carbon for the formation of cell tissue. Organisms that use light as
their energy source are known as phototrophic bacteria, that can be either heterotrophic
(such as sulphur bacteria), or autotrophic (such as photosynthetic bacteria). Organisms
deriving energy from chemical reactions are known as chemotrophs, and can be either
heterotrophic (most bacteria), or autotrophic (such as Nitrosonomas and Nitrobacter).
Table 6.1 provides a general classification of bacteria based on metabolism activities.
Table 6.1 General classification of microorganisms depending on metabolism.
Classification Energy source Carbon source

Autotrophic
Photo-autotrophic Light CO2
Chemo-autotrophic Inorganic oxidation and reduction CO2
Heterotrophic
Photo-heterotrophic Light Organic Carbon
Chemo- heterotrophic Organic oxidation and reduction Organic Carbon

Table 6.2 Classification of bacteria with temperature variation.
Temperature
Type °C
Range Optimum
Psychrophilic -2-30 12-18
Mesophilic 20-45 25-40
Thermophilic 45-75 55-65
Bacteria can also be classified into the following groups (Table 6.2), depending on the
survival temperature range.
Fungi. Fungi are multicellular, non-photosynthetic plants. They are strict aerobes, and have
the ability to grow under low moisture conditions. The optimum pH for fungi is 5.6; the
survival range is 2-9. Fungi compete with bacteria for food, where bacteria are mostly
favored. Fungi also have lower nitrogen requirement. The ability of fungi to survive under
low pH and nitrogen limiting condition makes them very important, in terms of providing
biological treatment to some industrial wastewaters. However, because of large filamentous
shape, fungi tend to settle poorly, thereby limiting sedimentation.
Algae. Algae are photosynthetic microorganisms. They produce bad taste and odors, so they
CHAPTER 6
are undesirable in water supplies. In oxidation ponds, algae are valuable because they have
the ability to produce O2 by photosynthesis. At night, when light is no longer available for
photosynthesis, they use up O2 for respiration.
Protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled animals. They may grow under aerobic, anaerobic or
facultative environment. They are larger than bacteria and often consume bacteria. As a
result, they perform as polishers of the biological treatment effluents.
Rotifers. Rotifers are simple multi cellular animals. They feed on bacteria, small protozoa,
thus stabilizing the waste. Since rotifiers require higher dissolved oxygen content, their
presence is a good indicator of the treated wastewater stability.
6.2 Cell Growth of Bacteria

When small amount of bacteria is inoculated in a fixed volume with culture medium, they
generally require time to acclimatize to the new environmental conditions. This period is
referred as lag phase; during such phase the density of bacteria remains constant. When
excess food is applied, bacteria cells divide at a rate, determined by their generation time and
ability to process food. This phase is known as log phase; such phase results rapid increase of
bacterial density, associated with maximum substrate removal rate. The log phase exhausts
some nutrients and accumulation of toxic substances which decreases cell growth followed
by growth inhibition. At this point, the growth of cell remains stationary which is referred as
stationary phase. As the food depletes and bacterial density increases, cell growth further
declines. This phase is referred as log death phase or endogenous phase. Starvation and
decrease of bacterial cell metabolism is a common feature in this phase. Figure 6.3 illustrates
different phases usually observed in bacterial growth curve.

Figure 6.3 Bacterial growth curve.
6.3 Kinetic Transformations in Biological Reactors

A wide variety of biological conversions can occur in biological treatment plants (for
pollutant removal) such as: (a) biological growth; (b) hydrolysis; and (c) decay, illustrated
CHAPTER 6
in Figure 6.4.
slowly degradable material slowly degradable material
hydrolysis
hydrolysis
easily degradable material

easily degradable material
hydrolysis
biological
growth
very easily degradable material
biomass biological
growth
decay
biomass
inert material decay
inert material
Figure 6.4 Biological conversion in treatment plants.
Biological growth. Bacteria in wastewater treatment process can only utilize very simple
and small compounds for growth, demonstrated in Equation (6.1).
6.1
where rg,XB =biological growth rate, mg/L.d

µ = specific growth rate, d-1
XB =biomass concentration, mg/L

At limiting substrate concentration, the specific growth rate of bacteria can be expressed
through Monod kinetics:
6.2
where S = limiting substrate concentration in solution, mg/L

KS = half saturation constant at one half the maximum growth rate (Figure 6.5),
mg/L; KS represents the affinity of the microorganism for the substrate
µ = specific growth rate, d-1
µmax = maximum specific growth rate, d-1
Combining Equation (6.2) and (6.1) yields:
mmax
Specific growth rate, m
mmax
CHAPTER 6
Substrate concentration, S
Figure 6.5 Monod half saturation constant.
6.3
Several observations can be made from Equation (6.3); where there is an excess of the
limiting food (i.e. S>>KS), the growth rate constant is almost equal to maximum specific
growth rate μmax, and the system becomes biomass limited (i.e. the specific growth rate is
controlled by μmax). Such correlation has been demonstrated in Equation (6.4):
6.4
Equation (6.4) is a first order reaction kinetics, denoting that the growth rate is proportional
to the first power of biomass present. When S<<KS (Equation 6.3), the system becomes food
limited and the specific growth rate is controlled by KS (Equation 6.5).

6.5
Equation (6.5) is a zero order reaction, illustrating that the growth rate is independent of
biomass presence. When S = KS (Equation 6.3), the growth rate constant is one-half of the
half saturation constant (KS).
If all food is converted to biomass by bacterial population, then food utilization rate should
theoretically be equal to the rate of biomass production. However, a portion of the food is
converted into waste products; as such, food utilization rate by bacteria is always greater than
the biomass production rate. The interrelation between food utilization rate and biomass
production is demonstrated by Equation (6.6).
6.6
and 6.7
where Y = decimal fraction of food mass converted to biomass
=
CHAPTER 6
= rate of food utilization, mg/L .d
Hydrolysis. It is a process which converts larger particulate, dissolved organics and solid
molecules into small degradable products, which can be metabolized by bacteria. Since the
reaction rate of this process is slower than biological growth process, hydrolysis often
becomes the rate limiting step in biological reactors. Hydrolysis process follows first order
kinetics, as illustrated in Equations (6.8)-(6.9).
6.8
where XS = suspended solid concentration, mg/L
6.9
where S = dissolved organic matter concentration, mg/L
kh = hydrolysis constant
It should be noted that, the hydrolysis constant (kh) of Equation (6.8) and (6.9) is not
identical.
Decay. Decay process is usually associated with the reduction of the number, and mass of
microorganisms. In biological reactors, decay is the degradation of biomass due to oxidation
of the biomass organic portion. This process does not change substance amounts; in fact,
through decay metabolism slowly degradable organic matter is added to the system which is
hydrolyzed further, thereby causing new growth. Decay is described as a first order kinetics,
as illustrated in Equation (6.10):

6.10
-1
where kd is the constant for decay, d .
Combining Equation (6.3) and (6.10) yields the Monod equation:
6.11
6.4 Organic Matter Measurement

Biodegradable organics (BOD). These materials consist of organics which can be utilized
as food by microorganisms within a specified time period. The degradation of organics in a
biological reactor can proceed via two routes: (a) aerobic; and (b) anaerobic degradation. In
aerobic degradation, microbiological decomposition occurs in presence of oxygen, and the
end products of such decomposition are stable and acceptable. In anaerobic system,
degradation proceeds in the absence of oxygen; the end products of anaerobic degradation
are unstable and objectionable. This chapter describes aerobic process in details; the
mechanisms of anaerobic process have been illustrated in Chapter 9 (sludge management).
The amount of oxygen consumed during organics degradation (by microorganisms) is
CHAPTER 6
known as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD indicates the biodegradable organic
content of wastewater. It is often referred as BOD5, which is measured at the end of 5 days on
incubation at 20°C.
The rate at which biodegradable organics are utilized by microorganisms is assumed to be a
first order reaction; as such, the rate at which organic materials are utilized is proportional to
the amount available (in wastewater). This can be expressed mathematically through
Equation (6.12).
6.12
where, Lt =oxygen equivalent of organics at time t, mg/L

k = reaction constant, d-1
Equation (6.12) can be arranged as shown in Equation (6.13).
6.13
The integration of Equation (6.13) yields Equation (6.14).
6.14
where L0= total oxygen equivalent of the organics at time zero
Lt = oxygen amount remaining at time t

L0
L0 - Lt = Yt
Yt
Lt
Figure 6.6 BOD exertion and remaining relationships.
If L0 is the oxygen equivalent of the total mass of organics, then the difference between L0 and
Lt is the oxygen equivalent consumed, or BOD exerted (Figure 6.6), defined mathematically
through Equation (6.15).
CHAPTER 6
6.15
and 6.16
where yt represents BODt of the water.
The value of k determines the reaction speed of BOD reaction. The reaction kinetics of easily
degradable organics exhibits higher k values, whereas complex organics degradation kinetics
demonstrates lower k values. For example, if k1, k2 and k3 are the degradation reaction kinetics
of complex, degradable and easily degradable organics, then the interrelation between these
three constants can be expressed as k3>k2>k1 (Figure 6.7). The values of k usually range from
0-1-0.5 d-1, and can be determined by Arrhenius model (Equation 6.17), which is critically
dependent on temperature.
L0
K3>K2
K2>K1
K1
Figure 6.7 Exertion of BOD as a function of k.

6.17
where, kT, k20 are BOD rate constants at T °C and 20 °C respectively
q =1.047
Example 6.1. Determination of BOD in wastewater. The BOD5 of a wastewater is 200
mg/L at 20°C. k at 20°C is 0.20 per day. Determine the BOD7 of the sample at 10°C.
Solution
1. Determination of ultimate BOD (L0)
The ultimate BOD (L0) is 316 mg/L.

2. Determination of k at 10°C
CHAPTER 6
3. Determination of BOD7 at 10°C
Chemical oxygen demand (COD). Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the O2
equivalent of the organic matter, that can be oxidized with a strong chemical oxidizing agent
(a mixture of dichromate and sulphuric acid with silver sulphate as catalyst), at an elevated
temperature (150°C) for two hours. COD of wastewater is always greater than BOD, as
more compounds can be chemically oxidized by biological oxidation.
The COD of wastewater comprises of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organics.
Each of these two forms can be further classified into particulate and dissolved organics.
Different physical processes (eg. screening, adsorption) of biological reactors contribute to
the removal of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable particulate matter. The
biodegradable particulate matter is initially subjected to flocculation, adsorption on biofilm
cell wall, followed by hydrolysis of the adsorbed material into soluble organic matter. In
contrast, the biodegradable dissolved organics usually pass through the biofilm cell (due to
extremely small size), thereby subjected to metabolism. The non-biodegradable dissolved
organic portions (of wastewater) leave the process, without being captured. Employing S as
a generic symbol of influent organic matter (denoted as COD), the total influent COD
concentration (Sti) can be defined as:
6.18

where Sti = influent COD concentration
Sbi = biodegradable influent COD concentration
Sni = non-biodegradable influent COD concentration
Sbsi = biodegradable dissolved influent COD concentration
Sbpi = biodegradable particulate influent COD concentration
Snpi = non-biodegradable particulate influent COD concentration
Snsi = non-biodegradable dissolved influent COD concentration
Figure 6.8 illustrates a diagram of influent COD fractions usually present in wastewater.
Removal mechanism
Biogradable dissolved
influent COD Metabolism
concentration (Sbsi)
Biogradable
influent COD
concentration (Sbi) Biogradable particulate
Adsorption, hydrolysis
influent COD
and metabolism
Total influent concentration (Sbpi)
COD
concentration Non-biodegradable
particulate influent COD Bioflocculation
Non-biogradable concentration (Snpi)
CHAPTER 6
influent COD
concentration (Sni) Non-biodegradable
dissolved influent COD Effluent
concentration (Snsi)
Figure 6.8 Influent COD characterization according to composition fractions

in wastewater.
COD values of wastewater are always greater than BOD values, as more compounds can be
oxidized by the strong chemical agent. Typical ratio of BOD/COD for untreated domestic
wastewater is in the range of 0.3-0.8; a BOD/COD ratio of 0.5 or greater indicates that the
wastewater is easily degradable, while the ratio below 0.3 indicates that the wastewater is
difficult to degrade by microorganisms.
6.5 Factors Effecting Aerobic Degradation of Organics

The important factors that influence aerobic degradation of organics are: (a) temperature;
(b) oxygen; (c) pH; and (d) nitrogen and phosphorus.
Temperature. The dependency of organic reaction kinetics on temperature (in biological
process) can be illustrated through Equation (6.19):
6.19
This expression is applicable within temperature range 0-32°C, in aerobic process, and
becomes constant at temperature range 32-40°C, and then shifted towards zero at 45°C.
Oxygen. The dependency of aerobic organic degradation on the availability of oxygen can
be defined through Monod equation (Equation 6.20):

6.20
where SO = oxygen concentration in the reactor, mg/L

2
KS,O = half saturation oxygen constant, mg/L

2
Combining Equation (6.20) with classical Monod Equation (Equation 6.2) yields double
Monod expression, illustrating the dependency of aerobic organics degradation on the
availability of oxygen and organics (in wastewater), as expressed in Equation (6.21):
6.21
pH. The influence of pH on aerobic organic degradation is defined by Equation (6.22):
6.22
where KpH is pH constant

and
Alkalinity consumption due to nitrification, or chemical precipitation of phosphorus often
CHAPTER 6
results in lower pH values, which can cause major problems in biological treatment
processes.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Lower nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in wastewater
can inhibit the growth of aerobic biofilms, due to lack of nutrient requirement.
The typical constants of the kinetic equations (as discussed previously) have been illustrated
in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Reaction rate constants for aerobic conversions at 20°Ca.
Symbol Unit Quantity

Maximum specific growth rate μmax d-1 4-8
Substrate saturation constant KS,COD gCOD/m3 5-30
Oxygen saturation constant KS,O2 gO2/m3 0.5-1
Maximum yield constant Ymax, H gCOD/gCOD 0.5-0.7
pH constant KpH 150-250
a
after Henze et al., (2002).
6.6 Classification of Biological Reactors

The biological reactors to accomplish secondary treatment metabolism can be classified
into suspended growth and attached growth process.
Suspended growth: Microorganisms responsible for the conservation of organic matter to
gas and cell tissue are remained in suspension within the liquid.
Attached growth: Organisms responsible for conversion of organic matter are attached to a
medium.

6.7 Suspended Growth System: Activated Sludge Process
The activated sludge process consists of an aeration tank, followed by a secondary clarifier.
The aeration tank (Figure 6.9a) is fed with a mixture of influent and sludge, referred as mixed
liquor suspended solid (MLSS) or mixed liquor volatile suspended solid (MLVSS). The
MLVSS is the volatile portion (eg. microorganisms) of the MLSS, ranging between 0.75-
0.85 of MLSS. The aerators in the tank provide necessary turbulence for keeping the sludge
flocs in suspension; in addition, the aerators of such tank also provide necessary oxygen for
the oxidation of organic matter. The oxidized MLSS is then transferred to the following
secondary clarifier, where solids are separated from liquid phase. The separated liquid (i.e.
supernatant) is discharged, referred as effluent whereas a portion of the settled sludge
(known as returned sludge) containing microorganisms, is again transferred to the aeration
tank. The return of this sludge portion is critically important for maintaining the pollutant
removal performances of the aeration tanks, as it increases biomass availability, and
accelerate associated kinetic reactions.
The microorganisms in the activated sludge process comprise of filamentous and unicellular
bacteria; predominant bacteria include Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Flavobacterium and
Alcaligenes. The microorganisms in MLSS are composed of 70-90% organic and 10-30%
inorganic matter (Okun 1949).
CHAPTER 6
The mass balance of organics removal across an activated sludge system can be calculated
assuming steady state conditions; the assumption defines no accumulation of influent
organic material inside the system. As such, the daily mass of applied influent organic load
(into the system) is the sum of the following fluxes (Figure 6.9b): (a) influent organic
matter, not removed in the process escapes as effluent organic material (MSte); (b)
transformation of a portion of organic material to organic sludge, and being discharged as
excess sludge (MSxv); and (c) oxidation of a portion of the organic matter (MS0). The routes
that transform organic matter are: (a) transformation of organic sludge by anabolism, decay,
flocculation and adsorption; and (b) oxidation into inorganic products.
(a)

Oxidized
COD MS0
Influent COD Mixed liquor Effluent COD

Aeration tank Secondary
clarifier
MSti MSte
Return sludge
COD in excess MSxv

sludge
(b)
Figure 6.9 (a) Pictorial view of an aeration tank; and (b) organic flow diagram (expressed
as COD) across activated sludge system.
The sludge mixing pattern in the aeration tank (of activated sludge process) follows either a
completely mixed or a plug flow approach.
Complete mix with recycle. In a complete mix reactor or continuous flow stirred tank
CHAPTER 6
reactor (CSTR), the flow is continuously stirred to enhance complete mixing in the reactor.
The substrate concentration in a CSTR reactor is same as the effluent substrate
concentration. The hydraulic retention time in a CSTR reactor is defined according to
Equation (6.23).
6.23
where q =hydraulic retention time, d

V =tank volume, m3
Q =influent wastewater flow, m3/d
The sludge age (qC) is a crucial factor for designing activated sludge process, which can be
defined as the ratio of the organism's mass in the aeration tank, and the mass removed from
the system per day. Such definition of sludge age can be expressed through Equation (6.24)
(for sludge wasting from aeration tank-Figure 6.10a), and Equation (6.25) (for sludge
wasting from return sludge line-Figure 6.10b).
6.24
6.25
Where,qC = mean cell residence time, d

X = concentration of MLVSS maintained in the tank, mg/L
Qwa, Qe = waste sludge flow removed from aeration tank and flow of treated effluent,
m3/d

Xe = microorganism concentration in effluent (VSS), mg/L
Qwr = waste sludge flow from return sludge line, m3/d
Xr = microorganism concentration in return sludge line, mg/L
Qwa, X
Q, S0, X0 Aeration tank Mixed liquor

Secondary
Qe, Xe, S
Influent X= MLVSS clarifier Effluent
Return activated sludge (RAS)

Qr, S, Xr
(a)
Q, S0, X0 Aeration tank Mixed liquor

Secondary
Qe, Xe, S

Qwa, Xr
(b) Qr, S, Xr
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of a completely mixed reactor with: (a) wasting of sludge
from aeration tank; and (b) wasting from return sludge line.
Biomass and substrate mass balance. The mass balance in the entire activated sludge
process can be defined as the rate of accumulation of microorganisms in the inflow plus net
growth, minus that in the outflow, as defined in Equation (6.26):
6.26
where, V= aeration tank volume, m3

dX/dt = rate of change of microorganism concentration (VSS), mg/(L.m3.d)
X0 =microorganism concentration (VSS) in influent, mg/L
X = microorganism concentration in tank, mg/L
r'g = net rate of micro-organism growth (VSS), mg/(L.d)
Bacterial net growth rate (Equation 6.26) growth can be expressed according to Equation
(6.27), after replacing the right term of Equation (6.11) with Equation (6.7):
6.27
where Y = maximum yield coefficient, mg/mg
rs = substrate utilization rate, mg/m3.d
kd = endogenous decay coefficient, d-1
Table 6.4 denotes the values of yield coefficient and endogenous decay coefficient for
activated sludge process.

Table 6.4 Yield and endogenous decay coefficients.a
Coefficient Unit Range Typical
Y g VSS/g BOD5 0.4-0.84 0.6
Y g VSS/g COD 0.24-0.4 0.4
kd d-1 0.004-0.10 0.06
k d-1 11 - 20 5
a
After Lawrence and McCarty (1970), Metcalf and Eddy (1991),
and WEF and ASCE (1992)
Substituting Equation (6.27) into Equation (6.26), and assuming: (a) the cell concentration
(X0) in the influent is zero; and (b) steady-state conditions, results in equation (6.28):
6.28
Since the left hand side of equation (6.28) is the inverse of mean cell residence time qC
(Equation 6.24), Equation (6.28) can be expressed as:
6.29
Substrate utilization rate rs can be computed from Equation (6.30):
CHAPTER 6
6.30
where, S0 = influent substrate concentration, mg/L

S = effluent substrate concentration, mg/L
q = hydraulic retention time, d
The mass concentration of microorganisms (i.e. biomass) X in the aeration tank can be
derived by substituting Equation (6.30) into equation (6.29):
6.31
Substituting hydraulic retention time q = V/Q in equation (6.31) for solving volume of
reactor (V), yields equation (6.32):
6.32
The substrate concentration (S) in the effluent can also be determined from the substrate
mass balance as demonstrated in Equation (6.33):
6.33
Where k can be defined as maximum rate of substrate utilization per unit mass of
microorganism, per day.
Substituting the value of X given in Equation (6.31) for r'g in Equation (6.27), and dividing
by the term S0-S, the observed yield in the system (with recycle) is:

6.34
where, Yobs = observed yield in the system with recycle, mg/mg

The prediction of effluent organics concentration, employing Equation (6.31) and (6.33) is
difficult, due to presence of substantial parameters. As such, the correlation between
substrate utilization rate, mean cell residence time, and food to microorganism ratio is often
used for the design of activated sludge system. The term rs/X in equation (6.29) is defined as
specific substrate utilization rate, U (Equation 6.35).
6.35
Applying the expression of rs (Equation 6.30) in Equation (6.35), the specific substrate
utilization rate can be computed:
6.36
Substituting the term U in Equation (6.29) yields the following equation:

6.37
CHAPTER 6
In completely mixed activated sludge process the VSS in the effluent (Xe) is very small,
thereby can be neglected. As such, Equation (6.24) can be written as:
or, 6.38
Similarly, Equation (6.25) can be expressed as:
6.39
The term food-to microorganism ratio (F/M) is extensively employed for activated sludge
process design. The F/M ratio (d-1) is denoted as the ratio of influent soluble BOD5
concentration (S0), to the product of hydraulic retention time (θ) and MLVSS
concentration (X) in the aeration tank (Equation 6.40).
6.40
F/M and U are interrelated, which can be implemented for the computation of the efficiency
(E) of the activated-sludge process, defined in Equation (6.41):
6.41
and, 6.42

where S0 = influent substrate concentration, mg/L
S = effluent substrate concentration, mg/L
Sludge production. The amount of sludge production (from activated sludge process) per
day can be calculated by equation (6.43).
6.43
Where,Px = waste activated sludge (VSS), kg/d

Yobs = observed yield, g/g
Oxygen requirement. The oxygen requirement in the activated sludge (for BOD removal)
is determined from Equation (6.44).
6.44
The normal air requirements for most of the activated sludge systems are 1.1 kg O2 (93.5 m3
of air) per kg BOD5. In general, air requirements vary between 3.75-15 m3 air/m3 water
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Table 6.5 describes the air requirement in activated sludge
processes, based on F/M ratio.
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.5 Air requirements and F/M ratio correlationship.a
F/M ratio Air requirements
>0.3d-1 31-56 m3/kg BOD5 removal
<0.3d-1 75-112m3/kg BOD5 removal
a
After Lin (2007).
Recycle rate. The recycle rate (R) can be defined as the ratio of return sludge and raw
wastewater (Figure 6.11), and can be expressed through Equation (6.45).
6.45
where R = recycle rate

Q1 = influent flow rate, m3/d
Q4 = flow rate of return sludge, m3/d
Q1 Q1 + Q4 Q3
C1 Aeration tank Secondary C3
V2X2 clarifier
S1 S3
X1 X3
Q4, C4, S4, X4 Q5, C5, S5, X5
Figure 6.11 Activated sludge process with recycle.
Volumetric loading. The volumetric loading (kg BOD/m3.d), which is often employed for
the design of activated sludge plants can be expressed by Equation (6.46).

6.46
where C1 = input BOD load rate, kg BOD/m3

V2 = aeration tank volume, m3
VL = volumetric loading, kg BOD/m3.d
6.8 Plug- Flow Pattern: Activated Sludge Process

In plug flow (PF) regime, it is assumed that complete mixing occurs in the transverse plane,
but minimal mixing takes place towards the flow direction. Typically, long and narrow
aeration tanks are employed (Figure 6.12a) to provide such mixing regime.
Q Aeration tank Secondary

Q-Q w

Qwa
CHAPTER 6
(a) Qr (b)
Figure 6.12 (a) Long aeration tank to achieve plug flow regime; and (b) oxygen
concentration profile in a PF tank.
In a PF system, the oxygen demand is higher at the influent end (of the basin), due to
intensive degradation of readily degradable substrates (Figure 6.12b). At the effluent end of
the basin oxygen demand is lower, which can be attributed to lower rate of endogenous
metabolism coupled with absence of readily degradable substrates.
The widely accepted kinetic model for a PF reactor was developed by Lawrence and
McCarty (1969); the expressions derived (by the authors) for average MLSS ( ) and food
utilization are illustrated in Equations (6.47)-(6.48). It should be noted that these equations
are valid only when qc/q ³ 5.
6.47
6.48
Integrating Equation (6.47) over detention time in reactor and substituting the appropriate
boundary conditions, and recycle factor, yields Equation (6.49).

6.49
where K0 = maximum growth rate constant, d-1

Qr = recycled flow rate, m3/d
Si = substrate concentration after mixing with recycled sludge, mg/L
s = recycle factor,
6.9 Secondary Clarifiers

The secondary clarifiers of activated sludge processes fulfill two objectives: (a) producing
effluent that fulfills discharge criteria; and (b) concentrating biological solids to minimize
sludge quantity that has to be treated. As such, proper designing of secondary clarifiers are
very critical for enhancing the performances of activated sludge process.
CHAPTER 6
The settling phenomenon of solids, and various settling zones observed in secondary
clarifiers can be described by column batch analyses. If a column (in column batch analyses)
is filled with concentrated suspension and allowed to settle, the contents will be divided into
different zones, as observed in Figure 6.13a. In zone B, initial concentration C0 is preserved
and settles at a uniform velocity, resulting clarified zone (A zone); the clarified zone is
lengthened at the same velocity.
Below the uniform velocity zone, two other zones develop. Particles which reach at the
bottom gain resting position; particles fall on them form a compression zone, referred as
zone D (Figure 6.13a) which is supported from below. The intermediate zone between D
and B contains a concentration gradient slightly higher than C0 just below zone B, and
slightly less than the concentration at the top of compression zone (D zone). Such
intermediate zone (between D and B) can be defined as thickening zone.
As time progresses, relative movement occurs between the zone interfaces. C-D interface
moves upward, due to drop of particles from zone C into zone D. Such drop of particle results
upward displacement of B-C interface at the same velocity of C-D interface; this condition
continues as long as velocity gradient of C zone remains constant, resulting constant width of
this zone (C zone). However, A-B interface also moves downward due to uniform settling of
particles (with initial concentration). The simultaneous downward movement of A-B
interface, and upward displacement of C-D interface erodes particles of zone B at top to
bottom, until it becomes nonexistent (t = t3). After this time the newly formed A-C interface
settles at a decreasing rate, as the interfacial solids concentration increases from C0 (just at
the disappearance of zone B), to the concentration of the top layer of the compression zone
just as zone C also disappears (t = t5). The newly formed A-D interface will subside at a slow
uniform rate; the solids consolidate under their own weight, releasing some of interstitial
water to the clarified zone located above.

(a)
CHAPTER 6
(b)
(c)
Figure 6.13 (a) Different settling zones observed in batch column analyses; (b) settling
zones of secondary clarifiers; and (c) pictorial view of a secondary clarifier.

The settling phenomena, as observed in column batch analyses are also applicable for
continuous flow secondary clarifiers. If steady-state conditions are imposed on flow rate and
solids concentration for both influent and underflow, all the zones will be in static positions
(Figure 6.13b). Due to this assumption, the A-B interface will be stationary, resulting in
rising of water (in the clarified zone) towards overflow rate at a rate of settling velocity of C0
concentration.
The zone settling principles for continuous flow secondary clarifier are same as batch
analysis. The thickening function is accomplished by concentration gradient in thickening
and compression zone. Solid flux method can be used to determine thickening function. The
downward velocity of solids in secondary clarifier has two components:
Ÿ transport velocity due to sludge withdraw
Ÿ gravity settling of solid relative to water
The transport velocity (vu) is a function of underflow rate (Qu) and tank area (A), illustrated
in Equation (6.50):
6.50
The resulting solid flux (i.e. the product of underflow rate and the solids concentration) can
be defined in Equation (6.51):
CHAPTER 6
6.51
Here, Gu is solid flux at particular depth where solid concentration is Xi.

The solid flux due to gravity settling is illustrated in Equation (6.52):
6.52
where vg = settling velocity of solids at Xi concentration.
The total solid flux in secondary clarifier is the sum of underflow transport and gravity flux
(Figure 6.14) as observed in Equation (6.53).
Figure 6.14 Solid flux vs. solids concentration curve.

6.53
The total solid flux is limited by a minimum value from gravity thickening. For a given
underflow rate, the limiting gravity flux also determines underflow concentration Xu.
Figure 6.15 Yoshoika’s modification for matching underflow concentrations

to limiting flux.
CHAPTER 6
Yoshioka et al., (1957) employed modification of the above graphical procedures, for
matching underflow concentrations to their related limiting flux rates. According to such
modification, a line beginning at the desired underflow concentration (Xu) is drawn in
tangent to the gravity flux curve (Figure 6.15), which intersects solid flux ordinate at limiting
flux. The absolute value of the tangent slope is referred as the underflow velocity; the abscissa
value at tangency point is the limiting gravity flux concentration. The ordinate at the
tangency point is gravity solid flux (Gg), while the intercept GL-Gg is the flux due to underflow
transport.
Table 6.6 Guidelines for the design of secondary clarifiers.

Overflow rate Loading
Depth
Treatment m3/m2.d kg/m2.h
m
Avg. Peak Avg. Peak
Settling following 16 - 32 40 - 48 3-6 9 3.5 - 5
air activated sludge
Settling following 8 - 16 24 - 32 1-5 7 3.5-5
extended aeration
The procedures and equations described in the previous paragraphs require extensive
experimental analyses. However, when such data sets are not available, the engineer may
depend on literature for the design of secondary clarifiers. Table 6.6 presents such data sets
for the design of secondary clarifier. However the implementation of these data is critically
dependent on the wastewater characteristics.
Operational control of secondary clarifier. The smooth performance of secondary
clarifiers (in activated sludge process) is dependent on a set of critical operational tools, such

as: sludge volume index, sludge density index, return activated sludge flow rate, sludge
settleability, and waste activated sludge.
a. Sludge volume index: The sludge volume index (SVI) is defined as the volume (in
mL), that is occupied by 1 g suspension after 30 minutes settling. SVI often has an
impact on return sludge, and can be calculated employing Equation (6.54).
6.54
where SVI = sludge volume index, mL/g

SV = settled sludge volume, mL/L
b. Sludge density index: Sludge density index is also employed for calculating the
settleability of sludge in a secondary clarifier. The weight (grams) of 1 mL sludge
after 30 minutes settling can be calculated through the following equation:
6.55
where SDI = sludge density index, g/mL

c. Return activated sludge and flow rate: Returned activated sludge (RAS) is the settled
sludge of the secondary clarifier, that is returned to the aeration tank. RAS is a crucial
CHAPTER 6
parameter for proper functioning of the activated sludge process, because it
maintains a certain proportion of microbial population in the aeration tank for
pollutant removal (from wastewater).The minimum percentage of RAS is related to
SVI, and can be expressed according to Equation (6.56):
% of RAS 6.56
where P = solid percentage of the mixed liquor

The flow rate at which sludge is returned to the aeration tank can be determined by
mass balance analyses around aeration tank (Figure 6.10). Assuming no
accumulation in the aeration tank, and influent solids concentration in the tank is
negligible, the mass inflow is equal to the outflow. Equation (6.57) denotes a typical
mass balance analyses around aeration tank.
6.57
where Xr = returned activated sludge suspended solids, mg/L
Qr = RAS flow rate, m3/s
and 6.58
The sludge settleablity method can also be utilized, to determine the RAS flow rate.
Such method requires establishing a relation between influent flow rate, and settled
sludge volume defined in Equation (6.59).

6.59
where SV=settled sludge volume (after 30 minutes), mL/L

d. Waste activated sludge: In activated sludge processes, a portion of the settled sludge
(in the secondary clarifier) is returned to the aeration tank. The excess portion of the
settled sludge, commonly referred as waste activated sludge (WAS) is discharged to
sludge thickeners for treatment and disposal. The objectives of WAS are: (a) to
maintain a certain F/M ratio; (b) to remove excess number of microorganisms from
the system.
The WAS can be calculated from mass balance analyses around the secondary
clarifier. Assuming no net change of sludge blanket in the clarifier, and effluent solids
concentration from the tank to be negligible, the mass balance around the clarifier
must be equal to the solids entering and leaving the tank. This relationship can be
written from Figure 6.10 b.
6.60
and 6.61
CHAPTER 6
where Qr= return activated sludge flow, m3/d

Qwa= waste activated sludge flow, m3/d
WAS= SS of waste activated sludge, mg/L
RAS= SS of return activated sludge, mg/L
e. Sludge bulking: The main purpose of secondary clarifiers is to enhance the settling of
sludge, thereby producing clear, odorless supernatant (i.e. effluent). However, these
objectives are often hindered due to poor sludge settling, and formation of foam,
resulting in floating of such materials in the supernatant, followed by escaping (of
sludge materials), which in turn increase BOD and solids concentration of the
effluent. This phenomenon is referred as sludge bulking.
Sludge bulking is caused by: (a) growth of filamentous (eg. Fungi, Beggiatoa, Thiotrix,
and Leucothrix) and foam forming organisms (eg. Nocardia amarae, Microthrix
parvicella, N. amarae, and N. pinesis), which donot readily settle in secondary
clarifiers; and (b) adverse environmental and operating conditions such as: excessive
flow, BOD loading, inadequate aeration, flow short circuiting, lack of nutrients, and
presence of toxic materials.
If sludge bulking is observed in secondary clarifiers, it can be mitigated by adjusting
the operating conditions (as described in the previous paragraphs). In addition,
microscopic examination is also necessary, to detect the presence of filamentous
organisms in the clarifier. Chlorination of 2-3 mg/L (of chlorine) per 1000 mg/L of
MLVSS is also beneficial (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1991) for eliminating sludge
bulking. Applying hydroperoxide oxidant or pH adjustment can also improve sludge
bulking condition.

Example 6.2. Operational parameter calculation. The influent flow rate (Q) of a return
activated sludge process is 40,000 m3/d, MLSS (X) in aeration tank is 3000 mg/L, and
settling sludge volume (SV) in 30 min is 250 mL in a secondary clarifier. Compute: (1)
sludge volume index; (2) return flow ratio and rate; and (3) suspended solid (SS)
concentration in return activated sludge.
Solution
1. Sludge volume index (SVI)
Employing Equation (6.54);
SVI is in the typical range of 80-150 mL/g for MLSS concentration of 2000-3500 mg/L.
2. Computing return flow ratio (Qr/Q) and rate (Qr)

CHAPTER 6
Return flow ratio,
Return flow rate,
3. Suspended solid (SS) concentration (Xr) in return activated sludge

Employing Equation (6.57):
SS concentration,
6.10 Aeration in Activated Sludge Process

Aeration theory. The aeration theory is based on Henry’s law; at equilibrium conditions,
the partial pressure of a component in the gas phase is proportional of this component
dissolved in the liquid phase. For aeration, the liquid phase is the mixed liquor, and the gas
phase is air; the component is the oxygen concentration. So at equilibrium condition:
6.62

where, DOS = dissolved oxygen saturation concentration in mixed liquor, mg/L
kH = Henry’s constant
PO = partial pressure of oxygen in air
2
In biological treatment units, DO concentration in the mixed liquor is less than the
saturation value, due to oxygen consumption by the microbes. As such, under normal
conditions the atmospheric oxygen is transferred to the mixed liquor. According to Fick’s
law, this transfer rate is proportional to the difference between saturation and actual DO
concentration in the mixed liquor, as illustrated in Equation (6.63):
6.63
where, dDOl/dt = transfer rate of atmospheric oxygen, mg O2.L-1.h-1

DOs = saturation dissolved oxygen concentration in the mixed liquor, mg O2/L
DOl = dissolved oxygen concentration in the mixed liquor, mg O2/L
kla = oxygen transfer coefficient, h-1
The value of transfer coefficient depends on aeration system, reactor geometry, operational
conditions, and mixed liquor impurities. As such, the concept of oxygenation capacity is
often used for designing aeration systems in biological units. The oxygenation capacity of an
aerator is the maximum oxygen transfer rate, under standard operating conditions. The
CHAPTER 6
oxygen transfer is calculated in pure water without oxygen (DOl = 0) under atmospheric
pressure (760 mm Hg), at a temperature 20° C. Considering these factors, the oxygenation
capacity (OC, mg O2.L-1.h-1) can be measured employing Equation (6.64).
6.64
Aerator types. The objective of aeration in activated sludge process can be enlisted as: (a)
to oxidize organic matter, NH4-N, and H2S; and (b) providing adequate turbulence to
maintain sludge flocs suspension. Such objectives (of aeration) in biological units are
achieved by aerators, which can be classified into two groups: (a) diffused air systems, where
air bubbles are introduced from the bottom part of the liquid phase, following upward
direction; and (b) mechanical aerators, where air bubbles are introduced in the liquid phase.
The diffused aerators can be classified as:
Ÿ Fine bubble aeration: composed of porous ceramic domes or discs mounted on
aeration tank bottom; the oxygen transfer efficiency is high.
Ÿ Coarse bubble aeration: comprises of non porous domes, discs or tubes, producing
larger bubbles; oxygen transfer efficiency is lower.
The mechanical aerators can be distinguished as:
Ÿ Horizontal shaft aerators: mounted on fixed platforms; each surface aerator has its
own motor. The rotating speed of such aerators is 20-60 rpm. Examples include
brush and disk aerators.
Ÿ Vertical shaft aerators: a propeller agitates the water, introducing air bubbles into the
mixed liquor, and suspending liquid droplets in the air. The motor can be directly
coupled to the propeller, which in turn increases the rotation speed. A gear box is
sometimes used to achieve lower rotation speed of the propeller.

Oxygenation capacity of surface aerators. Using Equation (6.64), the oxygen transfer
capacity under non-standard conditions can be related to transfer capacity under standard
conditions, as demonstrated in Equation (6.65):
6.65
where OCa = actual oxygenation capacity

OCs = oxygenation capacity under standard conditions
DOss = saturation DO concentration at 20°C = 9.1 mg/L
DOsa = saturation DO concentration under actual conditions
DOl = saturation DO concentration under actual operational conditions
laa = transfer constant
The values of klaa and DOsa can be expressed as:
6.66
6.67
where T = temperature in °C
CHAPTER 6
q = temperature dependency factor
=1.020-1.028 for diffused air systems, and 1.012 for mechanical aeration
(Landberg et al., 1969)
p = actual atmospheric pressure, mm Hg
pw = water vapour pressure, mm Hg
ps = standard pressure,760 mm Hg
a, b = constants
Putting the values of Equations (6.66) and (6.67) into Equation (6.65) results:
6.68
The power requirement for surface aerators is expressed by Equation (6.69):
6.69
where Pm = required motor power, kW

OCa = actual oxygen transfer capacity, kgO2.kWh-1
MOt = oxygen consumption, kgO2.h-1
Example 6.3. Calculation of aerator power. A mechanical aerator has an oxygenation
capacity of 3 kg O2.kWh-1 under standard conditions. What will be the oxygenation capacity
at an altitude 1000 m (673 mm Hg pressure) in winter (at T = 10°C, vapour pressure 9.1 mm
Hg)? Also calculate the required motor power, assuming daily oxygen consumption (MOt)
is equal to 3000 kg O2.d-1. Assume, α = 0.8, q = 1.012, β = 0.9 and DOl = 2 mg/L.

Solution
At 10 °C: Employing Equation (6.68):
Power requirement,
6.11 Common Variations of Activated Sludge Process

To improve the organics removal efficacy, the plug flow and completely mixed systems had
CHAPTER 6
been modified over the past years. Such modification was primarily based on F/M ratio,
BOD5 loading and hydraulic retention time (HRT). The modified processes include step
aeration, tapered aeration, contact stabilization, pure oxygen activated sludge system, Kraus
process, two sludge system, extended aeration and sequential batch reactors. This section
provides a brief operational description of such modified processes.
Step aeration. The step aeration process distributes waste flow to a number of points along
the basin (Figure 6.16), thus avoiding locally high O2 demand; the return activated sludge
(RAS) is introduced at the aeration tank head. The flow distribution lessens the effect of
peak hydraulic and organic loads, and may provide sufficient dilution to protect bacteria
against toxic materials. Step aeration follows plug flow regime.
Figure 6.16 Step aeration process.

Tapered aeration. This process attempts to match O2 supply to demand (through plug flow
regime) by introducing more air at the head end (Figure 6.17). In this process, the diffusers
are spaced close together (at the influent section) to achieve a high oxygenation rate. The
intensive air supply at the head end promotes higher organic degradation. As the mixed
liquor traverses the aeration tank, synthesis of new cells occurs, increasing the number of
microorganisms and decreasing available food concentration. Such inverse correlation is
associated with lower food to microorganism ratio and lower of oxygen demand at the outlet
section (Figure 6.17). The spacing of diffusers is therefore increased toward the tank outlet,
to match the lower oxygen demand. A disadvantage of the process can be attributed to its
vulnerability towards shock loading, or toxic materials.
Compressed air
Influent Secondary Effluent

Aeration tank clarifier
Return sludge Wasted sludge
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.17 Tapered aeration process.
Contact stabilization. According to this process, returned sludge (containing adsorbed

organics) from the secondary clarifier is being transferred to a stabilization tank, where it is
aerated for 3-6h (Figure 6.18), and is mixed again with influent wastewater for 20-40 min.
Such stabilized sludge promotes the adsorption of suspended and colloidal solids (from
Q Q-Qw
Secondary
Contact tank
clarifier
Qr
Stabilization tank
Qw Qw
Figure 6.18 Contact stabilization activated sludge process.

influent wastewater), but cannot adsorb dissolved organic matter. After the contact period,
the activated sludge is separated from mixed liquor in the secondary clarifier. Contact
stabilization is a plug flow process with shorter retention time, which enhances the
vulnerability of the system to organic and hydraulic loading variations.
Pure oxygen activated sludge system. In this process, the aeration basin is divided into
several compartments by baffle walls; each compartment includes an agitator. The incoming
wastewater is mixed with high purity oxygen in the first compartment. Wastewater flows
from one compartment to other through baffle walls, following plug flow regime. Exhausted
gas, mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and 10% of supplied oxygen emits from the last
compartment. The mixed liquor is then transferred to the following secondary clarifier. The
settled activated sludge (in secondary clarifier) is again recirculated to the aeration tank, and
a portion of the settled sludge is wasted. The mixed liquor of this system has dissolved oxygen
concentration varying between 4-10 mg/L. Figure 6.19 provides an operational diagram of
pure oxygen activated sludge system.
Oxygen Exhaust
supply vent
Mixer
CHAPTER 6
Influent baffled
compartments
Secondary
clarifier
RAS
Waste
Figure 6.19 Pure oxygen activated sludge process.
The advantages of this system include higher transfer of oxygen, small reaction chambers,
peak loading tolerance, higher efficiency in terms of treating soluble wastewater, reduction
of sludge bulking, and effective odor control.
Kraus process. This process is effective for the treatment of nitrogen deficient wastewater.
The digester supernatant (source of food) is added with a portion of the return sludge, and
transferred to the aeration tank for nitrification. The resulting mixed liquor is then
transferred to the main plug flow aeration tank. Figure 6.20 provides a schematic diagram of
the Kraus process.
Two sludge system. This system is divided into two stages; the first stage removes BOD,
whereas the second stage removes ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4-N) at longer sludge age
(Figure 6.21). BOD removal in the first stage promotes treatment of toxic substances,
thereby protecting more sensitive nitrifying bacteria in the second stage. A portion of the
influent wastewater (of the first stage) can be by passed around the nitrifying stage, to
enhance organics and solids availability for nitrification.

Aeration tank clarifier
RAS
Sludge
Mixed
liquor Digester
Aeration tank Biosolids

Biosolids
Figure 6.20 Schematic flow diagram of Kraus process.
Bypass
Influent Aeration tank Secondary Nitrification tank Nitrifying Effluent

(BOD) clarifier (NH4+) clarifier
CHAPTER 6
RAS RAS
Sludge Sludge
Figure 6.21 Two sludge process.
Extended aeration. The extended aeration process is operated under longer hydraulic
retention time and sludge age. The system is also subjected to longer aeration time, resulting
higher MLSS concentration, higher RAS pumping rate, and substantial endogenous decay
of sludge mass. Such prolonged endogenous phase allows equal proportion of cell mass
production and decay, resulting in no net mass production, thereby minimizing sludge
production and wastage.
Figure 6.22 Oxidation ditch process.

The oxidation ditch (modification of conventional plug flow process-Figure 6.22) is an
example of extended aeration for the treatment of wastewater. It comprises of a single or
closed loop elongated oval channel (Figure 6.22); the liquid depth in the channel is
maintained within 1.2-1.8 m, with 45 degree sloping sidewalls. The wastewater usually
receives preliminary treatment prior to the entrance into oxidation ditch. The wastewater in
the channel is aerated with mechanical aerators (i.e. Kessener brush), operating at 60-110
rev/min which allows liquid motion within 0.24-0.37 m/s. Such velocity is maintained to
prevent solids deposition; it also allows the wastewater to complete a tank circulation within
5-15 min. The DO concentration profile of wastewater increases near the aerators, and falls
when it transverses the circuit.
The oxidation ditch usually exhibits higher BOD5 removal efficacy. Nitrification also occurs
in the system due to longer hydraulic and solids retention time. This system is popular for
wastewater treatment generated by small communities, depending on larger land
availability. However, in colder periods, surface aerators may be iced, which can be mitigated
by installing electrical heating.
Sequential batch reactors (SBR). These systems consist of a single reactor, for aeration of
wastewater and sludge settling. The wastewater is applied in a batch mode, resulting four
operational phases such as: fill, react, settle and discharge phase (Figure 6.23). During the fill
phase, wastewater is applied (in batch mode) to the reactor, which have sludge mass. The
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.23 Cyclic operations of a sequential batch reactor.
aerator may or may not be switched on in this phase. In the react phase, the aerator is turned
on to provide treatment of organics and solids, present in wastewater. The settling phase
includes settling of sludge in the reactor, while the aerator is turned off. The discharge phase
allows withdrawal of the clarified effluent from the reactor, along with excess sludge. The
main advantage of SBR can be attributed to simultaneous achievement of equalization,
primary clarification, biological treatment and secondary clarification. However, higher
maintenance costs, substantial sludge production and greater sludge volume index (SVI) are
the major disadvantages of SBR systems.
Typical operational parameters, for the design of some of the above described activated
sludge processes have been illustrated in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7 Typical operational parameters of activated sludge processes.
Operational parameters
BOD5 MLSS HRT Sludge F/M ratio BOD5 removal
loading concentration, X hrs age, qc d-1 efficiency
kg/(m3.d) mg/L d %
Step aeration 0.6-1 2000-3500 3-5 5-15 0.2-0.4 85-95%
Contact 1-1.2 80-90%
stabilization
Pure oxygen 1.6-3.2 3000-8000 1-3 8-20 0.25-1 85-95%
Kraus process 0.6-1.6 2000-3000 4-8 0.3-0.8
Oxidation ditch 0.08-0.48 1500-5000 0.05-0.3 85-95%
Example 6.4. Estimate the volume of the aeration tank of high purity oxygen activated
sludge system for municipal wastewater treatment employing the following data set, and
check with design parameters. Also find out the expected effluent BOD5 concentration of the
system.
Parameter Value
Design avaerage flow, Q 4000 m3/d
CHAPTER 6
Influent BOD 300 mg/L
Influent TSS 150 mg/L
F/M 0.6 lb BOD applied/lb MLVSS.d
MLSS 7000 mg/L
VSS/TSS 0.8
Maximum volumetric BOD load 4 kg/(m3.d)
Minimum aeration time 2h
Minimum cell residence time 4d
Ks 60 mg/L of BOD
kd 0.06/d
Y 0.6 VSS/mg BOD
k 6 d-1
Solution
1. Calculation of tank volume

2. Check BOD load
3. Check aeration time
h h
4. Check mean cell residence time (sludge age)

Influent VSS,
Sludge age,
5. Estimate effluent BOD5 concentration

Effluent BOD5 concentration (S) can be computed employing Equation (6.33):
CHAPTER 6
6.12 Attached Growth Process: Trickling Filters

Attached culture systems are characterized by the adhesion of bacteria to a solid media.
Wastewater passes through this attached film (and porous spaces of media) in thin sheets,
allowing the attached microorganisms for adsorbing soluble and colloidal organic matter
(from wastewater). The required oxygen for such biodegradation is being supplied by
incoming wastewater and atmospheric air. Waste products (from metabolic process) are
diffused outwards and carried away by water, through the void of the medium. The widely
implemented attached growth process for the treatment of wastewater includes: (a)
trickling filters; and (b) rotating biological contactors.
Theory of trickling filters. Trickling filters are non-submerged fixed film biological
reactors. Trickling filters consist of: (a) bed of coarse material, such as: stone slates or plastic
media; (b) distributors; and (c) underdrain system. Primary treated effluent is sprayed to
the filter surface bed, by spray nozzles or rotary distributors (Figure 6.24). The underdrain
portion carries the wastewater (passing through biological filter), and drains it to the
following treatment units; in addition, the underdrain portion also develops aerobic
condition inside the filter media.

(a)
(b) CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.24 (a) Front elevation; and (b) 3D view of a trickling filter.
As wastewater passes through the filter media, it promotes the growth of biological slime
layer on the media surface. Such developed slime layer comprises of microorganisms, which
enhance biodegradation of substrates (from wastewater). The biological community
includes aerobic, facultative bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. Higher animals such as
worms, larvae, and snails can also be an integral part of the biological slime.
The common bacteria species of trickling filters include Achromobacter, Flavobacterium,
Pseudomonas, and Alcaligenes. Within the slime layer, the filamentous forms such as:
Sphaerotilusnatans and Beggiatoa dominate due to adverse environmental conditions.
Nitrifying bacteria are observed in the lower part of the filter. The common fungi species of
trickling filters are: Fusazium, Mucor, Penicillium, Geotrichum, Yeasts etc; rapid growth of
fungi often clogs the filter media.

Algae can be observed in the upper portion of the filter, exposed to sunlight. During daytime,
algae add oxygen to the incoming wastewater. Phormidiun, Chlorella and Ulothrix are the
most common algae species of trickling filters. The protozoa organisms consume the
biological films resulting effluent turbidity decrease, and higher growth of biological films.
The removal of organic material (from wastewater) in trickling filter is performed through
adsorption by the attached slime layer. In the outer portion of the layer, organic degradation
is performed by the aerobic bacteria, which in turn maintains the growth of microorganisms,
thereby allowing the increase of slime layer thickness (Figure 6.25). As the thickness of the
layer increases, oxygen cannot penetrate in the lower part (near the media), promoting the
development of anaerobic environment. The increase of slime layer thickness also enhances
the consumption of organics (from wastewater) by the upper aerobic bacterial biomass. As
such, the biomass populations of the lower part are deprived of food, thereby creating
endogenous phase, where these interior cells die and washed away by the wastewater flow.
This phenomenon of losing the slime layer is known as sloughing, and is dependent on
organic and hydraulic loading of the filter. The washed out slime layer is removed by the
following sedimentation tank (Figure 6.26).
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.25 Slime layer metabolism in a trickling filter.
Primary tank Digester
Sludge
Influent
Primary Trickling Secondary
sedimentation filter sedimentation
Recirculation
Sludge
Figure 6.26 Arrangement of trickling filters for wastewater treatment.

Classification of trickling filters. Trickling filters can be classified according to the applied
hydraulic or organic loading rate, such as: low rate, intermediate, high rate filters, and
roughing filters.
In low rate filters, wastewater is fed from small dosing tanks; wastewater passes through the
filter only once. A dosing chamber is used to correct poor distribution problems, and
inadequate velocities caused by low flows. These dosing chambers hold the incoming flow
till a large volume has been accumulated. Contents are then released quickly to provide equal
flow by fixed nozzles. In most low rate filters, the top 0.6-1.2 m of the media contains
appreciable biological slime. Nitrifying bacteria develops in the lower part of the media.
Depending on the climatic conditions, wastewater characteristics and presence of biomass
population, a low rate trickling filter may provide substantial BOD and ammoniacal nitrogen
removal.
High rate filters use rock or plastic medium; such filters are subjected to continuous flow
mode. Recirculation of filter effluent permits higher organic loading and dose rates, better
control of slime layer thickness, improved liquid distribution and provides more O2 in waste
water flow.
Roughing filters are high rate type filters (with plastic packing) that treat organic load of
more than 1.6 kg/m3.d, and hydraulic loading up to 190 m3/m2.d. In such filters, lower energy
CHAPTER 6
is required for BOD removal (from high strength wastewater), when compared with
activated sludge processes, because energy is required only to pump influent wastewater and
in flow recirculation. Table 6.8 indicates typical design guidelines of different types of filters.
Table 6.8 Guidelines for the design of trickling filtersa,b.
Filter type
Low rate Intermediate rate High rate Roughing
Packing Rock Rock Rock Rock/Plastic
Hydraulic loading 1-4 4-10 10-40 40-200
m3/m2.d
Organic load 0.07-0.22 0.24-0.48 0.4-2.4 >1.5
kg BOD/m3.d
Recirculation ratio 0 0-1 1-2 0-2
Sloughing Intermittent Intermittent Continuous Continuous
Depth m 1.8-2.4 1.8-2.4 1.8-2.4 0.9-6
BOD removal efficacy % 80-90 50-80 50-90 40-70
Effluent quality Nitrified Some nitrification No nitrification No nitrification
Power 2-4 2-8 6-10 10-20
kW/103m3
a
after Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1979), b WEF (2000).
Design of trickling filters: NRC formula. The NRC (National Research Council)
formula is an empirical formula, developed by the National Research Council of the United
States. The formula can be applied for single stage and multi stage rock filters, with varying
recirculation ratios. The equation for the removal of BOD in a first stage rock filter is:

6.70
where E1 = BOD removal efficiency at the first stage at 20°C, %

W = filter BOD loading, kg/d
V = filter media volume, m3
F = recirculation factor
Equation (6.71) illustrates the calculation method of the recirculation factor; it represents
the average number of passes of incoming organics, through the trickling filter.
6.71
where r = recirculation ratio, Qr/Q

Qr = recirculation flow, m3/d
Q = wastewater flow, m3/d
For the second filter, the removal efficacy can be calculated using Equation (6.72):
6.72
CHAPTER 6
where E2 = BOD removal efficiency at the second stage, %

W' =second stage filter BOD loading, kg/d
The overall BOD removal efficacy of the two-stage filters can be described as:
E = E1 + E2 - E1 E2 6.73
BOD removal efficacy is influenced by temperature (Equation 6.17), which can be
expressed as:
6.74
Performance of the plastic media: Germain formula. To date, several investigations have
been applied to predict the performance of the plastic media (of trickling filters). The
application of Schulze formula by Germain in the year 1965 is the widely implemented
formula (Equation 6.75), for predicting plastic media performance of the trickling filter.
6.75
where Se = BOD5 of the effluent, mg/L

Si = influent BOD5 of the filter, mg/L
D = filter depth, m
q = hydraulic loading, m3/m2.d
n = exponent constant of the media, 0.5
k20 = treatability constant related to filter depth at 20°C

The treatability constant is different for various media depth; Albertson and Davis (1984)
proposed the following equation to determine the constant for a certain depth, provided that
the constant is known for another depth.
6.76
where k2 = treatability constant for depth D2 of filter 2

k1 = treatability constant for depth D1 of filter 1
D2 = depth of filter 2, m
D1 = depth of filter 1, m
x = 0.3-0.5
Table 6.9 Typical k values for different wastewater in 6m trickling filters.a

Wastewater type k values in (L/s)0.5/m2
Domestic 0.18-0.27
Domestic and food waste 0.16-0.22
Fruit canning waste 0.054-0.14
Meat packing waste 0.081-0.14
Paper mill 0.054-0.11
CHAPTER 6
Potato processing 0.095-0.14
Refinery 0.054-0.19
a
after Lin (2007)
The values of k in (L/s)0.5/m2 for a 6 m tower trickling filter with plastic media (at 20 °C) is
illustrated in Table 6.9. These values can be used for calculating treatability constant at
another depth, employing Equation (6.76).
Distributor speed. The dosing rate to a trickling filter is a function of distributor speed or
the on-off times of a fixed distributor. The rotational speed of a rotary distributor is expressed
through Equation (6.77):
6.77
where n = distributor rotational speed, rev/min

q = influent hydraulic load, m3/m2.d
qr = recycle hydraulic load, m3/m2.d
qt = total hydraulic load, m3/m2.d = q+qr
j = number of arms in distributor
DR = dosing rate, cm; dosing rate is determined by multiplying the loading rate by
0.30.
Formulation of plastic media: Eckenfelder formula. An exponential formula had been
developed by Eckenfelder (1963) and Eckenfelder and Barnhart (1963), based on the rate of
waste removal (Equation 6.78).
6.78

where Se = effluent soluble BOD5, mg/L
Si = influent soluble BOD5, mg/L
K = observed reaction rate constant, m/d
As = specific surface area, m2/m3
D = media depth, m
q = influent volumetric flow rate, Q/A
Q = influent flow, m3/d
A = cross sectional area, m2
m, n = empirical constants
Equation (6.78) may be simplified into following form, as illustrated in Equation (6.79).
6.79
where k is a new rate constant, per day.

CHAPTER 6
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.27 (a) Cross section of circular disks mounted on a shaft; and (b) operational
diagram of RBC processes for wastewater treatment.

6.13 Attached Growth Process: Rotating Biological
Contactor
Rotating biological contactors (RBC), also defined as rotating biological filters, are fixed-
bed reactors comprising of closely spaced circular plastic media mounted on a horizontal
shaft (Figure 6.27a). The disks are partially submerged and rotated as wastewater flows
through (Figure 6.27b). The biofilms attached to the surface of the disks are alternately
exposed to wastewater and atmosphere, allowing assimilation, aeration and degradation of
organic pollutants, nutrients (from primary treated effluent).
The basic components of the RBC system include: media, shaft, bearings, drive and cover.
The plastic media are made of corrugated polyethylene or polystyrene material; the
diameters of the media can range between 1.22-3.66 m, while the surface area of the disks is
about 9300 m2. The shaft, on which the plastic media is mounted, is supported by bearings,
and rotated by the driving gear. The length of the shaft varies between 6.62-8.23 m. The
rotational speed of the shaft is 1.5-1.7 rev/min for mechanical drive, and 1-1.3 rev/min for air
drive. The required power of the motors can be 3.7/5.6 kW. The typical volume of a RBC
tank is 45 m3; approximately 40% of the media is submerged in wastewater.
Process principle. When employed for domestic wastewater treatment, the
microorganisms present in wastewater adhere to the disks within 1 week of the start up
CHAPTER 6
phase. During the continuous rotation of the disks, the attached biofilms are exposed to air
and wastewater alternatively (Figure 6.28). When the disks are submerged to wastewater,
the organics penetrate through the biofilms. As the disks rotate to atmospheric conditions,
the oxygen (from air) is diffused in the biofilms, allowing aerobic organic degradation. The
DO rich biofilm replenishes oxygen concentration of the wastewater, when the disk is
alternatively submerged. Attached biofilms are sloughed in wastewater (Figure 6.28), and
being removed in the following secondary clarifiers.
Figure 6.28 Slime formation across the plastic media of RBC reactors.
The RBC system includes a number of units in series to prevent short circuiting of incoming
wastewater, as illustrated in Figure 6.29. The number of stages depends on treatment
objectives; for the removal of BOD 2-4 stages are required, whereas nitrification process can

RBC reactors
Figure 6.29 RBC reactors arranged in series for wastewater treatment.
be enhanced with six or more stages. The establishment of these stages can be accomplished
by a single tank with baffles, or by multiple tanks. During stage treatment, the influent
organic concentration in the subsequent stage is lower than the previous stage; the hydraulic
retention time in each stage is usually shorter (i.e. 20 min under normal loading).
CHAPTER 6
The RBC system has several benefits over the trickling filter process (for wastewater
treatment), as enlisted below:
Ÿ Reduced loadings on the shaft and bearings.
Ÿ Ease of retrofit into existing aeration tanks.
Ÿ Lower power consumption.
Ÿ Good process stability.
Ÿ Better control of short circuiting.
However, overloading of RBC systems is often associated with the development of
anaerobic conditions in the deeper portion of the attached biofilms. In such conditions,
sulfate is reduced to H2S and is diffused outwards in oxygen rich environment, followed by
oxidation (of H2S) via Beggiatoa bacteria. The continuous oxidation of H2S enhances the
formation of whitish Beggiatoa biofilms, that do not slough under normal RBC loading. Such
problems can be mitigated by adding hydrogen per oxide. Increase of the rotational speed of
the disks also enhances the shear level of the attached biomass. The organic loading to the
first stage of an RBC should also be restricted to 3.1kg total BOD5/100 m2/d or 1.2 kg soluble
BOD5/100 m2/d (WEF and ASCE, 1992) for smooth operation.
6.14 Design of Secondary Treatment Processes

This section provides comprehensive design procedures of the suspended and attached
growth processes, when employed for the treatment of wastewater. The step-wise design
procedures of suspended growth process have been illustrated in example 6.5. Subsequently,
example 6.6 provides detailed designing of attached growth (i.e. trickling filters) processes.
Example 6.5. Design of completely mixed activated sludge process. A completely
mixed activated sludge process is required for the treatment of municipal wastewater.

(a) Design the aeration tank employing the following data set:
Ÿ Average design flow = 0.60m3/s
Ÿ Influent BOD5 concentration = 400 mg/L
Ÿ Influent TSS concentration = 350 mg/L
Ÿ Effluent BOD5 concentration = 20 mg/L
Ÿ Effluent TSS concentration = 25 mg/L
Ÿ Sludge age, qc = 10 d
Ÿ MLVSS = 3000 mg/L
Ÿ VSS/TSS = 0.8
Ÿ TSS concentration in RAS = 10000 mg/L
Ÿ Y = 0.5 mg VSS/mg BOD5, kd = 0.06/d
Ÿ BOD5 = 0.65 BODu
Ÿ BOD5 removal in primary clarifiers = 25%
Ÿ TSS removal in primary clarifiers = 60%
Ÿ Specific gravity of primary sludge is 1.05, with solid content 4.4%
Ÿ Oxygen consumption is 1.42 mg per mg of cell oxidized
(b) Design secondary clarifiers from the data of aeration tank design. The MLSS settling
characteristics of the solids are demonstrated below.
CHAPTER 6
MLSS, mg/L 1100 1900 2500 3400 4100 5500 6700 8500
Velocity, m/h 4.5 3.5 2.5 1.4 0.7 0.25 0.1 0.07
Solution
a. Aeration tank design
Step 1. BOD and TSS loading into the plant
Design flow
BOD loading =
TSS loading =
Step 2. Primary sludge characteristics

BOD removed =
TSS removed =
Solids concentration = 4.4%=0.044kg/kg
Sludge flow rate =
Step 3. Effluent characteristics of primary effluent

Flow =

Effluent BOD =
Effluent TSS =
Step 4. Calculate soluble BOD5 (S) escaping treatment

Effluent BOD=influent soluble BOD escaping treatment (S) + BOD of effluent suspended
solids.
Assuming 60% portion of the effluent solids is biodegradable, the BOD5 of the suspended
solids is =
Ultimate BODu of the effluent solids =
Effluent BOD,
CHAPTER 6
Step 5. Efficiency (E) of the biological reactor (based on soluble BOD)
Step 6. Reactor volume

Step 7. Tank dimensions

Provide 5 rectangular tanks with common walls; provide a length-width ratio of 1:2, with a
water depth of 5.5 m and 0.5 m freeboard.
Dimension of each tank: width =17m; length = 34 m, total depth = 6 m (0.5 m freeboard).

Step 8. Sludge wasting flow from aeration tank
Here,
Step 9. Calculate the amount of sludge to be wasted

CHAPTER 6
Increase of MLVSS mass can be calculated, employing Equation (6.43),
Increase in MLSS,
Loss of TSS in effluent,
Amount of sludge to be wasted=
Step 10. Calculate RAS

Taking mass balance of VSS around aeration tank (Figure 6.9a):
Step 11. Calculate HRT

Step 12. Calculate F/M ratio
F/M ratio can be calculated with Equation (6.40):
Step 13. Check organic loading
Step 14. Calculate oxygen requirements

CHAPTER 6
Step 15. Calculate air volume requirements

Assume, density of air is 1.202 kg/m3, with 23.2% oxygen by weight. The transfer efficiency
of aeration equipment is 8%, and a factor of safety 2.5 will be used for measuring the actual
blower size.
The theoretical requirement of air =
The actual air required at an 8% oxygen transfer efficacy
The design air requirement =
Air requirement per kg of BOD5 removal
b. Secondary clarifiers design

Step 1. Calculate solid flux
For MLSS concentration 1100 mg/L,

Similar procedure can be followed for determining G, employing other MLSS
concentrations.
MLSS, mg/L 1100 1900 2500 3400 4100 5500 6700 8500
G, kg/m2. h 4.9 6.6 6.2 4.7 2.0 1.3 0.6 0.5
Step 2. Plot MLSS vs. G curve
Figure 6.30 MLSS vs. G curve for the design of secondary clarifiers.
CHAPTER 6
From the graph GL is calculated as 2.3 kg/m2.h.
Step 3. Determine flow rate to the clarifiers
Clarifier flow rate = Q + Qr -Qwa (from aeration tank design)
Provide 4 clarifiers, each receiving a flow rate of 20394 m3/d (849m3/h).
Step 4. Determine surface area of each clarifier
Surface area of each clarifier,
Step 5. Determine diameter of each clarifier
d = 42 m
Step 6. Check overflow rate
Overflow rate =

From the graph (Figure 6.31), for settling rate 0.612 m/h the MLSS concentration is 4680
mg/L, which is higher than the design MLSS concentration (3750 mg/L). So the design area
is adequate.
Initial settling, m/h
MLSS concentration, mg/L

Figure 6.31 Settling rate of particles.
Step 7. Determine recycle ratio to maintain MLSS concentration of 3750 mg/L

CHAPTER 6
X = 140 mg/L (step 3, aeration tank design)
Step 8. Depth of thickening zone

The total depth of secondary clarifiers is the sum of clear water zone, solid thickening zone,
and sludge storage zone. The mass of solids, stored in the secondary tank is 30% solid mass of
the aeration tank, with average solid concentration of 7000 mg/L (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991).
The system has 5 aeration tanks and four secondary clarifiers. As such, solid mass in each
aeration tanks can be computed as (considering MLSS concentration):
Assuming storage capacity for 4 days due to peak flow (3 times of average flow), and 8 days
peak BOD loading (2 times of average BOD loading), the mass of solids in a clarifier for 4
days can be computed as:
The depth of sludge zone

Step 9. Depth of sludge storage zone
For peak flow and BOD loading conditions (as discussed above), the value of the parameters
of Equation (6.43) is:
Yobs=0.3125 (from aeration tank design), Q=3×0.6m3/s=1.8 m3/s=155520m3/d, S0=300
mg/L×2=600mg/L, S=6.4 mg/L×2=12.8 mg/L.
Total solids to be stored for 4 days

Solids to be stored in each clarifier
Total solids in each secondary clarifier=17448kg + solids stored in thickening zone
The required sludge storage depth in each clarifier =
CHAPTER 6
Step 10. Total depth of each clarifier
The depth of clear water and settling zone ranges within 1.5-2m.
Adding 0.5 m freeboard, the total water depth is 7.5m.
Step 11. Engineering diagram of the secondary clarifier
3.27 m
Figure 6.32 Dimensions of the secondary clarifier.

Step 12. Flow analyses diagram across the system
Secondary
clarifiers
20394m3/d
1 12654m3/d
Qe
3
Qwa = 987 m /d 3
7740m /d
Aeration 20394m3/d 3
12654m /d
tanks 2
Q = 51604 Q + Qr Qe
3
3
m /d 82566 m /d
1 2 3 4 5 7740m3/d
3
20394m /d 12654m3/d
Qr = 30962 m3/d 3
Qe
7740m3/d
20394m3/d 12654m3/d
4
Qe
3
7740m /d
Figure 6.33 Wastewater flow analyses diagram across activated sludge process.
CHAPTER 6
Example 6.6. Design of trickling filters. The domestic wastewater generated from a
community is discharged to open water bodies, without any treatment. Due to severe quality
degradation of such water bodies, the local authority has proposed a combination of primary
and secondary treatment processes, for domestic wastewater treatment. The authority has
selected trickling filters, as secondary treatment process. Under such circumstances:
(a) Design two stage trickling filters (for the community) using NRC formula from the
following dataset:
Ÿ Water temperature = 30°C
Ÿ Incoming wastewater = 2000 m3/d
Ÿ Influent BOD = 150 mg/L
Ÿ Estimated effluent BOD = 20 mg/L
Ÿ Depth of each filter = 2 m
Ÿ Recirculation for filter 1 and 2 (r1 = r2) = 1.5
Ÿ Assume both filters will have equal BOD removal efficacy
(b) Owing to rapid expansion of the community, the wastewater generation by the same
community has increased to a factor of 1.5 after 10 years. In addition, a food industry has also
been established in the area during this time period, and the wastewater produced from the
industry is being mixed with domestic wastewater prior to discharge. As such the existing
two-stage trickling filters cannot meet BOD discharge criteria, and replacement/upgrading
are required. After the necessary feasibility studies, the local authority has decided to replace
the two-stage trickling filters with a single stage roughing filter, for the treatment of the
combined domestic and food processing wastewater. Design a single stage roughing filter
(with Germain formula) for the community employing original (Example 6.6a), and
additional dataset given below:

Ÿ Total domestic wastewater flow =1.5Q
Ÿ Industrial wastewater flow = 1500m3/d
Ÿ Influent domestic and industrial BOD = 500 mg/L
Ÿ Final BOD = 20 mg/L
Ÿ K value at 26°C and at 6 m = 0.27(L/s) 0.5/m2
Ÿ Depth of filter = 8m
Solution
a. Design of two stage filters
Step 1. Determine E1 and E2
Overall efficiency,
Equation (6.73):
Since E1=E2
Therefore E1 = 64%
Step 2. Calculation of recirculation factor F
CHAPTER 6
Step 3. Calculation BOD load (W) to the first stage

Influent BOD=
Step 4. Calculate the volume of the first stage


Step 5. Calculate the diameter of the first stage
d = 9.5 m
Step 6. Calculate the mass BOD loading to the second stage
Step 7. Calculate the volume of the second stage

CHAPTER 6
Step 8. Calculate the diameter of the first stage
d = 16 m
Step 9. Check BOD loading to each unit
BOD loading (filter 1) =
BOD loading (filter 2) =
Step 10. Check hydraulic loading to each unit
HLR loading (filter 1) =
HLR loading (filter 2) =
Step 11. Calculate the rotation speed of the rotary distributor in the first stage
DR can be calculated by multiplying BOD load rate of filter 1 (step 9) with 0.30.

Use 2 arms in the rotary distributor, i.e. j=2
where
b. Design of single stage roughing filter

Step 1. Calculate value of k at 30°C at 6m.
Step 2. Calculate value of k at 30°C at 8m
CHAPTER 6
Step 3. Compute the total flow (Qt)

Qt = domestic + industrial flow
Step 4. Compute the required area


Step 5. Compute hydraulic load
Step 6. Compute organic load

Filter volume=
BOD load=
Step 7. Calculate the rotation speed of the rotary distributor in the first stage
Use 2 arms in the rotary distributor, i.e. j=2

CHAPTER 6

Questions
1. Write a short note on different microorganisms of wastewater treatment process.
2. Describe the different phases usually observed in bacterial growth curve.
3. Derive the necessary equations for calculating biomass concentration in activated
sludge process.
4. Why sludge bulking is observed in secondary clarifiers?
5. Write short notes on: (a) tapered aeration; (b) contact stabilization; and (c)
sequential batch reactors.
6. What is the main difference between trickling filters and rotating biological
contactors employed for wastewater treatment?
7. Design a two stage trickling filters for domestic wastewater treatment from the
following dataset. Use NRC formula.
Ÿ Water temperature= 20°C
Ÿ Incoming wastewater= 3000 m3/d
Ÿ Influent BOD=200 mg/L
Ÿ Estimated effluent BOD=20 mg/L
Ÿ Depth of each filter=1.5 m
CHAPTER 6
ŸRecirculation for filter 1 and 2 (r1=r2)=1.5
Assume both filters will have equal BOD removal efficacy.

References
Albertson, O.E. and Davis, G. 1984. Analysis of process factors controlling performance of plastic biomedia.
In: 57th annual meeting of the water pollution control federation, October, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Eckenfelder, W.W. and Barnhart, W. 1963. Performance of a high-rate trickling filter using selected media. J.
Water Pollut. Control Fed., 35 (12), 1535-1551.
Eckenfelder, W.W. 1963. Trickling filter design and performance. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil. Eng., 128, 371-384.
Henze, M., Harremoes, P., Jansen, J.C., Arvin, E. 2002.Wastewater Treatment, Biological and Chemical
Processes. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany.
Melcer, H., Bell, J., Thompson, D. 1992. Predicting the fate of volatile organic compounds in municipal
wastewater treatment plants. Water Science and Technology, 25, 383-389.
Landberg, G. G., Graulich, B. P., Kipple, W. H. 1969. Experimental problems associated with the testing of
surface aeration equipment. Water Research, 3(6), 445-455.
Lawrence, A.W. and McCarty, P.L. 1969. Kinetics of methane fermentation in anaerobic treatment. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed, 41 (2), R1-R17.
Lawrence, A.W. and McCarty, P.L. 1970. Unified basis for biological treatment design and operation. J.
Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, 96, SA3, pp 757-778.
Metcalf and Eddy. 1979. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
NewYork.
CHAPTER 6
Metcalf and Eddy. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. 3rd ed., G.
Tchobanoglous and F.L. Burton eds., McGraw-Hill, Toronto.
Okun, D.A. 1949. A system of bioprecipitation of organic matter from activated sludge. Sewage Works J., 21
(5), 763-792.
WEF and ASCE. 1992. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, vol. I, Water Environment
Federation, Alexandria, VA.
WEF. 2000. Anaerobic fixed-growth reactors; a special publication. Water Environment Federation,
Alexandria, VA.
Yoshioka, N., Holta, Y., Tanaka, S., Naito, S., Tsugami, S. 1957. Continuous thickening of homogeneous
flocculated slurries. Chem. Eng., 21, 66.

7
Chapter
Tertiary Treatment
Secondary treatment processes remove 85-95% BOD and solids from wastewater; however,
such mechanisms often exhibit insignificant removal of nutrients (i.e. nitrogen,
phosphorus) and heavy metals. If the nutrients are discharged (with wastewater) into
natural channels without any treatment, they can cause: (a) depletion of dissolved oxygen;
(b) eutrophication; and (c) methemoglobinemia.
In order to protect the natural channels from the adverse impact of nutrients, wastewater is
often required to be treated through tertiary treatment process. Tertiary treatment includes
removal of nutrients, dissolved solids, metals, toxic compounds and refractory organic
compounds from wastewater, thereby further improving wastewater quality for safe
discharge.
Tertiary treatment includes a combination of aerobic-anoxic-anaerobic tanks, followed by a
secondary settler, to allow biological removal of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P); in
addition, chemical precipitation is also employed for the removal of phosphorus. Figure 7.1
depicts a typical biological tertiary treatment process, to assist nutrient removal.
Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus
Recycle Recycle

Anaerobic Anoxic Anoxic Aerobic
settler
CHAPTER 7
RAS
Figure 7.1 Tertiary treatment process for the removal of nutrients.
This chapter provides a brief description of nutrient removal mechanisms in tertiary

treatment processes. Sections 7.1-7.5 present common and newly discovered nitrogen
removal routes and mechanisms in treatment plants. The chemical and biological removal
phosphorus have been discussed in sections 7.6-7.9. Section 7.10 provides a design example,
to assist the readers, in order to understand the design procedures for achieving
simultaneous nitrification and organics removal (in treatment plants).
7.1 Removal of Nitrogen

Nitrogen (N) is one of the principal pollutants in wastewater that can cause eutrophication,
affect the dissolved oxygen level of receiving water, and impart toxicity to the aquatic
organisms. Nitrogen exists in wastewater in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic
nitrogen includes amino acids (forms peptide chain that make proteins), urea (disposed of
ammonia by mammals when amino acids are used for energy production), uric acids
(produced by birds and insects) and purine, pyrimidines (involved in DNA making)
(Kadlec and Knight, 1996). The inorganic forms of nitrogen are ammonia (NH4+), nitrite
Tertiary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 185

(NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), nitrous oxide (N2O), and dissolved elemental nitrogen or nitrogen
gas (N2).
Major pathways of nitrogen transformations, which ultimately remove N from wastewater in
activated sludge include: ammonification, biological nitrification, and denitrification, as
illustrated in Figure 7.2.
Ammonification. It is the process where organic nitrogen is converted into inorganic NH4-
N, as shown in equation (7.1).
N2 gas
Denitrification
Nni Nitrate Nn Nne
Nitrification
Influent nitrogen Nai Ammonium Na Nae Effluent nitrogen
Nti = Nni+Nai+Noi Nte = Noe+Nae+Nne

Ammonification
Assimilation
Organic
Noi nitrogen No Noe
Nitrogen in excess sludge

Nl
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.2 Traditional nitrogen removal pathways in activated sludge process. The
notations Nti, Nai, Nni, Noi denote influent total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate, organic
nitrogen; Nte, Nae, Nne, Noe denote effluent total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate, organic
nitrogen.
+
7.1
Ammonification is faster in aerobic environments; the process is slower in facultative and
anaerobic conditions (Reddy and Patrick, 1984). The ideal pH range for ammonification is
6.5-8.5 (Patrick and Wyatt, 1964; Vymazal, 1995). Ammonification proceeds faster at
higher temperature, doubling rate with temperature increase of 10°C (Kadlec and Knight,
1996).
Nitrification. Nitrification is a two step process where ammonium nitrogen is first
converted to nitrite nitrogen by Nitrosomonas bacteria, then to nitrate nitrogen by
Nitrobacter bacteria. This can be expressed in the following equations proposed by Reddy
and Patrick (1984):
7.2
7.3

The overall nitrification reaction is given below:
7.4
Taking into account of the nitrogen assimilated by bacteria for their own cell synthesis, the
first nitrification bioreaction can be written as (U.S. EPA, 1993):
7.5
And, the second nitrification reaction can be written as:
7.6
Equations (7.5) and (7.6) can be combined to determine the overall oxidation of ammonia
and cell synthesis of biomass (Kadlec and Knight 1996):
7.7
Several conclusions can be made from the above equation, regarding the compulsory
environmental conditions required for nitrification:
(i) 1 mol of ammonia nitrogen produces 0.021 mol of microbial biomass (0.17 g of dry
weight biomass per gram of ammonia nitrogen consumed), and 3.22 g O2 are
consumed for per gram NH4+ oxidation, 1.11 g of O2 consumed per g NO2- oxidation
(Kadlec and Knight 1996). Complete NH4+ oxidation requires 4.2-4.5 mg O2 mg-1 N
(Brix, 1987).
CHAPTER 7
(ii)7.14 mg/L (as CaCO3) of alkalinity are consumed for each mg/L nitrification of
ammonia nitrogen, and 1.98 mol of H+ are released for each mole of ammonia
nitrogen consumed (Kadlec and Knight 1996).
Denitrification. Denitrification, the main mechanism of total nitrogen (TN) removal in
activated sludge processes, is a bacterial process when N oxides (ionic and gaseous forms)
serve as terminal electron acceptors for respiratory electron transport, and organic
compounds serve as electron donors (Vymazal, 1995). The conversion process of nitrate to
nitrite, and then to nitrogen gas (via denitrification) is illustrated in Equations (7.8)-(7.9):
7.8
7.9
The overall transformation can be expressed by Equation (7.10):
7.10
Equation (7.10) indicates that each mole of nitrate reduction is associated with the
acceptance of five electrons. When an external carbon source is being employed (for
example methanol-CH3OH), the stoichiometry of denitrification reaction becomes (U.S.
EPA, 1993; Kadlec and Knight, 1996):
7.11

7.12
From equation (7.12) it can be seen that denitrification process produces alkalinity, and
approximately 3 g bicarbonate (as CaCO3) is produced for per g NO3-N reduction.
The facultative bacterial groups involved for denitrification include: Bacillus, Enterobacter,
Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Spirillum (Kadlec and Knight 1996). Although it is uncommon
for denitrification to occur in the presence of DO, the process has been observed in
suspended and attached bacteria growth environment with low DO content and anoxic
zones (Kadlec and Knight, 1996; Lee et al., 2009), including places containing finest
sediments and in DO saturated conditions (Cerezo et al., 2001).
7.2 Nitrification Theory

Kinetics. The growth of Nitrosomonas bacteria (that converts NH4-N to NO2-N-Equation
7.5) in activated sludge process can be described, employing Monod equation:
7.13
where Xn = Nitrosomonas concentration, mg VSS/L

CHAPTER 7
net growth rate of Nitrosomonas, mg VSS/L
= Nitrosomonas growth rate, mg VSS/L
= Nitrosomonas decay rate, mg VSS/L
μ = specific growth rate for Nitrosomonas, d-1; for example μ=0.4 indicates that
the daily rate of microorganism synthesis is equal to 40% of the mass
originally present.
μm = maximum specific growth rate for Nitrosomonas, d-1
kd = Nitrosomonas decay rate, d-1
Ks = Monod half saturation constant, mg N/L
Sa = residual substrate concentration (i.e. ammonium), mg/L
Equation (7.13) can be used in completely mixed steady state activated sludge process, for
calculating the residual ammonium concentration (Sa, units in mg/L). However, under such
conditions, there is no mass variation of Nitrosomonas in the system; the net growth rate
(growth rate minus decay rate) is equal to the discharge rate (due to discharge through
excess sludge). Considering these boundaries, Equation 7.13 can be written as:
7.14

The term refers to change of Nitrosomonas concentration as a result of excess sludge
discharge, as expressed in Equation (7.15).
7.15
where c = sludge age, d

As such, Equations (7.13) and (7.14) can be written as:
7.16
And the residual ammonium concentration (Sa) can be calculated by Equation (7.17):
7.17
The residual ammonium concentration depends on four parameters: μm, Ks, kd and qc ;
residual concentration does not depend on initial concentration, and can never be superior
to the available ammonium concentration for nitrification. As such, the minimum sludge age
(cm) for nitrification is defined by Equation (7.18), after rearranging Equation (7.17):
CHAPTER 7
7.18
At minimum nitrification sludge age, the available ammonium concentration for

nitrification will be greater than half saturation value Ks; in such case, Ks/Sa <<1, and
Equation (7.18) can be simplified to:
7.19
Ammonium oxidation rate. The ammonium oxidation rate (conversion of NH4-N to NO2-
N) is related to the Nitrosomonas growth rate, and can be expressed as:
7.20
where rN = ammonia oxidation rate, lb NH4+-N oxidized/lb VSS.d

μ = Nitrosomonas growth rate, d-1
YN = organism yield coefficient, lb Nitrosomonas
= = peak ammonia oxidation rate, lb NH4+-N oxidized/lb VSS.d
μm = peak Nitrosomonas growth rate, d-1

Dependency on temperature. The kinetics of nitrifying bacteria is inherently dependent
on the change of temperature. In case of rapid temperature rise, their growth rate is lower; in
contrast, higher growth decline rate is often associated with sudden temperature drop. The
growth rate of nitrifiers is lower in colder regions, compared with tropical regions. For such
reasons, in European countries, the activated sludge processes are operated at a sludge age
>15 days for nutrient removal (Haandel and Lubbe, 2007).
The critical dependency between the metabolism of nitrifiers, and temperature change can
be illustrated by Arrhenius dependency coefficient (q), as illustrated below:
7.21
where T = temperature in °C
Different values have been proposed for the coefficient q , as illustrated in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Arrhenius coefficient for Nitrosomonas bacteria.
Arrhenius coefficient Temperature interval Source
q °C
1.116 19-21 Gujer (1977)
1.123 15-20 Downing et al., (1964)
1.130 20-30 Lijklema (1973)
Downing and Hopwood (1964) provided kinetic equations on the inter-relationship

CHAPTER 7
between maximum growth (μm), half saturation constant (Ks), and temperature for both
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter in suspended growth system. Such relationships have been
illustrated in Equations (7.22)-(7.23).
7.22
7.23
Dependency on oxygen. The kinetics of nitrifiers is critically dependent on oxygen
concentration; such dependency can be described by Monod type equation, as illustrated in
Equation (7.24).
7.24
where DO= dissolved oxygen concentration, mg O2/ L

Ks,O2= half saturation oxygen constant, mg O2/L
Typical half saturation values of O2 vary between 0.5-1.5 mg/L. It should be noted that these
values have been determined from the bulk phases of the liquid. However, in the deeper
portion of the sludge flocs, the concentration of DO is lower due to oxygen consumption
(Figure 7.3). As such, anaerobic portion may develop in deeper sludge flocs, promoting
denitrification.

surface
increase of DO concentration
biofilm depth biofilms reduction
Figure 7.3 Reduction of oxygen concentration at deeper portion of the sludge flocs.
Dependency on pH. Since nitrification process consumes alkalinity (Equation 7.7), it is

enhanced between pH values 7.0-8.5, and is hindered at a pH value <7 (Figure 7.4). In
activated sludge processes, the consumption of alkalinity due to nitrification decreases pH;
as such, the pH of the mixed liquor is often observed to be less than 8.
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.4 Dependency of nitrification process on alkalinity.
The impact of pH on the growth rate of nitrifiers can be illustrated by the kinetic model
(Equation 7.25) developed by Downing and Hopwood (1964), for pH values up to 7.2.
7.25
Multiple Monod kinetics: effect of substrate, DO, pH and temperature. Since
nitrification process is critically dependent on four factors: (a) presence of ammoniacal
nitrogen; (b) DO; (c) pH; and (d) temperature change, the impact of these parameters on
the growth rate of nitrifiers can be simultaneously expressed by multiple Monod equation,
illustrated in Equation (7.26) (US EPA, 1975):
7.26
Substituting effect of temperature (Equation 7.22), Ks (Equation 7.23), Ks,O2= 1.3 mg/L,
Equation (7.26) can be developed for Nitrosomonas kinetics (Equation 7.27), when pH
<7.2, and wastewater temperature ranges between 8-30°C. For pH³7.2, the term [1 -
0.833(6.2 - pH)] in Equation (7.27) will be equal to unity (Lin, 2007).
7.27

Table 7.2 enlists typical reaction rate constants of nitrifying bacteria.
Table 7.2 Reaction rate constants for nitrifying bacteria at 20°C.a
Symbol Unit Ammonia Nitrite
oxidation oxidation
Maximum specific μmax d-1 0.6-0.8 0.6-1.0
growth
Saturation constant Ks, NH4 g NH4-N/m3 0.3-0.7 0.8-1.2
Saturation constant KS, O2 g O2/m3 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.5
Maximum yield Ymax g VSS/g N 0.1-0.12 0.05-0.07
constant
Decay constant kd d-1 0.03-0.06 0.03-0.06
a
After Henze et al., (2002).
7.3 Denitrification Theory

Denitrification process is dependent on several environmental and operating factors, such
as: presence of facultative biomass, presence of nitrate, lack of oxygen, pH, temperature and
electron donor availability. A brief description of these factors has been illustrated in the
following sections.
Presence of facultative biomass. The denitrification process is often performed by
facultative biomass, which can utilize both oxygen and nitrate as an oxidant for organic
matter. The aerobic sludge (of activated sludge process) usually consume nitrate rapidly in
anoxic environment, as significant portion of such biomass is facultative.
CHAPTER 7
Presence of nitrate. The presence of nitrate is a prerequisite to foster denitrification in

treatment plants. However, nitrate concentration > 0.5 mg/L (in wastewater) has
insignificant impact on denitrification rate; in such cases, nitrogen removal becomes
independent of nitrate concentration.
Absence of oxygen. The denitrification process proceeds in a zone that lacks of dissolved
oxygen. Dissolved oxygen concentration > 0.2-0.5 mg/L reduces the denitrification rate
substantially. The deeper portion of the microbiological films often provides an ideal
environment for the reduction of nitrate, due to oxygen deprived conditions.
pH. Literature reports show that denitrification process can be hampered at pH <6.0, and
pH>8.0, and the highest rate is observed at pH ranges 7.0-7.5 (U.S. EPA, 1975). It may occur
at a slower rate when pH < 5 (Vymazal, 2007).
Temperature: Denitrification has been found to proceed slowly at low temperatures (e.g.
5°C), and its reaction rate increases exponentially with higher temperature, reaching a
plateau between 20-25°C, as long as other environmental factors do not restrict the rate
(U.S. EPA, 1975).
Presence of an electron donor. Denitrification process is critically dependent on the
presence of electron donor materials (i.e. biodegradable organics), for the reduction of
nitrate. In treatment plants, this requirement can be accomplished by adding organic matter
externally (for example: methanol, ethanol, acetone, acetic acid etc.), or providing organic
matter internally.

Monod kinetics for denitrification. The above sections illustrate that the main limiting
factors for continuing denitrification metabolism are: (a) availability of nitrate; (b)
availability of organic carbon, and (c) dominancy of anoxic/anaerobic conditions. These
three limiting factors can be expressed through multiple Monod kinetics by: (a) taking into
account of the NO3-N level; (b) using COD as an indicator of organic carbon for
denitrification; and (c) taking into account of the inhibitory oxygen constant SDOi
(denitrification ceases above this constant value as this process occurs in anoxic/anaerobic
environment). The interrelation of these factors can be expressed through the following
equation.
7.28
where, SNO3 = effluent NO3-N concentration, mg/L

SDOi = inhibitory oxygen constant, mg/L
SCOD = effluent COD concentration, mg/L
KS, COD = half saturation COD constant, mg/L
KS, NO3 = half saturation NO3-N constant, mg/L
Typical denitrification kinetic coefficients have been illustrated in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Denitrification rate constants (Henze et al., 2002).
Symbol Unit Value
Maximum growth rate for organic μmax d-1 3-6
CHAPTER 7
matter in wastewater
Maximum growth rate for methanol μmax d-1 5-10
Decay constant kd d-1 0.05-0.10
Saturation constant, nitrate KS, NO3 g N/m3 0.2-0.5
Saturation constant, methanol Ks, MeOH g COD/m3 5-10
Saturation constant, COD in KS, COD g COD/m3 10-20
wastewater
Inhibition constant, oxygen SDOi g O2/m3 0.1-0.5
7.4 Aerobic-Anoxic Reactors for Nitrification-

Denitrification
In a typical activated sludge process, if the MLSS is aerated in the aeration tank for a longer
time period, the NH4-N of wastewater is nitrified. When this nitrified liquor is transferred to
the following secondary clarifier, an ideal environment is created for denitrification after the
consumption of oxygen. The dentrification in the secondary clarifiers produces nitrogen gas
bubbles, which rises towards the water surface. These nitrogen bubbles may be attached to
sludge flocs, resulting lifting (from the bottom of the clarifier) and floatation of sludge in the
water surface. Such floating sludge layer escapes with the effluent, which often fails to fulfill
discharge criteria (due to presence of solids). In addition, excess discharge of sludge reduces
the sludge age and mass in the system, diminishing system efficiency. To overcome such
problems, an anoxic reactor is added to the system, where the MLSS is remained in

suspended form through moderate stirring without aeration. The amalgamation of aerobic
and anoxic reactors accomplishes nitrification-denitrification of the MLSS, prior to its
entrance into the secondary clarifier.
The arrangement of aerobic and anoxic reactors for achieving nitrification-denitrification
can be accomplished by three sludge systems (where organic carbon is added externally), or
by single sludge system (where organic carbon is provided internally). The single sludge
system can further be classified into pre D, post D or Bardenpho systems, depending on the
arrangement of the anoxic reactors. A brief description of each of these systems has been
provided below.
Three sludge systems. The system comprises of three reactors; each reactor is followed by a
separate settler. Influent wastewater is passed through the first stage aerobic reactor, to
facilitate the removal of organics; the MLSS is transferred from the first settler to the second
aerobic reactor for nitrification. The nitrified effluent is then passed through the following
anoxic reactor. Since such nitrified effluent lacks biodegradable organics, external source of
organic carbon (for example methanol) is mixed with wastewater (to foster denitrification),
prior to anoxic reactor entrance. The presence of three stages increases the construction
cost, which is a major drawback of these systems. Figure 7.5 gives a schematic diagram of the
three sludge systems.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
organic matter removal nitrification denitrification

Influent Effluent
CHAPTER 7
Aerobic Aerobic Anoxic

Settler Settler Settler
reactor reactor reactor
methanol
addition
Recycle Recycle Recycle
Figure 7.5 Three sludge systems for the removal of organics and nitrogen.
Pre denitrification (Pre D systems). This system comprises of an anoxic reactor, followed
by an aerobic reactor and a settler (Figure 7.6). The nitrate produced in the second aerobic
reactor is recirculated to the first anoxic tank, along with return sludge from the settler for
denitrification. This system exhibits higher denitrification rates due to presence of
substantial amount of biodegradable organics in the anoxic reactor. However, this system
cannot achieve complete nitrate removal, as a portion of the produced nitrate (from aerobic
reactor) is discharged directly from the settler without being recirculated to the anoxic
reactor
Post denitrification (Post D systems). In post D systems, the aerobic reactor is followed
by an anoxic reactor and a settler. Wastewater is firstly treated in the aerobic reactor, where
complete biodegradable organic matter removal and nitrification occurs. The mixed liquor
is then transferred to the following anoxic reactor. Non-metabolized organic matter (not
removed in the aerobic reactor), and organic matter released during the decay of sludge acts
as a source of carbon (for denitrification) in the anoxic tank. The mixed liquor is then

Recycle
Influent Effluent
Anoxic reactor Aerobic reactor Settler
Recycle
Figure 7.6 Pre D systems for nitrogen removal.

transferred to the following settler, which is again recirculated to the aerobic reactor. The
main disadvantage of this system can be attributed to lower biodegradable organic matter
availability, for denitrification, thereby diminishing denitrification rate. Figure 7.7 illustrates
an operational diagram of the post D systems, for the removal of nitrogen (from
wastewater).

Aerobic reactor Anoxic reactor
clarifier
Recycle
Figure 7.7 Post D systems for nitrogen removal.
Bardenpho system. This system includes the principle of both pre and post D systems for
denitrification. The system comprises of three reactors; the first reactor is anoxic followed by
CHAPTER 7
an aerobic and an anoxic reactor (Figure 7.8). The nitrate produced in the aerobic reactor is
recirculated directly to the first anoxic reactor for denitrification. The remaining nitrate is
reduced in the third anoxic reactor. The MLSS is then transferred to a settler. A smaller
fourth reactor can be provided in these systems, for reaeration of the anoxic MLSS. Such
reaeration removes the nitrogen bubbles formed in the post D reactor, thereby eliminating
the possibilities of sludge floc floatation in the settler.
Recycle
Influent Anoxic Aerobic Anoxic Effluent

Settler
reactor reactor reactor
Recycle
Figure 7.8 Configuration of Bardenpho systems.
7.5 New Nitrogen Removal Routes

The above sections have been focused on nitrification-dentirification process in activated
sludge processes, for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater. Apart from the traditional
nitrogen removal mechanisms, several new nitrogen biodegradation routes have been
discovered to date. These include: Sharon (Single reactor for high activity ammonium

removal over nitrite), Babe (Bio-augmentation batch enhanced), Anammox (Anaerobic
ammonium oxidation), Canon (Completely autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite),
and Deammox (Denitrifying ammonium oxidation). This section provides a brief
description on these newly implemented nitrogen removal routes.
Sharon process. The nitrogen removal by Sharon process depends on the metabolism of
ammonium and nitrite oxidizers, with increase and decrease of temperature. When
temperature is less than 20°C, the kinetics of nitrite oxidation proceeds at a higher rate,
compared to ammonium oxidizers. As such, when temperature falls down below 20°C, it is
almost impossible to limit the oxidation of nitrite, thereby hindering the application of
Sharon process.
However, above 20°C the growth rate of ammonium oxidizers becomes higher than nitrite
oxidation. Such growth rate of ammonium oxidizers allows accumulation of nitrite, and
limits the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate, which fulfills the basic principle of Sharon process.
The aerobic sludge age is also controlled at lower ranges to prevent the growth of nitrite
oxidizers (Figure 7.9a), resulting conversion of ammonium to nitrite only. Since a portion of
ammonium is converted to nitrite, a typical Sharon reactor effluent comprises of 10-50
mg/L of NH4-N. If aerobic sludge age is increased, NH4-N concentration is reduced; this
increase also re-establishes nitrite oxidizers again in the reactor, thereby converting the
nitrite to nitrate. It should be noted that the bacteria in the Sharon effluent is present in free
form; as such, the effluent from Sharon reactor consists of significant biomass and organic
nitrogen.
CHAPTER 7
6
Nitrosomonas
Figure 7.9 (a) Growth rates of nitrifying bacteria depending on temperature.
The Sharon reactor can be constructed either as a single tank with alternate aerobic-anoxic
phase (Figure 7.9b), or as series of two tanks: an aerobic tank followed by an anoxic reactor.
The aerobic phase is usually maintained for 80 minutes, followed by an anoxic period of 40
minutes (Have and Kempen, 2004). In a single stage Sharon reactor, the alkalinity produced
in the anoxic phase can be immediately utilized by the following aerobic phase for
nitrification. However, one disadvantage of a single stage Sharon reactor is the possibilitiy of

Figure 7.9 (b) Single stage Sharon reactor.
direct discharge of a portion of ammonium with effluent, due to the transition towards
anoxic phase. On the other hand, in two stage Sharon reactors, the influent is nitrified first in
the aerobic reactor, followed by denitrification of the produced nitrite in the anoxic reactor.
For these reasons, the effluent ammonium concentration of two stage tanks is often lower,
compared with single stage Sharon reactor. A recirculation pump is required in two stage
systems, to transfer the produced alkalinity into the anoxic reactor (due to denitrification) to
the aerobic reactor (for nitrification). The preferable temperature ranges for Sharon
CHAPTER 7
reactors fall within 30-35°C.
The Sharon process has certain advantages over traditional nitrification process. According
to Equations (7.2), and (7.3), oxidation to nitrite requires 3/4th of the demand for oxidation
to nitrate, thereby reducing the aeration cost. Subsequently, the denitrification of the
produced NO2 requires only 3/5th of the organic material required for nitrification
(Equations 7.29-7.30).
7.29
7.30
Babe process. The Babe process includes a small reactor, where a part of the return sludge
from the secondary settler is contacted with sludge reject water (after sludge dewatering)
(Figure 7.11 a). The Babe process has two-fold objectives in an activated sludge system: (a)
it reduces the nitrogen load from the sludge treatment recycle streams; and (b) it seeds
(augments) the main activated sludge systems with nitrifiers integrated in sludge flocs,
thereby increasing nitrification capacity. Such augmentation is extremely important in
systems, where effluent ammonium levels are higher due to lower sludge age.
The Babe reactor is operated in five steps: filling, aeration, mixing, settling and discharging
(Figure 7.11 b); these steps are usually completed within three hours. Filling is continued, as
long as the centrifuge is in operation. Aeration and mixing are alternated in order to achieve
nitrification and denitrification in the Babe reactor. A portion of return activated sludge

Box 7.1
Performance of the Sharon reactor in Netherlands (Mulder et al., 2001).
Table 7.4, provides the dimensional values of a Sharon reactor, constructed in the Rotterdam,
Dorkhaven, Netherlands at 1999 (Mulder et al., 2001), for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater.
Table 7.4 Design parameters of Dokhaven Sharon reactor,
Netherlandsa (Mulder et al., 2001).
Design Parameter Dimension Value
Tank Volume m3 1800
Flow, design m3/h 31.5
Flow, maximum m3/h 50
N-load, design kg/d 540
N-load, maximum kg/d 830
NH4, influent mg/L 1000-1500
Retention Time aerobic d 1
Retention Time anoxic d 0.5-1.5
The nitrogen removal performances by the Dokhaven Sharon reactor are illustrated in Figure 7.10,
indicating that NH4-N was initially converted to both NO2-N and NO3-N, due to higher oxic detention
times. After controlling the cyclic times, the NH4-N was converted to NO2-N, and then to N2 gas, as
indicated by decrease of C/N ratio to 2.4 (Mulder et al., 2001).
CHAPTER 7
(a) (b)
Figure 7.10 (a) Effluent NO2-N and NO3-N concentration across the Dokhaven Sharon
reactor; and (b) COD/N ratio of the reactor effluent (Mulder et al., 2001).
(RAS) is introduced in the Babe reactor during denitrification; the carbon in the RAS
reduces methanol requirements.
Anammox process. Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (Anammox) is a newly discovered
nitrogen removal process, where ammonium is directly oxidized to nitrogen gas (by nitrite)
in presence of planctomycete bacteria group under anaerobic conditions. Compared with
conventional nitrification and denitrification processes, the advantages of Anammox
process are: (a) no requirement of external carbon sources; (b) lower oxygen demand; and
(c) lower energy consumption. The overall reaction of the Anammox process has been
provided in Equation (7.31), according to Jetten et al., (2000):
7.31

(a) (b)
Figure. 7.11 (a) Schematic operation of the Babe process; and (b) operational steps of
the Babe process.
Complete ammonium removal by Anammox process requires ammonium and nitrite ratio
of 1/1.32 (Jetten et al., 2000). If different ammonium and nitrite ratios are present in
wastewater, complete ammonium and nitrite removal are critical to achieve by Anammox
process.
The growth rate of Anammox bacteria is extremely low (0.04-0.06 d-1 at 35°C). Such lower
growth rate often results slow start up of the Anammox reactor. The presence of various
substrates in wastewater (eg. sulphide, ammonium, nitrite) can also inhibit the growth of
Anammox bacteria. If sulphate is present in wastewater, it is converted to sulphide in
CHAPTER 7
anaerobic conditions (by sulphate reducing bacteria), that is toxic to Anammox bacteria.
However, under anoxic conditions, the growth of sulphate reducers is inhibited. Higher
ammonium concentrations (>several hundred mg/L NH4-N), and nitrite concentration
>70 mg/L can also cause growth toxicity; in addition, the Anammox reactor must be
operated under nitrite limiting conditions (<50 mg/L NO2-N) (Haandel and Lubbe, 2007).
The Anammox process is optimized at a pH range of 6.7-8.3, and a temperature range 30-37
°C. When temperature rises above 37 °C, ammonium conversion decreases drastically; in
contrast, the conversion of nitrite increases up to a temperature of 42°C, which indicates the
possibilities of different metabolic pathway under these conditions.
Combination of Sharon-Anammox process. In a combined Sharon and Anammox
process, as illustrated in Figure 7.12, the first Sharon reactor nitrifies 50% influent
ammonium. The produced nitrite is transferred to the following Anammox reactor
(operated under anaerobic conditions), where nitrite is reduced to nitrogen gas.
When a Sharon reactor is operated without pH control, nitrification proceeds at a rate of
approximately 50-60%. At this point, the majority portion of available biocarbonate is
consumed, hindering nitrite oxidation with a nitrite-ammonium ratio closer to 1:1 in the
effluent. This ratio is suitable for ammonium oxidation in following the Anammox reactor.
The operating variables for the Sharon reactor, in order to produce an effluent suitable for
the following Anammox reactor are: pH 6.6–7.0, T = 30–40°C, HRT = 1 day, and no sludge
retention (Ahn, 2006). The combination of Sharon-Anammox process often saves 40%
aeration, and 100% carbon costs, when compared with the conventional

nitrification–denitrification processes (Loosdrecht and Jetten, 1998; Dongen et al., 2001).
Partial nitrification and Anammox in a single reactor: Canon process. Canon process is
an autotrophic nitrogen removal process, that provides treatment of highly loaded nitrogen
Figure 7.12 Stoichiometric and operating conditions of the Sharon-Anammox process.
Box 7.2
Performance evaluation of Sharon-Anammox process (Jetten et al., 2000).
Jetten et al. (2000) conducted an experiment with combined Sharon-Anammox system, to treat reject
water from sludge digestion plant in The Netherlands. The system showed 94% ammonium removal
efficacy (Table 7.5), whereas total nitrogen removal performance was 91%. Such nitrogen removal
performances illustrate the possibilities of the combined system, for achieving higher nitrogen removal
CHAPTER 7
(from wastewater) without carbon addition.
Table 7.5 Nitrogen removal performances by the combined Sharon-Anammox process.a

Sharon Anammox
Unit
Influent Effluent Removal Influent Effluent Removal
NH4+ mg/L 1180 600 580 600 70 530
NO2- mg/L 0 550 550 550 0 550
NO3- mg/L 0 0 0 0 12 12
Organic N mg/L 0 30 30 30 30 0
Total N mg/L 1180 1180 0 1180 112 1068
a
Jetten et al., (2000).
streams with an unfavorable carbon to nitrogen ratio. The main principle of this process is
dependent on the co-existence of aerobic ammonium oxidizers, and anaerobic Anammox
bacteria in a single reactor. This can be established under oxygen-limited conditions to avoid
inhibition of Anammox bacteria by oxygen, and to achieve appropriate conditions to obtain
partial nitrification.
In Canon process, ammonium oxidizers convert a part of the ammonium into nitrite; the
remaining ammonium is converted to nitrogen gas in presence of the produced nitrite, by
Anammox bacteria. The growth of nitrite oxidizing bacteria is usually lower in Canon reactor
under low concentration of dissolved oxygen, due to their lower affinity to oxygen compared

to ammonium oxidizing bacteria. As such, nitrate is primarily produced by the Anammox
bacteria metabolism (Equation 7.31) in the Canon reactor. Since the entire nitrogen
removal process occurs in a single reactor, it is difficult to control the overall biodegradation
routes. The important parameters that can affect nitrogen removal in a Canon reactor are:
dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature, pH, free ammonia and sludge retention time.
The overall Canon reaction can be expressed through Equation (7.32) (Third et al., 2001):
7.32
+
Equation (7.32) indicates production of H during Canon process which reduces alkalinity
of wastewater, allowing the treatment of higher alkaline wastewaters (i.e. reject water from
anaerobic digester).
Deammox process. Deammox process is the integration of denitrification and Anammox
processes to remove nitrogen from wastewater that contains higher nitrogen concentration,
and slower biodegradable organics. Under these conditions, the growth of heterotrophic
denitrifiers is limited, due to lack of easily biodegradable organics. Such limited growth
promotes the formation of Anammox bacteria, which converts ammonium to nitrogen gas;
the nitrate produced from Anammox process is reduced by heterotrophic denitrifiers. In
addition, the intermediate nitrite product (from denitrification process) can be utilized by
the Anammox bacteria, for the conversion of ammonium to nitrogen gas.
It should be noted that Anammox bacteria cannot compete with heterotrophic denitrifying
bacteria at COD/N ratio greater than 2 (Chamchoi et al, 2008). Consequently, growth of
Anammox bacteria is irreversibly inhibited by lower methanol (15 mg/L), and ethanol
CHAPTER 7
concentrations (Güven et al, 2005).
Table 7.6 provides a comparative evaluation between the novel nitrogen removal routes, and
conventional nitrification-denitrification process.
7.6 Removal of Phosphorus

Phosphorus is the main limiting nutrient, that accelerates eutrophication (see chapter 11) of
surface waters. The forms of phosphorus found in wastewater include orthophosphates,
polyphosphates (molecularly dehydrated phosphates), and organic phosphates.
Orthophosphates for example: PO43-, HPO42-, H2PO4-, H3PO4 can be converted biologically.
The polyphosphates are subjected to hydrolysis, which is a slow process. Organic
phosphates are dominant in industrial wastewaters, and are not significant in municipal
wastewater.
Phosphates can be removed from wastewater by (a) chemical precipitation; and (b)
biological processes. The following sections describe each of these removal processes.
7.7 Chemical Precipitation of Phosphorus

Principles. Chemical phosphorus removal comprises of chemical precipitation of
phosphorus via metal salt. The most commonly employed chemicals, to achieve chemical
precipitation are: alum, sodium aluminate, ferric chloride and lime, shown in Equations
(7.33)-(7.36).

Table 7.6 Comparison of the innovative processes for nitrogen removal
(Jetten et al 2002; Ahn, 2006).
Characteristic Conventional Nitritation/ Partial Partial

nitrification/ denitritation nitritation nitritation and
denitrification (Sharon) (50%) and Anammox in
Anammox in one single
two reactors reactor
Number of reactors 2 2 2 1
Conditions oxic/anoxic oxic/anoxic oxic/anoxic oxygen limited
Oxygen 4.57 / 0 3.43 / 0 1.71/ 0 1.94
requirement
[gO2/gN]
% O2 saving - 24.9 % 62.6 % 57.5 %
Alkalinity 7.07 / -3.57 7.07 / -3.57 3.57 / 0.24 3.68
consumption
[gCaCO3/gN]
pH control yes none none none
Carbon source 3.7 2.3 0 0
requirement
[gCOD/gN]
% reduction in - 37.8 % 100 % 100 %
carbon source
requirement
CHAPTER 7
Main bacteria Nitrifiers / Ammonium Ammonium Ammonium

involved denitrifiers oxidizers / oxidizers / oxidizers /
denitrifiers Anammox Anammox
Biomass retention none / none none / none none / yes yes
Sludge production high low low low
Alum:
7.33
Sodium-aluminate:
7.34
Ferric chloride:
7.35
Lime:
7.36
The pH values (of wastewater) decrease if alum, sodium aluminate, and ferric chloride are
employed (Equation 7.33-7.35), whereas, addition of lime increases the pH values
(Equation 7.36). The optimum pH for alum and ferric chloride is 5.5-6; for lime the
optimum pH values are above 10.

Chemical precipitation configurations. The chemical precipitation (of phosphorus) in
activated sludge is achieved by four processes: pre-precipitation, simultaneous
precipitation, side stream precipitation and post precipitation.
(a) Pre-precipitation: In this process, chemicals are added in raw influent, or in the primary
clarifier. The metal phosphate precipitates are removed in the primary tank. Although
this process enhances the removal of solids, and COD/BOD in the primary tank, it can
also lead to the depletion of organics, thereby hindering biological nitrogen removal in
the following reactors. In addition, this process demands huge amount of chemicals,
along with significant production of chemical sludge. Figure 7.13 indicates a typical
configuration of pre-precipitation phosphorus removal process.
Chemical dosing
Recirculation
metal (III) salts
or lime
Primary Secondary
Anoxic Aerobic
Settler Settler
Influent Effluent
Secondary excess sludge

Primary excess sludge
Figure 7.13 Pre-precipitation process.
CHAPTER 7
(b)Simultaneous precipitation: Chemicals are added at aerobic tank, and in the overflow of
the aeration tank to the final settler (Figure 7.14). The metal salts Fe(II) are added in the
aerobic tank where Fe(II) is oxidized to Fe (III), allowing precipitation of phosphorus.
Metal (III) salts are added in the overflow of the aeration tank to the final settler, in order
to prevent phosphorus limitation to the biomass. Lime can also be added at this point, as
lime dosing in the aeration tank can elevate wastewater pH, which in turn can cause
severe reduction of nitrification/ denitrification process.
Chemical dosing
metal (II) salts metal (III) salts

or lime
Primary Secondary
Anoxic Aerobic
Settler Settler
Influent Effluent
Recirculation

Return sludge
Figure 7.14 Simultaneous precipitation process.

(c) Post precipitation: Post precipitation is the process, where chemicals are added to the
clarifier effluent. However, this process is associated with higher capital cost, and is not
employed widely for the removal of phosphorus. Figure 7.15 illustrates typical post
precipitation phosphorus removal configurations.
Chemical dosing
metal (III) salts
or lime
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Anoxic Aerobic
Influent Settler Settler Settler
Effluent
Recirculation

Return sludge
Figure 7.15 Post precipitation process for phosphorus removal.
(d)Sidestream precipitation: Phosphorus is concentrated into a low volume sidestream

with higher phosphorus content. This sidestream is subjected to chemical removal of
phosphorus. Sidestream process is often employed as a supplementary process to
biological phosphorus removal. One of the common sidestream precipitation
mechanism is BCFS (biological chemical phosphate nitrogen removal), as shown in
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.16. Such process is operated at longer sludge age (45 days), to optimise
nitrification. Lower sludge production limits the accumulation of polyphosphate in the
sludge, and is removed chemically. An in-line "stripper" is provided by placing baffles at
the end of the anaerobic reactor compartment, which produces a quiescent zone in
which the sludge partly settles. The phosphate-rich supernatant is pumped from the
activated sludge tank, and precipitated in the sludge thickener (Loosdrecht et al., 1997).
Figure 7.16 BCFS process for phosphorus removal.

7.8 Biological Phosphorus Removal
Theory. The chemical precipitation of phosphorus employs substantial amount of
chemicals, which increases operating costs, and produces excess sludge. In addition, ions
accumulation (from salts) can also restrict the reuse possibilities of the effluent. Due to these
disadvantages, phosphorus removal in modern wastewater treatment plants is often
achieved through biological routes, utilizing phosphate accumulating organisms (PAO) in
sequential anaerobic and aerobic environments.
In anaerobic environments, PAO organisms absorb the volatile fatty acids in their cell in the
form of internal polymers, such as polyhydroxy-butyrate (PHB). The energy required for
this process is obtained (by PAO organisms) through splitting previously stored
polyphosphate into orthophosphate (PO43-); the produced orthophosphate is then released
from the cell. The anaerobic reactor must be free of nitrate, as nitrate reduction depletes
availability of biodegradable organic compounds, which is critical for the metabolism of
PAO organisms. In the following anoxic and oxic reactors, the PHB is used by the PAO
organisms as a source of energy, and bacterial growth. A portion of the energy released is
employed, to store the phosphate (from the liquid phase), released in the previous anaerobic
reactors.
Configurations of biological phosphorus removal. Biological phosphorus removal
includes numerous configurations; the main difference of these systems is the inclusion and
maintenance of the anaerobic reactors to prevent nitrate accumulation. The following
sections provide a brief description of such systems.
CHAPTER 7
(a) Phoredox (A/O) and three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configuration: The Phoredox
(A/O) process includes an anaerobic zone, at the head of the aeration reactor (Figure
7.17a). The RAS is pumped from the clarifier to the anaerobic zone. The process has

Anaerobic Aerobic
settler
RAS
(a)
Recycle
Influent
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic Secondary Effluent
settler
RAS
(b)
Figure 7.17 Biological phosphorus removal configurations: (a) Phoredox (A/O); and (b)
three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configurations.

lower sludge age, which hinders nitrification. However, this system is difficult to operate
at temperatures above 25°C, where nitrification is unavoidable.
The three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configuration includes an anoxic zone, between the
anaerobic and aerobic reactors (Figure 7.17b), to achieve nitrate removal. The nitrate
rich liquor is recycled from the aerobic reactor to the head of the anoxic zone, for
promoting denitrification. A disadvantage of this process is the presence of nitrate in the
RAS, which can hinder biological phosphorus removal.
(b)Modified Bardenpho process: Figure 7.18 illustrates configurations of modified
Bardenpho process, for phosphorus removal. Such process consists of 5 stages; an
anaerobic zone at the head of the process, followed by alternating anoxic and aerobic
stages. The nitrate rich liquor is recycled from the first aerobic stage; the RAS is recycled
from the settler to the first anaerobic stage for denitrification. Since the nitrate
concentration in the RAS ranges from 1 - 3 mg/L, it does not interfere with the biological
phosphorus removal mechanism.
Recycle

Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic Anoxic Aerobic
settler
CHAPTER 7
RAS
Figure 7.18 Modified Bardenpho process.
(c) University of Cape Town (UCT), and modified UCT installations: The UCT processes
are modifications of three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configurations. In a UCT
configuration, RAS from the settler is transferred to the anoxic reactor. Such
configuration allows denitrification of the liquor, which is then recycled to the anaerobic
reactor for enhancing biological phosphorus removal (Figure 7.19a). In addition, the
nitrified liquor from the aerobic reactor is recycled to the anoxic reactor to achieve
denitrification, followed by recycling of the liquor to the anaerobic reactor.
Sometimes it is complicated to achieve the required denitrification rates in the anoxic
zone, that receives RAS and internal recycle flows rich with nitrate. Such problems can be
solved by the modified UCT process, which splits the anoxic zone into two stages. The
nitrate rich liquor from the aerobic zone is recycled to previous anoxic stage. The nitrate
rich RAS (from the settler) is also recycled to the first anoxic stage, for denitrification; the
denitrified liquor is transferred from the anoxic stage to the anaerobic reactor (Figure
7.19b), to enhance biological P removal.
(d)Sequencing batch reactor (SBR): SBR reactors, which employ sequential fill and draw
phases of wastewater (Chapter 6), can be used for the removal of nitrate and phosphorus,
from nitrate rich wastewater. The SBR reactors, for simultaneous removal of nitrate and

Recycle Recycle
Influent Effluent
Secondary
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic
settler
RAS
(a)
Recycle Recycle

Anaerobic Anoxic Anoxic Aerobic settler
RAS
(b)
Figure 7.19 (a) University of Cape Town (UCT); and (b) modified UCT installations.
phosphorus (from wastewater), are subjected to sequential anoxic-anaerobic-aerobic

phases. The anoxic phase promotes the removal of nitrates, followed by biological
CHAPTER 7
phosphorus removal in the subsequent anaerobic and aerobic phases. SBR reactors are
usually operated without primary sedimentation, so they often have a favorable BOD5: P
ratio, to maintain effluent P concentration of less than 1.0 mg/L during the settling
phase.
(e) Johannesburg (JHB) process. The JHB process includes transferring the RAS (from the
settler) to the anoxic reactor. Such configuration allows the production of mixed liquor
without nitrate, which is transferred to the anaerobic tank for triggering biological
phosphorus removal.
Recycle
Influent Effluent
Secondary
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic settler
RAS
Anoxic
Figure 7.20 Johannesburg (JHB) process for the removal of phosphorus.

Table 7.7 illustrates the operational parameters of some of the biological phosphorus
removal processes. Subsequently, the advantages and disadvantages of various biological
phosphorus removal processes are summarized in Table 7.8 (Haandel and Lubbe, 2007):
Table 7.7 Flow rates and residence times of Phoredox, UCT and sequencing batch
reactors, employed for the removal of phosphorus from wastewatera.
Phoredox UCT Sequencing batch

Flow rates
Influent 0.96 l/h 0.96 l/h 4 l/6h
Sludge return line 0.25 l/h 0.25 l/h -
Waste sludge line 0.125 l/h 0.125 l/h 200 ml/6h
Effluent 0.835 l/h 0.835 l/h 3.8 l/6h
Residence times
Anaerobic phase 1 h 21 mins 1 h 18 mins 1 h 30 mins
Anoxic phase 1 h 36 mins 1 h 27 mins
Aerobic phase 3 h 50 mins 3 h 50 mins 3 h 15 mins
Settler 5 h 12 mins 5 h 12 mins +/- 30 mins
a
Baetens (2000).
Table 7.8 Advantages and disadvantages of different biological phosphorus removal

processes.
Configuration Advantage Disadvantage

ŸSimple system ŸNitrogen removal is not achieved
CHAPTER 7
Phoredox/A/O process
ŸResidence time is shorter ŸNot applicable for hot regions
A2/O process ŸHigher denitrification rate is ŸDenitrification rate is incomplete
achieved ŸSludge bulking is observed
ŸSludge age is shorter
Modified Bardenpho ŸExcellent nitrogen removal is ŸIncomplete denitrification will affect
process achieved phosphorus removal
UCT ŸRecirculation of nitrate is ŸDenitrification utilization capacity is
inhibited inefficient
Modified UCT ŸAbsence of nitrate in the ŸInefficient denitrification capacity
anaerobic reactor utilization
Johannesburg ŸThe denitrification reactor is ŸIncomplete denitrification
efficiently utilized
Simultaneous denitrification and phosphate uptake. Although it was believed

previously that biological phosphorus removal process cannot assist denitrification process,
later research studies demonstrated the denitrifying capacity of PAOs (Vlekke et al.1988;
Kuba et al. 1993). As such, two different populations such as PAOs and DPAOs (denitrifying
phosphate accumulating bacteria) can exist in biological phosphorus removal systems
(Kern-Jespersen and Henze, 1993). The fraction of DPAOs is estimated to be in a range of
40-50% of the total PAO biomass (Kuba et al., 1994). PAOs can only utilize oxygen as a
terminal electron acceptor; DPAOs can utilize both oxygen and nitrate as terminal electron

acceptors. The DPAOs can exhibit simultaneous release and uptake of phosphorus,
depending on the availability of external substrate, and degradation of the internally stored
energy (Kuba et al. 1994; Chuang et al. 1996).
7.9 Optimization of Biological Phosphorus Removal

Presence of nitrate in the anaerobic reactors, and lack of biodegradable organics are two
common problems, associated with performance deterioration of biological phosphorus
removal reactors. Such problems can be mitigated through following ways, for enhancing
biological phosphorus removal (Henze et al., 2002):
Ÿ Improvement of denitrification for reducing nitrate, in order to introduce almost
nitrate free recycled sludge in the anaerobic reactor.
Ÿ External input of acetic acid for enhancing the availability of readily degradable
organics.
Ÿ Increasing the retention time in aeration tanks, allowing hydrolysis/ fermentation
process.
Box 7.3
Performance evaluation of Pagla treatment plant, Bangladesh (Saha et al., 2012).
A study by Saha et al., (2012) reported wastewater profile, and characteristics of Pagla treatment plant,
Narayanganj, Bangladesh. Such treatment plant is a combination of conventional, and natural
technologies. Influent pH, NH4-N, NO3-N, P, and solids (across the plant) were measured as 7.24,
CHAPTER 7
57.69, 11.07, 4.06, and 124.72 mg/L respectively. The final effluent concentrations (from the treatment
plant) of such parameters were recorded as 7.80, 5.24, 8.35, 1.34, and 24.48 mg/L respectively.
Nitrification removal efficiencies were reported to be 91%; subsequently, lower NO3-N removals were
also recorded.
7.10 Design of Activated Sludge Processes for

Simultaneous Organics Degradation and
Nitrification
This section provides detailed design procedures for achieving nitrification, and organics
removal in a single aeration tank. Such procedures are illustrated through design example
7.1.
Example 7.1. Design of a tertiary treatment process. Design an activated sludge system
for combined nitrification and organic degradation, from the following data:
Ÿ Average flow rate = 4000 m3/d
Ÿ Influent BOD = 200 mg/L
Ÿ Influent TKN = 50 mg/L
Ÿ Influent NH4-N = 20 mg/L
Ÿ Half saturation NH4-N constant, KS = 0.3 mg/L
Ÿ DO in the aeration tank = 2.5 mg/L

Ÿ Half saturation DO constant, KS,O2 = 0.5 mg/L
Ÿ Wastewater temperature = 25°C
Ÿ Maximum growth rate of nitrifiers, µm = 0.38 d-1
Ÿ Wastewater pH = 7.3
Ÿ MLSS = 3000 mg/L
Ÿ Safety factor, SF = 3
Ÿ Desired effluent BOD or TSS = 20 mg/L
Solution
Step 1: Determine the growth rate of nitrifiers
Since the pH is greater than 7.2, the term [1- 0.833(6.2- pH)] is equal to the unity.
Step 2. Calculate maximum ammonia oxidation rate
From Equation (7.20): Ammonia oxidation rate,

CHAPTER 7
From Table 7.2, YN= 0.1 mg VSS/mg NH4-N
Maximum ammonia oxidation rate,
Step 3. Minimum and design cell residence time
Using Equation (6.29) (Chapter 6):
where (maximum oxidation rate) and kd = 0.05 (Table 7.2)
The design cell residence time is calculated by incorporating safety factor; as such, the design
cell residence time,
Step 4. Calculate substrate utilization rate U for ammonia oxidation
From Equation (6.37) (Chapter 6):

where U = rN in Equation (7.20)
Step 5. Calculate steady state ammonia concentration of the effluent, Sa

Step 6. BOD removal rate, U

From Table 6.4 (Chapter 6), heterotrophic yield coefficient, Y= 0.6 kg VSS/ kg BOD5
and kd = 0.06 d-1
The design cell residence time (qc-design) is 9 d.
CHAPTER 7
The heterotrophic BOD removal rate, kg BOD5
removed/(kgMLVSS.d)
Step 7. Calculate F/M ratio
Assuming 85% BOD removal efficacy, the food to microorganism ratio can be computed as:
kg BOD5 applied/kg MLVSS. d
Step 8. Calculate hydraulic retention time for organic oxidation

For organic degradation:
; ; ;

Step 9. Calculate hydraulic retention time for nitrification
; ;
(assuming 10% of VSS consists of nitrifiers)
As HRT of organic oxidation is higher (step 8), it is the controlling HRT.
Step 10. Aeration tank volume
Step 11. Required amount of oxygen
where k = BOD loading conversion factor for nitrification system, usually ranges between
1.1- 1.25.
Step 12. Sludge wasting

CHAPTER 7
Sludge to be wasted,
Step 13. Engineering diagram of the aeration tank

Figure 7.21 provides an engineered diagram of the proposed aeration tank, to be employed
for simultaneous removal of organics and NH4-N.
Qwa X =213 kg/d
Influent Effluent
Aeration tank
Q = 4000 m3/d
V = 1040 m3/d Secondary
SBOD = 200 mg/L HRT = 0.26d clarifier
STKN = 50 mg/L O2 requirement = 1874 kg/d

Qr
Figure 7.21 Aeration tank diagram for achieving organics and NH4-N removal.

7.11 Metals Removal
Precipitation is often employed for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Heavy
metals are generally precipitated as hydroxide through the addition of lime, or caustic
(NaOH) to a pH of minimum solubility. The pH of minimum solubility varies with the types
of metals to be removed. For example, the solubility of chromium and zinc are minimal at pH
7.5 and 10.2 respectively. When treating wastewater that contains metals, it is necessary to
provide pretreatment of the effluents to remove substances, that will interfere with the
precipitation of the metals. Cyanide and ammonia form complexes with many metals,
thereby limiting removal mechanism. For many metals such as arsenic and cadmium, co-
precipitation with iron or aluminium is highly effective for removal to low residual levels. In
order to meet low effluent requirements, it may be necessary to provide filtration to remove
flock, carried over from the precipitation process. Filtration should reduce effluent
concentrations to 0.5 mg/L or less. For chromium wastes treatment, hexavalent chromium
must first be reduced to the trivalent state Cr3+, and then precipitated with lime. The
reducing agents commonly used for chromium wastes are ferrous sulphate, sodium meta
bisulphite, or sulphur dioxide.
Table 7.9 illustrates various treatment technologies, to facilitate metals removal from
wastewater.
Table 7.9 Various available technologies for metal removal.
Metals Removal technologies

Arsenic Sulphide precipitation with filtration, carbon adsorption, ferric hydroxide
CHAPTER 7
co-precipitation.
Barium Sulphate precipitation.
Cadmium Hydroxide precipitation at pH 10-11, co-precipitation with ferric
hydroxide.
Copper Hydroxide precipitation, sulphide precipitation.
Mercury Sulphide precipitation, alum co-precipitation, ferric hydroxide co-
precipitation, ion exchange.
Nickel Hydroxide precipitation at pH 10.
Zinc Hydroxide precipitation at pH 11.

Questions
1. Write a short note on the factors that usually effect nitrification and denitrification
process.
2. Why anoxic reactors are incorporated in activated sludge processes for the removal
of nitrogen?
3. What is the main difference of pre D and post D systems employed for the removal of
nitrogen?
4. Why Sharon process has certain advantages over traditional nitrification process?
5. What are the basic principles for obtaining higher effluent quality from Sharon-
Anammox processes?
6. Write a short note on the theory of chemical phosphorus precipitation in wastewater
treatment plants.
7. What are the necessary conditions for enhancing biological phosphorus removal?
8. Write short notes on: (a) modified Bardenpho process; and (b) modified UCT
installations often employed to foster biological phosphorus removal.
9. Design an aeration tank for achieving nitrification, using the following dataset:
Ÿ Average flow rate = 4000 m3/d
Ÿ Influent TKN = 80 mg/L
Ÿ Influent NH4-N = 50 mg/L
Ÿ Half saturation NH4-N constant, KS = 0.3 mg/L
Ÿ DO in the aeration tank = 1.5 mg/L
Ÿ Half saturation DO constant, KS,O2 = 0.5 mg/L
CHAPTER 7
Ÿ Wastewater temperature = 30°C

Ÿ Maximum growth rate of nitrifiers, µm = 0.35d-1
Ÿ Wastewater pH = 7.1
Ÿ MLSS= 4000 mg/L
Ÿ Safety factor, SF = 2
Ÿ Desired effluent TSS = 20 mg/L

References
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Chuang, S.-H., Ouyang, C.-F and Wang, Y-B. 1996. Kinetic competition between phosphorus release and
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Dongen, U., Jetten, M.S.M. & Loosdrecht, M.C.M. 2001. The SHARON®-Anammox® process for
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Downing, A. L., Tomlinson, T. G. and Truesdale, G. A. 1964. Effects of inhibitors on nitrification in the
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Gujer, W. 1977. Design of nitrifying activated sludge process with the aid of dynamic simulation. Prog. Wat.
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Güven, D., Dapena, A., Kartal, B., Schmid, M.C., Maas, B., Pas-Schoonen, K.T., Sözen, S., Mendez, R.,
Camp, H.J.M, Jetten, M.S.M., Strous, M., Schmidt, I. 2005. Propionate oxidation by and methanol
CHAPTER 7
inhibition of anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71,
1066-1071.
Haandel, A.and Lubbe, J. 2007. Handbook biological waste water treatment, design and optimization of
activated sludge systems, Quist publishing, Leidschendam, The Netherlands.
Have, C. T. and Kempen, V.R. 2004. Evaluation of reject water treatment-Sharon: effluent quality,
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Henze, M., Harremoes, P., Jansen, J. C. and Arvin, E. 2002. Wastewater Treatment, Biological and Chemical
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Jetten, M., Loosdrecht, M.C.M. and Dongen, U. 2000. The combined Sharon-Anammox process- a
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Environment, 380, 48-65.

Chapter
8
Industrial Wastewater Treatment
Industries require raw materials, fluids, and energy to produce goods for consumers. These
activities lead to the production of various waste forms, such as liquid wastes, gaseous
emissions, energy heated fluids and solid wastes. Most of these produced wastes comprise of
toxic substances. As such, these wastes must be treated prior to disposal, for ensuring
environmental sustainability.
This chapter provides a brief description of different industrial effluent characteristics, and
possible treatment options for safe disposal. Industrial wastewater production rates in and
around Dhaka have also been elucidated in this chapter. In addition, detailed description of
manufacturing processes of tannery and textile industries (two major sources of surface
water pollution in Bangladesh), and possible treatment options of such effluents have also
been included in this chapter. Finally, to assist the engineers in estimating preliminary
operational and maintenance costs of industrial treatment plants, regression equations have
been presented in this chapter.
It should be noted that, prior to the implementation of a particular treatment process into
industrial sectors (for removing organic and inorganic pollutants), lab-scale and pilot-scale
studies should be executed for evaluating the removal efficiencies, appropriated loading
ratios across the selected process.
8.1 Changes in Industrial Management

During the post World War II era, the industries focused on product quantity management,
resulting product generation without maintaining necessary qualities. In the 1960s, the
Japanese and German industries introduced the concept ‘product quality’. The concept
allowed the industries to focus on producing quality products which eventually damaged the
environment, due to the production of toxic, heavy metal rich wastewaters, and hazardous
solid waste.
CHAPTER 8
Owing to substantial environmental pollution, and increasing concerns by the governments
and public, the industries slowly realized the necessity of controlling the quality and quantity
of the produced wastes. This shift of awareness formulated ‘total quality management’
concept, considering the overall quality of all the elements associated in industrial
production.
The shift of environmental management is eventually resulting stricter regulation on
dischargeable parameter concentration. For example, in India the dischargeable limit of
phenol (for petroleum industry) was 300 mg/L in 1968, which was drastically reduced to 1
mg/L in 1992. Subsequently, the number of parameters (of industrial effluents) to be
monitored is also increasing day by day, as substantial elements of these effluents are toxic.
To meet the stringent discharge criteria, pollution control technologies, for example: waste
exchange (between industries), and effluent treatment plants have been introduced. The
concept waste exchange allows waste swap/ trade between two industries; under this
criterion the generated waste by an industry is being employed by a different industry, as
source of raw materials. However, such concept cannot widely be implemented between
various industries, due to variation of raw materials. Considering these draw backs, effluent
treatment plants are attractive options for the industries, in terms of achieving the stringent
Industrial Wastewater Treatment 219

discharge criteria. However, it should be noted that the effluent treatment plants are often
considered as ‘dead investments’ by the industries, as they demand higher operation and
maintenance costs, and do not bring any profit.
8.2 Charac teristics and Treatment of Industrial

Wastewater
Wastewater properties. The characteristics of industrial wastewater can be classified into:
(a) physical; (b) chemical; and (c) biological properties. The physical characteristics of
wastewater comprises of solids, odor, temperature, color, and turbidity. The chemical
properties of industrial wastewater include organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols,
sulfur, heavy metals, pH, and alkalinity. The effluent of some industries has certain
pathogenic organisms. As such, biological information is also critically needed to assess the
degree of wastewater treatment, prior to environmental discharge.
Table 8.1 indicates typical pollutant concentration of some industrial effluents. As observed
in Table 8.1, the concentration of solids, organics is substantially higher in these effluents,
that demand extensive treatment.
Table 8.1 Typical range of effluent concentration values for different industrial
wastewaters .
Waste origin pH TSS BOD COD TDS Oil and grease

mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Dairy 4 12150 14000 21100 19000 320
Yeast 5.3 540 2100 3400 3500 9
Fruits & vegetable 5.5 2200 800 1400 1270 94
Textile 6.5 1800 840 1500 17000 155
CHAPTER 8
Pulp & paper 8 1640 360 2300 1980 -

Beverage 9 760 620 1150 1290 -
Tannery 10 2600 2370 4950 8500 115
Fish canning 11 565 890 2350 8218 290
Wastewater treatment. Since the industrial effluents consist diverse range of pollutants, it is
required to pass these wastewaters through a combination of preliminary, primary,
secondary and tertiary processes (Chapters 4-7), to produce higher effluent quality. As the
industrial inputs and outputs differ from one industry to another, the treatment methods
also vary within the industries.
Table 8.2 illustrates the major characteristics of the effluents from different industries, along
with required treatment technologies. Subsequently, Table 8.3 illustrates common
advantages and disadvantages of the treatment processes, generally employed for industrial
wastewater treatment.

Table 8.2 Possible treatment options for industrial wastewater treatment.
Industrial producing Typical characteristics Major treatment and disposal
wastes methods
Textile Alkalinity, color, temperature, Neutralization, precipitation,
COD and high suspended solids aeration, trickling filtration
Tannery Hardness, salt, pH, sulfides, Sedimentation coupled with
chromium, solids, COD and BOD biological treatment
Laundry Alkalinity, and organic solids Screening, precipitation,
flotation, and adsorption
Dairy products Dissolved organic, Acidification, flotation, activated
protein, fat and lactose sludge, trickling filtration
Meat and poultry products Organic matter, blood, Screening, settling and/or
proteins, and fats flotation, activated sludge, trickling
filtration
Beet sugar Higher dissolved and suspended Coagulation aeration/ biological
organic matter treatment
Pharmaceutical Suspended and dissolved Activated sludge
organic matter
Yeast Higher organics Trickling filtration, anaerobic
digestion
Coffee High organics and solids Screening, settling, and trickling
filtration
Fish Higher organics, oil-grease and DAF system , activated sludge
odor
Soft drink Higher pH, solids and BOD Screening, neutralization and
biological treatment
Bakeries High organics, grease, sugars, flour, Biological treatment
CHAPTER 8
and detergents
Cane Sugar Variable pH, higher BOD5 Neutralization, biological
treatment
Palm oil High BOD5, COD, solids, fats and Neutralization, coagulation,
lower pH flotation, and filtration
Pulp & Paper Variable pH, color, higher solids Settling, biological treatment, by-
products recovery using flotation
Oil fields and refineries High dissolved salts, BOD5, odor, Recovery of salts; acidification
phenol burning of alkaline sludge
Rubber Variable pH, suspended solid Aeration chlorination, sulfonation,
biological treatment
Petrochemical High COD, dissolved solids, Equalization-neutralization,
metals chemical coagulation,
settling/flotation,
biological oxidation
Detergents High in BOD5 and saponified Flotation, skimming, precipitation
soaps with CaCl2
Pesticides High organic, benzenering Activated-carbon adsorption,
structure, acids alkaline chlorination

Industrial producing Typical characteristics Major treatment and disposal
wastes methods
Coal High-suspended solids mainly Settling flotation
coal, low pH, high H2SO4 and
FeSO4
Fertilizer Low pH, high fluoride, phosphate, Neutralization, lime treatment,
ammonia, nitrate biological treatment
Cement Lime, iron, solids Neutralization followed by
sedimentation, electrostatic
precipitation
Poultry Higher organics and solids Activated sludge processes,
oxidation ponds
Iron Gases like CO, CO2, SO2. Fe Settling and reclamation of sand
particles and solids
Acid manufacturing pH, highly acidic Lime neutralization
Plywood Higher organics, phenols Settling ponds adsorption
Antibiotics Higher organics, solids Biological treatment, flocculation,
sedimentation
Wood manufacturing Acidic, high organics Trickling filter
Table 8.3 Advantages and risks of different treatment processes for industrial
Treatment Advantage Risks
Screening Remove large suspended solids Blockage of screens; odor problems may
also arise
DAF System Remove oil and light particles Higher consumption of chemicals
Settling basins Shock loads are minimized BOD overloading can cause failure of the
CHAPTER 8
systems; often requires larger area

Lamella separator Higher separation efficiency; easy Difficult to clean the settled solids
discharge of settled sludge
Activated sludge Lower land requirement Extensive energy requirement; production
of sludge
Trickling filter Lower energy requirement and Odor problems
sludge production
Aerated ponds Better BOD removal Higher sludge production
Anaerobic digestor Produces less sludge Sensitive to temperature and shock load
Central effluent treatment plant. Higher construction and maintenance costs of

treatment plants often hinder small-scaled industries, to employ these systems for
wastewater treatment. Under these circumstances, central effluent treatment plant (CETP)
can enhance treatment facilities (for small-scaled industries), as demonstrated in Figure 8.1.
CETP process reduces the treatment cost to be borne by an individual member unit to a
minimum, while ensuring maximum environmental protection. In addition, the process also
reduces the burden of the supervisory authorities, responsible for evaluating water quality
parameters.

Industry 1 Industry 2
CETP
Industry 3 Industry 4
Figure 8.1 CETP processes for industrial wastewater treatment.
The advantages of CETP processes (for industrial effluent treatment) can be enlisted as:
Ÿ Capital and operational costs savings for small scale industries.
Ÿ Higher operational security.
Ÿ Enhanced treatment efficiencies at one central place.
Ÿ Efficient usage of land by the contributing industries.
Ÿ Addition of domestic waste can enhance nutrient availability, allowing a combined
treatment of industrial and domestic sewage.
Ÿ Allows more organized disposal of effluent.
Despite of such unique advantages, CETP systems have some disadvantages, as illustrated
below:
Ÿ Expansion of industries is not possible, if not considered during the design of CETP.
CHAPTER 8
Ÿ Possibilities of revealing secrets to the competitors.
8.3 Overview of Industrial Pollution in Bangladesh

There are over 7000 industrial enterprises in Dhaka, located in nine industrial zones. Most of
these industries discharge generated wastewater into surface waters, thereby disrupting
aquatic ecosystem. Table 8.4 illustrates the production of domestic and industrial
wastewaters in nine industrial clusters in and around Dhaka.
Table 8.5 illustrates water quality analyses at three industrial clusters: Konabari-Kasimpur
(Gazipur), Fatullah and Enayatnagar (Narayangonj). At the investigated industrial clusters,
organic and nutrients were found to exceed the discharge limits; dissolved oxygen did not
also meet the required limits. It should be noted that wastewater sampling analyses of
individual industries exhibited significant pollutant levels, when compared with the values of
Table 8.5. Such discrepancy can be attributed to the possibilities of stormwater dilution
(with raw wastewater), when discharged from the industries. Subsequently, Table 8.6
illustrates the main polluting industries within Dhaka with typical industrial pre-treatment
processes.

Table 8.4 Wastewater production in different industrial clusters in and around
Dhaka(DWASA, 2013).
Cluster Total Total flow Total Industrial Industrial Domestic Domestic Domestic
generated from effluent effluent effluent effluent effluent load
load outfall load (m3/d) load (m3/d) load retained in
(kg/d) (m3/d) (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d) situ (kg/d)
Tongi 12,555 35,158 7,159 21,708 3,797 13,450 3,362 5,396
Hazaribagh 66,664 87,184 55,773 49,489 46,349 37,695 9,424 10,891
Tejgaon 70,975 229,133 59,611 157,853 41,791 71,280 17,820 11,364
Tarabo 44,816 84,672 26,962 84,672 26,962 - - 17,854
Narayanganj 74,957 494,946 43,025 456,225 33,344 38,721 9,681 31,932
Savar 8,291 9,114 1,757 7,738 1,413 1,376 344 6,534
Gazipur 19,965 192,845 18,922 192,845 18,922 - - 1,043
DEPZ 48,113 314,755 31,042 314,755 31,042 - - 17,071
Ghorashal 15,850 44,928 5,422 44,928 5,422 - - 10,428
Total 362,186 1,492,735 249,673 1,330,213 209,042 162,522 40,631 112,513
Table 8.5 illustrates water quality analyses at three industrial clusters: Konabari-Kasimpur
(Gazipur), Fatullah and Enayatnagar (Narayangonj). At the investigated industrial clusters,
organic and nutrients were found to exceed the discharge limits; dissolved oxygen did not
also meet the required limits. It should be noted that wastewater sampling analyses of
individual industries exhibited significant pollutant levels, when compared with the values of
Table 8.5. Such discrepancy can be attributed to the possibilities of stormwater dilution (with
raw wastewater), when discharged from the industries. Subsequently, Table 8.6 illustrates
the main polluting industries within Dhaka with typical industrial pre-treatment processes.
Table 8.5 Water quality results for discharges from selected industrial clusters (DWASA,
2013).
CHAPTER 8
Parameter Discharge value Konabari-Kashimpur Fatullah Enayatnagar

of Bangladesh Range Average Range Average Range Average
Temp (OC) 40 17-38 29 22-38 29 24-38 30
pH 6.0-9.0 7.3-12.5 9.0 7.1-13.9 9.7 7.2-12.2 9.1
TDS (mg/L) 2100 68-2550 944 447-2720 1227 362-8090 963
TSS (mg/L) 150 44-149 107 2-208 87 32-122 65
SO4 (mg/L) - 140-550 323 43-355 160 27-301 169
NO3 (mg/L) 10 3.9-92 26 20-178 62 8-103 33
PO4 (mg/L) - 1.7-22 12.1 6.9-69.5 38 1.5-60 32
NH3 (mg/L) 5 1-4.3 2.3 1.09-5.1 2.9 1-3 2.0
NH4 (mg/L) - 1.06-4.55 2.5 1.28-5.4 3.1 1.06-3.22 2.2
pH 0.1 0.0006-0.032 0.0067 0.0004-0.03 0.0104 0.0003-0.0043 0.0145
Cr (mg/L) 0.5 0.0018-0.022 0.0075 0.0017-0.0311 0.0076 0.003-0.0095 0.0064
Cd (mg/L) 0.05 0.00002- 0.0025 0.00002-0.009 0.0028 0.00002-0.008 0.0032
0.0071 1.2
DO (mg/L) 4.5-8.0 0.05-8.3 1.35 0.02-5.2 0.72 0.03.6.62 80
BOD (mg/L) 50 65-129 97 78-185 122 12-147 308
COD (mg/L) 200 260-434 360 316-590 450 140-494

Table 8.6 Major polluting industries within Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
Industry Wastewater quality Major Treatment

pH BOD SS COD Total N Total P substances method
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Textile dying 3-11 10-350 20-250 300 25 10 Colour Ozone
Chemical
Synthetic 2-11 200-400 200-2500 150-2000 15-25 40-80 Phenol Flotation
detergents Neutralisation
Pharmaceutical 2-11 40-2000 70-600 - 80-100 10-20 Organic & Precipitation
and chemicals Inorganic Neutralisation
manufacture
Dry battery 1-12 300-800 30-150 - - - Cr Precipitation
manufacturing Cu
Cd
Zn
Food 6-8 300-2000 100-3500 200-1500 50-600 10-100 Organics Aerated
processing, Oils
including
poultry
Tanning 7-12 500-2000 400-3000 100-2000 250-350 10-20 Cr Precipitation
Sulphides
Slaughter 6-8 800-2000 1200-1600 - - - Organics Aerated
houses
Restaurants 6-8 10-900 20-800 - - - Organics Aerated
Electro-plating 1-12 - 30-150 10-200 - - Cr Electrolysis
CHAPTER 8
Tannery and textile industries are two major sources, responsible for aquatic environment
degradation in and around Dhaka. As such, sections 8.4 and 8.5 provide a brief overview and
possible treatment options of such wastewaters which can help the environmental engineers
of Bangladesh, in identifying appropriate treatment technologies.
8.4 Processing and Treatment of Tannery Effluents

Manufacturing of leather produces substantial pollutants, such as: solids, organics, nitrogen,
phosphorus, chromium (Cr), sulphides and alkalinity in the effluent. As such, uncontrolled
release of tannery effluents (into natural water bodies) increases health risks for human
beings, and fosters environmental pollution. Since the range of pollutants (in tannery
effluent) is diverse, it is essential to pass the raw wastewater through a series of treatment
technologies, to achieve higher effluent quality.
The removal of pollutants from tannery wastewater is heavily dependent on comprehensive
understanding of the sequential tanning processes, along with the types of generated
pollutants (through each step). This section provides a brief description of the tanning
processes, and the by-products generated in each step, followed by possible efficient
treatment approaches.

Tanning flow diagram. The production processes in a tannery industry can be divided into
following categories:
Ÿ hide, skin storage and beamhouse operations
Ÿ tanyard operations
Ÿ post-tanning operations
Ÿ finishing operations
Beamhouse operations: This process consists of soaking, fleshing, trimming, deliming,
bating, pickling, and degreasing of hides. In soaking process, dirt, manure, and blood are
removed from raw hides. The extraneous tissue is removed in fleshing process, whereas
unhairing is done by chemical dissolution of the hair. These processes are followed by
deliming and bating, where acid ammonium salts are applied for the neutralization of the
alkaline hides, allowing removal of hair roots and pigments. In pickling process acids and
salts are added, allowing the entrance of chromium tannins into the hide; the addition of salts
prevents hide swelling. Degreasing, the last stage of beamhouse operation is performed by
organic solvents addition, or surfactants.
Tanyard operations: Such operations are performed through chrome tanning, for
enhancing the hide resistant to bacteria and temperature. The chromium-tanned hide
generally contains about 2-3% dry weight of Cr (III).
Post-Tanning: During this process, the desirable properties of more than one tanning agent
are combined, and treated with dye and fat to obtain the proper filling, and colour. Splitting
and shaving is done to obtain the desired thickness of the hide.
Finishing: In this process, the hide is treated with an organic solvent or water based dye and
varnish. The finished end product often contains 66 -85% dry matter by weight.
Figure 8.2 indicates typical process diagram of tanning process, along with process input and
output. Subsequently, Table 8.7 illustrates the chemicals required in different stages of the
CHAPTER 8
tanning process, whereas, Table 8.8 shows general flow rate, and production of pollutants
during each stage.
Table 8.7 Chemical inputs for tanning process (Visvanathan, 2005).
Process Chemicals Tones/annum
Sodium chloride 622
Hydrated lime 1123
Sodium sulphide 445
Sulphuric acid 160
Soda ash 74
Bate 65
Calcium formate 40
Lactic acid 35
Sodium formate 26
Bactericide 19
Ammonium chloride 9
Tanolin 760
Syntans A and B 424
Dyes 77
D-1 oil 17

Process Chemicals Tones/annum
Other oils 295
Flour 45
Titanium dioxide 30
Methyl cellulose 9
Semi-sol glue 17
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.2 Operational diagram of tanning process.

Table 8.8 Pollutant load in tanning process (Visvanathan, 2005).
Operation Flow BOD Solids

m3/d mg/L kg/d mg/L kg/d
Soaking 276 2200 607 4400 1215
Unhairing 103 15500 1597 22100 2276
Reliming 103 650 67 1650 170
Delime 66 6000 396 2100 139
Pickling 37 2900 108 5200 192
Chrome tan 33 6500 215 1100 36
Secondary tanning, dyeing
-1st dump 19 2000 38 600 11
-2nd dump 19 2200 42 850 16
Treatment of tannery effluent in Bangladesh. Substantial tannery wastewater generation,

and discharge into local water bodies are causing severe environmental degradation in
Bangladesh. Approximately, 18000 L/d of liquid wastes are produced, from 300 small and
medium scaled tannery industries; most of such produced liquid wastes are discharged
directly in river Buriganga, causing death of aquatic organisms (SEHD, 2002; Rusal et al.,
2006; Islam et al., 2011). Typical influent BOD5 and COD concentrations of untreated
tannery effluent in Bangladesh are substantially higher, ranging within 2439-14675 mg/L
BOD5, and 3400-24400 mg/L COD (SEHD, 2002). Figure 8.3 depicts typical pollution of
local water channels in Bangladesh, due to uncontrolled tannery wastewater discharge.
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.3 Tannery wastewater discharge into open water channels in Bangladesh.

Despite severe environmental impact of tannery wastewater (to local aquatic bodies),
limited studies have been reported to date, on the efficient treatment of tannery wastewater,
prior to disposal (in Bangladesh). These studies were conducted through combinations of
physico-chemical, and biological process, as indicated in Boxes 8.1, and 8.2.
Box 8.1
Low cost treatment technologies to polish tannery wastewater treatment
in Bangladesh (Begum and Ahmmed, 2010).
A low cost tannery effluent treatment technology had been developed by department of chemical
engineering, BUET, Bangladesh. This system comprises of screening, aeration, coagulation,
sedimentation, drying bed, and incineration, as illustrated in Figure 8.4.
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.4 Low cost tannery effluent treatment technology, developed by
department of chemical engineering, BUET.
The developed technology illustrated promising performances. Influent pH ranged between 3.45-3.96,
whereas, effluent pH increased up to 6.73-6.89. COD values dropped to 18-118 mg/L in the effluent
(influent concentration ranged between 2110-3335 mg/L). Total dissolved solids removal efficiencies
were also recorded as 98%. In general, the system produced effluent quality, that met wastewater
discharge criteria of Bangladesh, as indicated in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Wastewater discharge criteria for tanneries in Bangladesh (ECR, 1997).
pH Suspended solids Dissolved solids Sulfide Total chromium Oil and grease BOD5
mg/L mg/L mg/L (Cr) mg/L mg/L
6-9 150 2100 1 2 10 100

Box 8.2
Tannery wastewater treatment employing physico-chemical process
in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 2011).
A study by Islam et al. (2011) employed coagulants, such as: alum, lime, and ferric chloride, to provide
treatment of raw tannery wastewater in Bangladesh. The results of the study have been illustrated in
Table 8.10.
Table 8.10 Pollutant removal profile employing coagulation process.
Unit Raw tannery Treated effluents with coagulants
pH 10.43 5.73-7.3
Solids mg/L 12333.33 3833.33-10100
Cl- mg/L 483.33 383.33-426.67
BOD5 mg/L 4760 420-2460
COD mg/L 6650 1150-2632
According to Table 8.10, despite physico-chemical process reduced the influent pollutant
concentrations, it could not meet wastewater discharge criteria in Bangladesh (Table 8.9). As such,
employing biological treatment process could fulfill the discharge criteria of tannery wastewater in
Bangladesh (Box 8.1).
As observed in Box 8.2, tannery wastewater treatment employing physico-chemical process

only may not provide a sustainable solution, for tannery wastewater treatment in
Bangladesh. Since a wider range of pollutants i.e. organics, nitrogen, phosphorus, solids,
alkalinity, chromium, sulphides, salinity, and salts are produced during different stages of the
tanning process (Figure 8.2), a combination of preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary
processes (Chapters 4-7), can produce acceptable tannery effluent quality, for safe
CHAPTER 8
environmental disposal.
Figure 8.5 indicates a possible approach, for the treatment of tannery effluent to discharge
criteria. As observed in Figure 8.5, the treatment of wastewater through the conventional
Figure 8.5 Treatment of tannery effluent employing conventional treatment process.

process is extremely complicated and demands higher operation and maintenance costs.
Table 8.11 indicates the pollutant removal efficacy (in percentages), and typical effluent
quality from conventional treatment processes, when employed for tannery wastewater
treatment.
Table 8.11 Typical pollutant removal efficacy and effluent concentration

employing different conventional treatment processesa.
Total kjeldahl
COD BOD Solids Chrome S2-
nitrogen (TKN)
% mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L
Pretreatment
Grease removal 20- - - - - - - - - - - -
(dissolved air 40
flotation)
Sulphide oxidation 10 - - - - - - - - 10 - -
(liming and rinsing
liquors)
Chromium - - - - - - - 10 - - - -
precipitation
Primary treatment
Mixing + 25- - 25- - 50- - - 20- - - 25- -
sedimentation 35 35 70 30 35
Mixing + chemical 50- - 50- - 80- - - 2-5 - 2-10 40- -
treatment + 65 65 90 50
sedimentation
Mixing + chemical 55- - 55- - 80- - - 2-5 - 2-5 40- -
CHAPTER 8
treatment + 75 75 95 50
flotation
Biological treatment
Primary or 85- 200- 90- 20-60 90- 20- - <1 - <1 50 150
chemical + 95 400 97 98 50
extended aeration
Primary or 85- 200- 90- 20-60 90- 20- - <1 - <1 80- 30-
chemical + 95 400 97 98 50 90 60
extended aeration
with nitrification
and
denitrification
Primary or 80- 300- 85- 60- 85- 80- - <1 - <1 50 80
chemical + Aerated 90 500 95 100 90 120
facultative lagoons
Anaerobic 65- 500- 60- 150- 50- 100- - <2 - - 20- -
treatment 75 700 70 200 80 200 30
a
European Commission, 2001.

Apart from conventional treatment technologies, natural treatment processes such as
constructed wetlands can also be an attractive option for the treatment of tannery
wastewater. Calheiros et al., (2009) employed two parallel series of horizontal subsurface
flow (HSSF) constructed wetlands for tannery wastewater treatment. Each series consisted
of two HSSF wetland systems. The HSSF wetlands of one series were planted with
Phragmites australis, whereas the systems of the other series had Typha latifolia. The removal
efficacy of BOD5 and COD in the systems was recorded up to 88% and 92% respectively. The
systems also showed better NH4-N, NO3-N, solids, Cr, and sulphate (SO42-) removal
performances. A brief description on constructed wetland systems is available in Chapter 10
of this book.
Box 8.3
Treatment of tannery wastewater in Bangladesh employing wetland
systems (Saeed et al., 2012).
A constructed wetland system has been employed by Saeed et al., (2012) to treat tannery wastewater in
Bangladesh which is the first of such application in this country. The wetland arrangements included a
vertical subsurface flow (VSSF) system, followed by a HSSF and a VSSF system established in,
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology campus, Dhaka, Bangladesh(Figure 8.6). The
arrangement of such hybrid systems has been illustrated in Figure 8.6. Wastewater was manually dosed
into the first VSSF system; wastewater flowed vertically and was transferred to the following HSSF
system under gravity action, where the flow was horizontal. The effluent of HSSF was transferred to the
last stage VSSF system under gravity, producing final effluent. The effluent quality of each wetland unit
was monitored (for a period of ten weeks) in the environmental engineering laboratory of the
department of civil engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology. Overall, the system
showed excellent pollutant removal performances. Influent COD and BOD (to the system) were 11500
mg/L and 4287 mg/L respectively, whereas effluent concentrations were 202 mg/L and 70 mg/L
CHAPTER 8
respectively. The system also achieved 86% NH4-N removal efficiencies, along with 87% PO4-P
removal. In general, these results demonstrate the possibilities of the implementation of wetland
systems in Bangladesh to provide necessary treatment of tannery wastewater prior to disposal.
VSSF
HSSF
VSSF
Figure 8.6 Hybrid wetland systems for tannery wastewater treatment in Bangladesh.

8.5 Textile Effluent Treatment
Textile industries process textile-related products for example: fiber, yarn, fabric, and dye;
such processing is associated with the utilization of complex chemicals, which can create
adverse impact to the receiving water channels when present in the effluents. The following
section gives a brief overview of the textile manufacturing processes.
Unit operations. The different manufacturing stages, associated with textile industries can
be illustrated as: desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing and finishing.
Ÿ Desizing. The presence of starch can hinder dye penetration into the fiber; as such,
starch removal is essential, prior to the application of dyeing materials. In desizing
process, starch is removed or transformed into simple products either by hydrolysis,
or by oxidation, resulting in the production of substantial BOD in the generated
wastewater.
Ÿ Scouring. Cotton, a natural fiber, contains 2-3% different impurities like waxes, fatty
acids, proteins, pectines, minerals etc. Through scouring process, these natural
impurities are removed from cotton fibers. The process is performed under alkaline
conditions, subjected to a temperature >100°C.
Ÿ Bleaching. Since natural color renders a creamy appearance to the fabric, bleaching is
performed for destroying natural coloring agents. Hypochlorite is the most popular
agent to facilitate bleaching process, which also promotes the formation of
chlorinated organic by-products. However, hypochlorite is currently being replaced
by peracetic acid. The advantage of peracetic acid is its decomposition to oxygen and
acetic acid, which is completely biodegradable.
Ÿ Mercerizing. This process includes the treatment of cotton fabric with NaOH, to
allow the fiber for achieving rod-like structure. Mercerizing is performed for 40-45
CHAPTER 8
seconds at 52-56°C.
Ÿ Dyeing. It is a process of imparting color to the fabric, with chemical pigments. In the
dyeing process, water is used to transfer dyes. The quantity of water required is
dependent on fiber types. For example, cotton requires large amount of water for
processing. Once the dyeing operation is over, treatment baths are drained, resulting
the production of salt and organic substances.
Ÿ Finishing. This process confirms the final chemical and mechanical properties to the
fabric, according to the specific requirements. Several finishing methods are often
employed to improve the drape, feel, antistatic, antisoiling, anti shrinking, water
repelling, and flame retardancy of the fabric.
Figure 8.7 shows a typical flow diagram of textile dyeing process, and a pictorial plate of
dyeing influent produced from these processes.
Treatment of textile pollutants. Table 8.12 indicates typical pollutant ranges in the
effluents of cotton processing mills. Subsequently, Table 8.13 illustrates typical pollutant
ranges in the effluent, generated from textile industries in Bangladesh (ECR, 1997).

(a)
(b)
Figure 8.7 (a) Typical dyeing processing diagram; and (b) raw dyeing influent from a local
factory in Bangladesh.
Most of the dyes, employed during the manufacturing process of textile industries contain
CHAPTER 8
organic compounds with functional groups, for example: carboxylic (–COOH), amine
(–NH2), and azo (–N=N–) groups. These dyes often resist aerobic degradation (Ong et al.,
2011); however, they can be converted to aromatic amines in anaerobic conditions,
followed by further degradation in aerobic environments (Brown and Hamburger, 1987;
Chung and Stevens, 1993). As such, a combination of anaerobic-aerobic processes can be
effective for the removal of dyes from textile effluents as illustrated in Figure 8.8.
Subsequently, Figure 8.9 shows a combination of anaerobic digester followed by aerobic
tanks, employed to treat dyeing wastewater in Bangladesh.
Table 8.12 Typical pollutant ranges in effluents of cotton mills.

(Babu et al., 2007)
Characteristics Unit Values
pH 9.8-11.8
Total alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3 17-22
BOD mg/L 760-900
COD mg/L 1400-1700
Solids mg/L 6000-7000
Total Chromium mg/L 10-13

Table 8.13 Typical pollutant ranges from textile effluents in Bangladesh.
Characteristics Unit Values
pH 6.5-9
Oil and grease mg/L 10
BOD5 mg/L 150
Suspended solids mg/L 100
Total dissolved solids mg/L 2100
Figure 8.8 Textile wastewater treatment through anaerobic-aerobic process.
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.9 Combination of anaerobic digester-aerobic treatments for dyeing effluent

treatment in Bangladesh.
The treatment of textile effluents through traditional process often demands excessive
chemical requirements, thereby increasing the operational costs. In addition, lack of
expertise often hinders smooth operation of these systems, to provide textile effluent
treatment in Bangladesh resulting in system failure. Considering these drawbacks, natural
treatment systems such as constructed wetlands can be effective (to provide treatment of
textile effluent). A few previous research studies (Bulc and Ojstrˇsek, 2008; Ong et al., 2011)

employed a combination of VSSF and HSSF wetlands, and upflow VSSF systems to provide
treatment of textile effluents. These studies recorded higher removal efficiencies; removal
percentages of COD, BOD, total nitrogen, sulfates, and dyes were reported to be 84%, 67%,
52%, 88% and 94-98% respectively. As such, wetland systems are promising technologies, to
generate higher quality textile effluents (in Bangladesh) at lower operational costs.
Figure 8.10 illustrates a combination of HSSF and VSSF wetlands to provide alternative
anaerobic-aerobic conditions, necessary for effective treatment of textile wastewater.
Figure 8.10 A combination of HSSF and VSSF systems, to provide treatment of

textile wastewater.
Box 8.4
CHAPTER 8
Textile wastewater treatment employing wetland systems in Bangladesh

(Saeed and Sun, 2013).
Two parallel lab-scale hybrid wetland systems were employed by Saeed and Sun (2013), to provide
treatment of textile wastewater in Bangladesh. These lab-scale systems were built on campus
(outdoors) at Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Each system
consisted of two treatment stages: a VSSF wetland, followed by a HSSF wetland, as shown in Figure
8.11. Locally available media such as: organic sugarcane bagasse and sylhet sand were used as the main
media in the lab-scale wetlands.
The systems were operated under high hydraulic loading (HL) ranges (566-5660 mm/d). The influent
NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, BOD, and COD concentrations were 158, 28, 74, 2705, and 12625 mg/L
respectively. Overall NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, BOD and COD removal efficiencies were 70, 86, 76, 97,
and 89% respectively. The systems were also efficient in color removal. Effluent pH, BOD5 and
suspended solids concentration fulfilled the discharge guidelines for textile effluents in Bangladesh
(Table 8.13). These findings illustrate the possibilities of employing wetland systems in Bangladesh to
treat textile wastewater (prior to disposal).

VSSF
HSSF
Figure 8.11 Arrangement of lab-scale wetland systems for textile

8.6 Operation and Maintenance Costs for Wastewater

Treatment Plants
Operation and maintenance costs are two important factors that must be considered prior to
the planning of treatment plants. For industrial wastewater treatment these are the most
decisive factors, as the industries have to bear such costs. As such, the engineers must
estimate a rough budget for a proposed industrial treatment plant, to identify whether it
meets the monetary criteria of the respective industries. To assist the engineers in estimating
CHAPTER 8
such operation, maintenance costs and land requirements, this section provides some
regression equations in Tables 8.14-8.17 for different treatment options. These studies were
carried out in Thailand by Singhirunnusorn and Stenstrom (2010). It should be noted that
aerated lagoons and waste stabilization ponds are natural treatment systems, that have been
discussed in details in Chapter 10 of this book.
Table 8.14 Regression equations for estimating preliminary costs.
System Capital cost O&M cost Land required
N Equation N Equation N Equation
Activated Sludge 6 Cc=0.0031Q0.881 4 Co=0.0529 + 1.31×10-5×F 4 L=1.467Q0.985
Oxidation Ditch 8 Cc=0.0017Q0.910 10 Co=0.0963 + 1.02×10-5×F 7 L=183.398Q0.513
Aerated Lagoons 11 Cc=0.0143Q0.681 8 Co=0.0607 + 3.31×10-6×F 6 L=9.876Q0.940
Waste 23 Cc=0.0004Q1.060 19 Co=0.018 + 4.03×10-6×F 11 L=127.736Q0.762
Stabilisation
Ponds
Where, Cc is capital costs (USD million); Q is design capacity (m3/d); Co is operations and
maintenance costs (USD million/year); F is actual flow rate (m3/d); L is land requirement
(m2); N is the number of case studies.

Tables 8.15-8.17 illustrate some examples of the use of Table 8.14, for some selected input
wastewater loading.
Table 8.15 Capital cost of construction based on different influent capacity.
System Capital cost ($M) Treatment plant capacity
Equation 40MLD 60MLD 80MLD 100MLD 120MLD
Activated Sludge Cc=0.0031Q0.881 $35.1M $50.2M $64.7M $78.8M $92.5M
Oxidation Ditch Cc=0.0017Q0.910 $26.2M $37.9M $49.2M $60.3M $71.2M
Aerated Lagoons Cc=0.0143Q0.681 $19.5M $25.7M $31.2M $36.3M $41.1M
Stabilisation Cc=0.0004Q1.060 $30.2M $46.4M $63.0M $79.8M $96.8M
Ponds
Table 8.16 O&M cost based on different influent capacity.

System O&M cost ($M/year) Treatment plant capacity
Activated Sludge Co=0.0529+1.31×10-5×F $0.58M/y $0.84M/y $1.10M/y $1.36M/y $1.62M/y
Oxidation Ditch Co=0.0963+1.02×10-5×F $0.50M/y $0.71M/y $0.91M/y $1.12M/y $1.32M/y
Aerated Lagoons Co=0.0607+3.31×10-6×F $0.19M/y $0.26M/y $0.33M/y $0.39M/y $0.46M/y
Stabilisation Co=0.018+4.03×10-6×F $0.18M/y $0.26M/y $0.34M/y $0.42M/y $0.50M/y
Ponds
Table 8.17 Land requirements based on different influent capacity.

System Land area (ha) Treatment plant capacity
Activated Sludge L=1.467Q0.985 5.0ha 7.5ha 9.9ha 12.3ha 14.8ha
L=183.398Q0.513
CHAPTER 8
Oxidation Ditch 4.2ha 5.2ha 6.0ha 6.7ha 7.4ha

Aerated Lagoons L=9.876Q0.940 20.9ha 30.6ha 40.1ha 49.5ha 58.8ha
Stabilisation L=127.736Q0.762 41.0ha 55.9ha 69.6ha 82.5ha 94.8ha
Ponds
Table 8.18 provides future plan of DWASA about operation and maintenance costs of
different wastewater treatment plants to be constructed in and around Dhaka, for efficient
wastewater management. The costs are based on standard unit rate of $50/capita.

Table 8.18 Comparison of costs of sewerage and wastewater treatment plants (DWASA, 2013).
No. Catchment Treatment Population Influent flow rate Sewage treatment plant Sewerage
served plant served Daily Daily peak Receiving Capital O&M Treatment Capital O&M
location flow (m3/d) waters cost ($M) cost plant area costs cost
(m3/d) ($M/yr) (ha) ($M) ($M/yr)
Greater Dhaka
1 Savar Savar 400000 46000 69000 Dhaleswari $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $69M $1.38M/yr
2 Tongi/Gazipur Tongi 800000 92000 138000 Turag/Tongi $40M $0.80M/yr 10 $34M $0.68M/yr
Gazipur 400000 46000 69000 Khal $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $86M $1.72M/yr
3 Rupganj Purbachal 500000 57500 86250 Lakhya $25M $0.50M/yr 6 $72M $1.44M/yr
4 (Purbachal) Keraniganj 400000 46000 69000 Buriganga $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $59M $1.18M/yr
Keraniganj
DWASA service area
1 Dhaka North Uttara 1600000 184000 276000 Tongi Khal $80M $1.60M/yr 20 $57M $1.14M/yr
(Uttara)
2 Dhaka West Mirpur 2800000 322000 483000 Turag $140M $2.80M/yr 34 $86M $1.72M/yr
(Mirpur)
3 Dhaka East Dasherkandi 2400000 276000 414000 Balu River $80M $1.60M/yr 25 $122M $2,44M/yr
(Dasherkandi)
4 Rayerbazar Rayerbazar 1600000 184000 276000 Buriganga $80M $1.60M/yr 20 $67M $1.34M/yr
(Kamrangirchar)
5 Dhaka South Pagla 4200000 483000 724500 Buriganga $102M $2.00M/yr 51 $126M $2.52M/yr
(Pagla)
Industrial Wastewater Treatment

6 DND-Demra Pagla 900000 103500 155250 Buriganga $45M $0.90M/yr 12 $70M $1.40M/yr
7 Narayanganj Gognagar 1400000 161000 241500 Dhaleswari $70M $1.40M/yr 17 $116M $2.32M/yr
239
CHAPTER 8
Questions
1. What is the role of total quality management on achieving sustainable environment?
2. Why CETP process is preferable for small scale industries?
3. What is the main feature of wetland systems over traditional treatment technologies,
when employed for industrial wastewater treatment?
CHAPTER 8

References
Babu, B. R., Parande, A.K., Raghu, S., Kumar, T. P. 2007. Cotton textile processing: waste generation and
effluent treatment, The Journal of Cotton Science, 11, 141–153.
Begum, D. A. and Ahmmed, K. M. T. 2010. Water quality aspects in and around Dhaka city. Proc. of
International Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh (ICEAB10), Japan, Sept. 2010.
Brown, D., Hamburger, B. 1987. The degradation of dye stuffs: Part III. Investigations of their ultimate
degradability. Chemosphere, 16(7), 1539-1553.
Bulc, T. G., Ojstrˇsek, A. 2008. The use of constructed wetland for dye-rich textile wastewater treatment.
Journal of Hazardous Materials, 155, 76–82.
Bureau.Isık, M., Sponza, D.T. 2008. Anaerobic/aerobic treatment of a simulated textile wastewater.
Separation and Purification Technology, 60(1), 64-72.
Calheiros, C. S.C., Rangel, A. O. S. S., Castro, P. M. L. 2009. Treatment of industrial wastewater with two-
stage constructed wetlands planted with Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis. Bioresource Technology,
100, 3205–3213.
Chung, K. T., Stevens Jr., S.E. 1993. Degradation of azo dyes by environmental microorganisms and
helminths. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 12(11), 2121-2132.
Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), 2013. Updating/Preparation of Sewerage Master
Plan of Dhaka City and Preparation of Detail Design & Bidding Documents for Priority Works for Existing
Sewerage System of Dhaka City. Master plan report, Dhaka Sewerage Master Plan Project (Package DS-
1A), Dhaka, March, 2013.
Environment Conservation Rules. 1997. A report submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, August, 1997.
The Environment Conservation Rules. 1997. A report submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, August, 1997.
European Commission, 2001. Reference document on best available techniques for the tanning of hides
and skins. Direcorate-General Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies
(Seville) Technologies for Sustainable Development European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control (IPPC).
Islam, K. M. N., Misbahuzzaman, K., Majumder, A. K. and Chakrabarty, M. 2011. Efficiency of different
CHAPTER 8
coagulants combination for the treatment of tannery effluents: A case study of Bangladesh. African Journal
of Environmental Science and Technology, 5(6), 409-419.
Ong, S. A., Ho, L.,Wong, Y., Dugil, D. L., Samad, H. 2011. Semi-batch operated constructed wetlands
planted with phragmites australis for treatment of dyeing wastewater. Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, 6, 619 – 627.
Rusal M. G., Faisal I., Kamal K.M.M. 2006. Environmental pollution generated from process industries in
Bangladesh. J. Environ. Polut., 28(2), 44-161.
Saeed, T., Afrin, R., Muyeed, A., Sun, G. 2012. Treatment of tannery wastewater in a pilot-scale hybrid
constructed wetland system in Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 88, 1065–1073.
Saeed, T., Sun, G. 2013. A lab-scale study of constructed wetlands with sugarcane bagasse and sand media
for the treatment of textile wastewater. Bioresource Technology, 128, 438–447.
SEHD. 2002. Industrialization and Industrial Pollution, in: Gain, P. (eds,), Bangladesh: Environment
Facing the 21st Century. Society for Environment, Human and Development (SEHD), Bangladesh.
Singhirunnusorn, W., Stenstrom, M.K. 2010. A critical analysis of economic factors for diverse wastewater
treatment processes: case studies in Thailand. Sustain. Environ. Res., 20(4), 263-268.
Visvanathan, C. 2005. Industrial Waste Abatement and Management. Lecture notes, Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand.

9
Chapter
Sludge Management
Although the activated sludge process removes solids, organics and nutrients efficiently, it
also produces excess sludge, consisting higher fraction of biodegradable organic matter,
solids, and pathogens. These impurities must be removed prior to environmental disposal,
which is generally achieved through sludge treatment process (Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1 Sludge treatment process.
This chapter provides a brief description of sludge characteristics, treatment processes, and
design approach, illustrated through sections 9.1-9.7.
9.1 Sludge Characteristics

Sludge properties. Sludge obtained from primary clarifier is grey in color, coarse and slimy;
it contains about 3-7% solids, and 60-80% organic materials (Davis and Cornwell, 1991;
Federal register, 1993). Secondary clarifier sludge is brownish, with flocculant appearance;
microorganisms (70-90% organic) are the predominant part of secondary sludge (Lin,
2007). Tables 9.1 and 9.2 provide some basic properties of different sludge types (USEPA
1979; 1987; Metcalf and Eddy, 1991; Lin, 2007).
Table 9.1 Solid concentration from treatment plants.

Sludge type Concentration, %
Primary sludge 5-8
Waste activated sludge 0.5-2
Fixed film sludge 3-10
CHAPTER 9
Primary and waste activated sludge 2.5-4
Primary and fixed film sludge 3-5
Aerobic digested sludge 1-2
Anaerobic digested sludge 6-12
Table 9.2 Properties of different sludge types.

Sludge Primary settler Secondary settler
Amount generated, 2.5-3.5 15-20
L/m3
Solid content, % 3-7 0.5-2
Organic content, % 60-80 50-60
Treatability easy difficult
Sludge Management 245

Sludge density. Solids mass in slurry is related to volatile suspended solids (VSS), and fixed
suspended solids (FSS). The specific gravity of slurry (Ss) can be defined as:
9.1
where Ss = slurry specific gravity, g/cm3

mw = water mass, kg
mv = VSS mass, kg
mf = FSS mass, kg
Vs = slurry volume, m3
Slurry volume Vs is the sum of Vw, Vv and Vf, which are the volume of water, VSS and FSS
respectively (in m3).
Therefore, Equation (9.1) can be written as:
9.2
where ms = slurry mass, kg

Moisture content. The moisture (rw) or solids (rs ) content of sludge is expressed on a
percentage basis, as illustrated through Equation (9.3):
9.3
9.4
The sludge volume can be expressed as:
9.5
The specific gravity of VSS is 1, and for FSS the specific gravity is 2.5. The specific gravity of
CHAPTER 9
activated sludge is 1.01-1.10, and for chemical sludge the value is 1.5-2.5 (Droste, 1997).
Specific resistance. The sludge produced from biological treatment plants generally
contains higher solids and water. Different treatment technologies are available for
dewatering such sludge. Specific resistance is a parameter, that is used to express the ease of
mechanical sludge. Typical values of specific resistance are 4-12 ´1013 m/kg for the activated
13 11
sludge, 3-30 ´ 10 m/kg for digested sludge, 3-10 ´ 10 m/kg for conditioned primary
11
sludge and 2-20 ´10 m/kg for conditioned digested sludge (Barnes et al., 1981).
Bound water. The water content in sludge exists in either free or bound water form. Bound
water is the water, that is bound physically or chemically to sludge particles. If the amount of
bound water is greater in sludge particles, greater energy is required to remove it.
Heukelekian and Weisberg (1956) determined bound water quantity to be 3g/g of dry
solids.
Particle size. Particle size of sludge is an important factor that determines sludge

dewaterability. The presence of greater number of small particles (in sludge mass) increases
surface area/volume ratio. Higher surface area enhances hydration, chemical requirements,
and resistance to dewatering.
Organic contents. The organic matter content is comparable to the volatile solids content
(VS) of the sludge mass. If VS is higher, sludge dewatering becomes difficult. As such, higher
VS contents result lower dryness (of sludge), along with higher consumption of the
flocculants. When the VS contents of the sludge are high, a thickening step is required in the
process, in order to achieve better dewatering.
Example 9.1. Sludge specific gravity and volume. Calculate the specific gravity of a
biological sludge, containing 70% VSS and 30% FSS, when the sludge has solids
concentration of 2%. Also determine the volume of 1 kg sludge.
Solution
Step 1. Sludge specific gravity
2% solids= 20000 mg/L solids=20 g/L
[assuming specific gravity of VSS and FSS 1

and 2.5 respectively]
Step 2. Compute volume of 1 kg sludge
From Equation (9.5): CHAPTER 9
9.2 Sludge Treatment Mechanisms

Sludge generated from wastewater treatment plants includes suspended solids and the
chemical agents added in different stages of wastewater treatment. Such impurities can be
removed through thickening, stabilization, conditioning, dewatering and reduction of
volume, as illustrated in Figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2 Typical sludge treatment diagram.
9.3 Sludge Thickening

This is the first step of sludge treatment process; the purpose of sludge thickening is to
reduce the volume, which has to be treated in the later stages. As such, thickening process is
necessary, for reducing the overall treatment cost. After the thickening process, water
volume (of sludge) is reduced, and solid content is increased. Sludge thickening is achieved
through gravity thickener, dissolved air floatation (DAF) system, and gravity belt thickener,
as described below:
Gravity thickening. In gravity thickening, sludge from primary and secondary clarifier is
mixed and stored in a sludge holding tank, and is being pumped at a constant rate to a sludge
thickener. The vertical pickets on the scraper (of gravity thickeners) cause horizontal
agitation, thereby allowing release of water trapped in flocculent structure of the sludge.
Solids settle by gravity at bottom which is collected by mechanical scraper; the supernatant is
recycled back to the equalization tank or primary sedimentation tank. Figure 9.3 indicates a
schematic diagram of a gravity thickener, for sludge treatment process.
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of gravity thickener for sludge thickening.

Gravity thickener design usually includes circular tanks; the depth varies between 3-4 m, and
the diameter can be selected up to 25 m. The slope of gravity thickener bottoms usually
ranges between 1:6 and 1:3 (US EPA, 2003). The hydraulic loading varies between 16-32
m3/m2.d for primary sludge, and 4-8 m3/m2.d for secondary sludge (US EPA, 1979).
Sometimes, coagulants and polymers are mixed to improve sludge settling characteristics in
gravity thickeners. Table 9.3 shows common chemicals, employed in gravity thickeners for
improving sludge settling characteristics.
Table 9.3 Chemical dosage rates.
Solid types FeCl3 CaO K2MnO5
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Primary 1-2 6-8 10-40
Primary + tricking filter 2-3 6-8 10-40
Primary + waste activated sludge 1.5-2.5 7-9 10-40
Source: WPCF, 1987, WEF, 1996.
The performance of gravity thickener for various types of solids has been summarized in
Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Gravity thickener performance for sludge treatment.
Type of Solids Feed Thickened

(% solids) Solids (% solids)
Primary (PR) 2-7 5-10
Trickling Filter (TF) 1-4 3-6
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) 1-3.5 2-5
Waste Activated Solids (WAS) 0.2-1 2-3
PR + WAS 0.5-4 4-7
PR+ TF 2-6 5-9
PR+ RBC 2-6 5-8
Source: US EPA, 2003.
CHAPTER 9
Example 9.2. Sludge volume reducing by thickening. A treatment plant consists of
primary treatment, followed by an activated sludge process. The primary and secondary
sludge is mixed and thickened in a gravity thickener. The characteristics of the wastewater
and sludge are:
Parameters Values
Influent solids 150 mg/L
Solids removal efficiency 50%
Wastewater characteristics Influent BOD 300 mg/L
BOD removal efficiency 25%
Effluent BOD 15 mg/L
Flow 15000 m3/d
Primary 6% solids
Sludge characteristics Secondary 0.7% solids
Thickened 5% solids

Determine (a) total mass and volume to the thickener; and (b) total volume of sludge
discharged from the thickener. Assume the biomass conversion factor (Y) to be 0.30.
Solution
Step 1. Determine the mass and volume of primary solids
Primary solid mass,
Primary sludge volume,
Step 2. Calculate mass of secondary solids and volume
effluent
BOD consumed in the aerator=210mg/L

Secondary solid mass,
Secondary sludge volume,
Step 3. Total mass and volume of solids to the thickener

Total mass,
Total volume,
Step 4. Total volume of sludge discharged from the thickener

CHAPTER 9
Percentage of volume reduction by the thickener

Dissolved air floatation (DAF). The activated sludge is light and flocculent in nature,
which is difficult to thicken employing gravity thickeners. Such sludge type can be thickened,
via dissolved air floatation (DAF) systems. DAF units are typically circular or rectangular in
shape, with a float removal device (top skimmer), a bottom settling chamber (skimmer or
auger), and an air saturation mechanism (i.e. whitewater system), to produce fine air
bubbles for solids floatation (Figure 9.4).
In DAF systems, the influent at the tank bottom is saturated with air, and pressurized to 280-
550 kPa. This supersaturated liquid is released near the tank bottom through which the
sludge is passed at atmospheric pressure. Air is released in form of very small bubbles that

Figure 9.4 Dissolved air floatation systems (DAF) for sludge thickening.
attach themselves to, or become entrapped in sludge solids, floating the solids to the surface.
The thickened sludge is skimmed off at the top of the tank; the liquid is removed near the
bottom, and is returned to the aeration tank.
The air-solids ratio (A/S ratio) is the most important factor, for designing a DAF system. An
A/S ratio of 0.0001 to 0.001 lb air/lb TSS is typically needed, to float flocculated biological
solids. Normal loading rates for waste activated sludge range within 10-20 kg solids/m2.d; a
DAF system usually produces 4% solids (Hammer, 1986).
Box 9.1
Anaerobic effluent clarification by DAF system (Ross and Valentine, 2008).
A beverage plant was having difficulty, in terms of meeting COD and TSS discharge permit from a high-
rate anaerobic process Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) (Figure 9.5). To meet the
environmental criteria, the authority selected DAF system for clarification, prior to sewer discharge.
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.5 Anaerobic effluent in Figure 9.6 DAF clarifier with flocculation
flocculation tank (Ross and treating anaerobic tank effluent (Ross and
Valentine, 2008). Valentine, 2008).

The treatment by DAF system involved coagulation and flocculation (with ferric chloride and anionic
polymer) in a floatation tank, followed by DAF treatment (Figure 9.6). The DAF had a surface area of
100 ft2,with an average flow of 200 gpm. The DAF successfully removed 67% of the incoming (eg.
effluent of UASB) COD, 84% orthophosphate, and 82% of the biological solids. The effluent quality
from the DAF system was within permit limits. Sludge from the unit was typically in 8% solids range,
which was disposed through land application.
Gravity belt thickening. This process is applicable for raw and digested sludge, with solids
content less than 2%. Figure 9.7 shows a diagram of gravity belt thickening process. In this
process, the sludge is conditioned with polymer, prior to the entrance into the system. The
conditioned sludge is squeezed by two moving belts, one at top and other at the bottom
(Figure 9.7). The pressure increases from feed to discharge end, and sludge is dewatered.
The liquid passes through porous cloths belt, which is collected in a trough below the belt
press. The solid cake is obtained at discharge end.
Figure 9.7 Schematic diagram of gravity belt thickening.

CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.8 Operational arrangement of gravity belt thickening for sludge dewatering.

Figure 9.8 shows the operation diagram of gravity belt thickening, for the dewatering of
sludge.
9.4 Sludge Stabilization: Anaerobic and Aerobic

Digestion
After thickening process, the thickened sludge is subjected to stabilization for converting
organic matter to an acceptable form, and allowing elimination of pathogens, odor causing
substances. Sludge stabilization process is commonly achieved by anaerobic digestion (i.e.
organic degradation in absence of oxygen), and is carried out in either a single or two stage
reactors. Sometimes aerobic digestion is also employed, instead of anaerobic process.
The following sections provide the reaction phases of anaerobic metabolism, and the
operational description of anaerobic digesters.
Reaction phases. When the sludge is kept in anaerobic environment, specialized bacteria
employ the sludge to produce methane and carbon dioxide. Such anaerobic degradation of
organic waste is carried out through four sequential steps: (a) hydrolysis; (b) acidification;
(c) acetogenesis; and (d) methanogenesis.
(a) Hydrolysis: This is the first step in which macro-molecules (i.e. proteins, poly
saccharides, and fats) are converted into small products (i.e. peptides, saccharides, and
fatty acids) that are soluble in water. Hydrolysis process is carried out by fermentative
bacteria; it is a slow process, and often limits the overall digestion rate.
(b)Acidification: It is the second process of anaerobic digestion, that converts the
hydrolyzed products into simple molecules (with lower molecular weight), such as
volatile fatty acids (acetic-, propionic- and butyric acid), alchohols, aldehydes and gases
(i.e. CO2, H2, and NH3). This process is performed by a diverse range of strictly anaerobic
bacteria, sensitive to the presence of nitrate or oxygen. However, in an anaerobic
digester, a certain proportion of bacteria are always present for oxygen utilization, which
favors the metabolisms of acidification microbes.
(c) Acetogenesis: This is the third step of the overall anaerobic process. In this step, the
CHAPTER 9
products of acidification are converted into acetic acid, H2, and CO2, by the acetogenic
bacteria. The first three steps of the anaerobic digestion are also referred as acid
fermentation. If the structural formula of C5H7O2N is assumed to be representative for
secondary sludge, the acid fermentation can be expressed as:
9.6
(d)Methanogenesis: This is the last step of anaerobic degradation, and is carried out by a
group of organisms known as methanogens, that produce methane (CH4) gas. Two
groups of methanogenic organisms are involved in CH4 production. One group split
acetate into CH4 , and CO2. Second group, known as hydrogen-utilizing group use H2 as
electron donor, and CO2 as electron acceptor to produce CH4. The production of CH4
gas allows removal of organic through desorbing from the liquid phase. The
methanogenesis reaction can be expressed by Equation 9.7:
9.7

The overall anaerobic digestion can be expressed by Equations 9.8-9.9.
9.8
9.9
Figure 9.9 summarizes the sequential steps of anaerobic digestion.
Figure 9.9 Different steps of anaerobic digestion for sludge stabilization.
Low and high rate digesters. The classic low rate anaerobic digester (to accomplish
anaerobic degradation) comprises of four zones: (a) scum layer; (b) supernatant; (c)
digestion; and (d) stabilized sludge zone.
Ÿ Scum layer consists of biodegradable and non-degradable floating materials, such as:
CHAPTER 9
leaves, hair, rags, and plastics.

Ÿ Supernatant is the liquid phase created through the sedimentation of solids.
Ÿ The digestion zone allows anaerobic transformation of organic matter into biogas.
Ÿ The digested sludge storage zone allows accumulation of the digested sludge, from
where it is discharged for additional treatment.
Simultaneous operations i.e. settling of solids, and sludge digestion are difficult to carry out
in a single reactor (Figure 9.10a), due to operational differences. The settling of solids
requires tranquil conditions. In contrast, sludge digestion requires intensive mixing between
sludge and anaerobic biomass, which is achieved through biogas recirculation or mechanical
mixers. To overcome such shortcomings, high rate anaerobic digesters were developed in
1950s, where the entire digester volume is employed for digestion; the solid separation is
carried out in a second unit (Figure 9.10b). In addition to solid separation, the second
digester can be utilized for recirculation of accumulated methanogenic sludge into the first
digester, when required. The second unit can also serve as a single digester, in case of primary

digester maintenance. Figure 9.11 provides a pictorial view of anaerobic digesters, for sludge
stabilization.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.10 (a) Single stage anaerobic digester; and (b) two stage high rate
anaerobic digesters.
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.11 Pictorial view of anaerobic digesters.
Operational factors of anaerobic digesters. The operating temperature is the most

important key factor of anaerobic digester, as it influences the development of bacterial
community. These reactors are usually operated under mesophilic or thermophilic
conditions (Table 6.2-Chapter 6), and are defined as mesophilic or thermophilic digesters.
Mesophilic digesters allow the growth of diversified bacterial group, that can be subjected to
substantial environmental changes. However, such digesters require greater retention time,
and produce lower amount of biogas. Thermophilic digesters allow higher sludge loading
rates, which can be stabilized at a shorter period due to accelerated degradation of organic

matter (as they are operated under elevated temperatures). In addition, these digesters have
higher biogas yield capacity. However, the bacteria groups of these digesters are extremely
sensitive to environmental changes, and toxic materials.
Substrate toxicity often governs sludge stability. Methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive to
sulphide toxicity. However, sulphide concentration remains below 50-100 mg/L in
anaerobic digestors, which does not inhibit methanogenic metabolism. Unionized
ammonium, and industrial products for example biocides, chlorinated organics, and heavy
Table 9.5 Inhibiting substances of anaerobic digestiona.
Substance Moderately Inhibitive (mg/L) Strongly Inhibitive (mg/L)

Calcium 1,500–4,500 8,000
Magnesium 1,000–1,500 3,000
Sodium 3,500–5,500 8,000
Potassium 2,500–4,500 12,000
Ammonia Nitrogen 1,500–3,000 3,000
Copper –– 50–70 (total)
Chromium VI –– 200–250 (total)
Chromium –– 180–420 (total)
Nickel –– 30 (total)
Zinc –– 1.0 (soluble)
a
US EPA, 2006
metals (eg. Hg, Cd, Zn, Cr, Ni, Na, Ca) can cause toxic effect to the organisms. Table 9.5
provides a brief list of toxic materials, that often inhibit anaerobic digestion.
Shock loading (addition of huge amount of sludge within a short period time) is harmful to
anaerobic digesters. Acid formers respond quickly to increased food supply and produce
increased amounts of acid. The methane formers cannot respond quickly; as such, acid
accumulates in the system, causing pH decrease. Once pH reaches below the tolerance level
of methane formers (i.e. 6.5-7.5), CH4 production is ceased. However, the alkalinity of the
digesting sludge is high because of CO2 solubilization produced by biological process, and
CHAPTER 9
subsequent conversion to HCO3- (Equation 9.9). Table 9.6 provides the optimal
Table 9.6 Operational parameters of anaerobic digestors.

Parameter Unit Value
Temperature °C 34-36
pH 6.8-7.2
Alkalinity mg/L 2000-3500
Detention time d 60 at 20°C
15 at 35°C
Volatile solids loading kg VS/m3.d 1.9-2.5
Source: WEF and ASCE, 1991; Lin, 2007.
operational ranges, for sludge digestion in anaerobic digesters.

Gas production. Gas production is an important performance parameter of the anaerobic
digester. The production of gas varies between 810-1120 L of digester gas, per kg volatile
solids destroyed. An efficient anaerobic digester produces 65-69% CH4 and 31-35% CO2.
The quantity of CH4 gas production can be computed through Equation 9.10 (McCarty,
1964):
9.10
where V = methane volume at standard conditions (0°C, 1 atm), L/d

Q = flow rate, m3/d
S0 = influent ultimate BOD, mg/L
S = effluent ultimate BOD, mg/L
Px = net mass of cell tissue produced, kg/d
For a complete-mix, high rate two stage anaerobic digesters (without recycle), the Px can be
determined using the following formula:
9.11
where Y = yield coefficient, kg/kg

kd =endogenous coefficient, d-1
qc = mean cell residence time, d
Box 9.2
TPAD-TM anaerobic digester system in Iowa, USA (US EPA, 2006).
In order to enhance sludge treatment, volatile solids destruction and biogas production, the existing
anaerobic process was upgraded in the year 2002, in Waterloo city, Iowa, USA. The upgradation
included transformation of a single-stage mesophilic process, to a TPAD-TM (temperature phased
anaerobic digestion- thermophilic first stage, and mesophilic second stage) system through the
conversion of two of the six digesters into thermophilic digesters. The subsequent digesters were
CHAPTER 9
operated in the mesophilic range
In the newly upgraded system, the feed rate into the digester was slowed, followed by increase of
temperature from 35°C to 53°C over a period of 3 days. Such arrangements allowed organisms
stabilization. Once the first thermophilic digester was stabilized, the second was transitioned similarly.
This transition from mesophilic to thermophilic was important, for limiting the number of mesophilic
organisms that might survive in the thermophilic digester. During such transition, loading rate
limitation was also critical, to prevent digester overloading as the thermophilic organisms flourished.
The new system improved volatile solid reduction from 47% (in old system) to 64% (in new system).
Gas production increased to 0.18–0.21 m3, per kg of VS destroyed.
Heavy metals removal by anaerobic digestion. The removal of heavy metals (from
sludge) via anaerobic digestion is accomplished by four steps: solubilization of the heavy
metals, separation of the water phase, precipitation, and removal from the leachate.

The solubilization of heavy metals is dependent on decrease of the sludge pH (around 1-2
units), in-conjunction with a previous increase in the redox potential of the sludge. Such
combinations promote the formation of soluble metal complexes, and oxidize insoluble
reduced metals into soluble forms. The solubilization step is generally accomplished by
chemical, or bioleaching. In the case of chemical leaching, a previous oxidation step is
performed by aeration, or by the addition of an oxidating agent in order to raise the redox
potential. Then acidification step occurs through the addition of inorganic or organic acids.
Bioleaching is an alternative process to chemical leaching. In bioleaching process,
acidophilic Thiobacillus bacteria employ elemental sulfur or ferrous iron as electron donors.
In aerobic conditions, these donors are oxidized to sulfuric acid by Thiobacillus bacteria.
The second step of anaerobic sludge treatment (for heavy metal removal) involves
separation of the water phase, that includes mobilized heavy metals and sludge particles.
Different devices such as: centrifuge, hydrocyclone, settler, or flotation tank are employed
for such purpose. The clean sludge particles are removed as concentrated sludge mass which,
after dewatering and pH corrections, is usually applied to landfills. Extreme pH conditions
applied during bioleaching step also reduces pathogens.
In order to facilitate the removal of the solubilized heavy metals (from acidic leachate), the
precipitation process followed by a separation step is generally accomplished. Alkalis (i.e.
CaO, NaOH), sulfides (i.e. Na2S, FeS) are used as precipitating agents for this purpose.
Aerobic digestion. In aerobic digestion, sludge is digested through aeration; organic
materials are converted to end products such as: carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water.
Volatile solids, pathogens, and odor are also reduced in aerobic digestion process.
Sludge is introduced on a batch, semi-batch, or continuous process in aerobic digesters, that
are open tanks like activated aeration tank. In batch process, the digester is fed with raw
sludge, and is subjected to aeration (for 2-3 weeks); the settled solids are being removed, and
the supernatant is decanted. In semi-batch process, raw sludge is added every couple of days.
Supernatant is being decanted periodically, and the settled solids are kept in the digester for a
longer time period.
The volatile solids loading rate in aerobic digester ranges between 1.1-3.2 kg VSS /m3.d. For
CHAPTER 9
activated sludge, retention time is 15-20 d, whereas, for mixture of primary and activated
sludge retention time is 20-25 d. The DO concentration in the suspension should be 1-2
mg/L; diffused air requirements for waste activated sludge are 20-35 L/min.m3.
9.5 Sludge Conditioning

Chemical conditioning is applied to the digested sludge, to improve dewater characteristics.
The process is useful before sludge dewatering, and can be achieved through chemical or
physical conditioning.
The mechanism of chemical conditioning consists of charge neutralization and
transformation of individual sludge particles into a lattice structure; such structure achieves
sufficient porosity, thereby permitting water draining. Lime, pebble quicklime, ferric
chloride, alum and organic polymers can be used for chemical conditioning. Chemical
conditioning can reduce sludge moisture content to 65-80% (WPCF, 1988).

The physical conditioning method includes thermal treatment of sludge. In this process,
sludge is heated to a temperature 177-240°C in a reaction vessel, and subjected to a pressure
of 1720-2760 KN/m2 for 15-40 mins (US EPA, 1991). The solids are coagulated due to heat;
structure of microbial cells (in waste activated sludge) is broken down, followed by release of
cell bound water. However, this process is not suitable for sludge, that cannot be stabilized
biologically (due to presence of toxic materials). Another disadvantage of heat conditioning
process is the generation of side streams with higher concentration of organics, ammonia,
nitrogen, color, and odorous gases. As such, these impurities have to be treated, incurring
supplementary operational costs.
9.6 Sludge Dewatering

The objective of sludge dewatering is to remove moisture from the sludge (prior to final
disposal), that passed through sludge stabilization and conditioning process. Sludge
dewatering can be achieved by mechanical devices such as: rotary vacuum filters, continuous
belt filter presses (CBFP), pressure filtration, centrifuges, or by natural evaporation and
percolation.
Rotary vacuum filtration. Rotary vacuum filtration basically consists of a cylindrical
rotating drum, covered with cloth or synthetic fabric, coil springs, or woven stainless steel
mesh. The drum is partially submerged (20-40%) in a vat of sludge. The mechanisms which
take place during vacuum filtration may be divided into three phases.
The first phase, known as cake pick-up or form phase, occurs when a segment of the drum
rotates into the sludge. Such segment is subjected to vacuum, and the filtrate is drawn from
the adhered solids, as the drum rotates out of the liquid phase, known as drying zone of the
cycle. Drying zone represents 40-60% of the drum surface. The final phase, referred as cake
discharge phase, occurs after an acceptable cake dryness has been achieved without vacuum.
All of the above described operations are continuous in nature so that, the three phases occur
simultaneously on different portions of the drum. Figure 9.12 indicates a schematic diagram
of the rotary vacuum filtration.
Cake driving CHAPTER 9
Discharge
Pick-up or from
Figure 9.12 Rotary vacuum filtration for sludge dewatering.

Continuous belt filter presses (CBFP). This process includes a combination of sludge
conditioning, gravity and pressure dewatering. The incoming sludge is mixed with polymer
(or other chemicals), and placed onto a moving porous belt or screen. The sludge is
squeezed between two belts, resulting sludge dewatering. The formed cake is discharged
from the belt by a scraper.
Figure 9.13 illustrates the basic concept of continuous belt filter presses. As observed in
Figure 9.13, CBFP process consists of three zones: conditioning zone, gravity drainage of
conditioned sludge, and a shear –compression zone. Conditioned sludge is introduced to
the gravity drainage zone, where majority of free water (from sludge) is being removed. In
the shear zone, shear is applied (to the partially dewatered cake), by positioning the support
and pressure rollers of the pressure belt in such a way that the belts, and the sludge between
them describe an S-shape curve. After the removal of sludge cake (from CBFP process), the
belts are rinsed with water spray, and the sprayed rinsed water along with the filtrate is
recycled to primary or secondary clarifier.
Figure 9.13 Continuous belt filter presses (CBFP).
Pressure filtration. Pressure filtration includes a series of vertically held plates, which are
held rigidly in a frame, consisting of a fixed and moving end (Figure 9.14). The face of each
individual plate is mounted by a filter cloth, which contains the produced cake.
CHAPTER 9
In pressure filtration system, sludge is applied by batch mode through feed holes in trays
(along the press length). Pressures up to 16 kg/cm2 are applied to the sludge, to cause water
movement through the cloth; the solid cakes are retained on the surface of the filter cloth.
The drainage ports (at the bottom of each chamber) collect the filtrate, which is discharged.
The dewatering phase is complete when the filtrate flow (through the filter cloth) is ceased.
After each plate releases cake, they are pushed back for commencing the dewatering cycle.
Figure 9.14 Pressure filtration system.

Continuous solid bowl centrifuge. This centrifuge consists of two principal elements: a
rotating bowl having cylindrical-conical shape, and a conveyor which discharges the settled
solids (Figure 9.15). Sludge is fed into the rotating bowl through a stationary pipe. The
gravitational forces allow solids settling, on the inner surface of the rotating bowl. The
rotating screw conveyor continuously moves the sludge solids across the bowl, towards the
tapered outlet ports, for discharging. The liquid pool above the sludge layer is directed
toward the concentrate outlet ports.
Figure 9.15 Continuous solid bowl centrifuge system.
Sludge drying bed. Sludge drying bed which is a natural dewatering process, removes
moisture content of the sludge by gravity and evaporation. A typical sludge bed consists of
sand (0.30-1.22 mm diameter), overlying on gravel (0.3-2.5 cm diameter) layer. The water
is drained through underdrain system, consisting perforated pipe. The collected water is
transferred to the main treatment plant for further polishing. The drying area is usually
partitioned into 6m width by 6-30 m length. Figure 9.16 indicates the engineering diagram
of sludge drying beds.
CHAPTER 9
(a) (b)
Figure 9.16 (a) Engineering cross-section of sludge drying bed; and (b) pictorial view of
drying bed.
In hot climate regions, large portion of sludge water (eg. 80%) percolates within a short time
(1-3 days), resulting in solid cake production with TSS concentration of 150-200 g/L
(Haandel and Lubbe, 2007) on drying beds. The remaining moisture is removed by

evaporation, resulting in a final production with very high solids content. Dried sludge is
removed manually with shovels and lost sand is refilled.
Drying beds should be covered with roofs to protect the beds from rain. The disadvantages
of sludge drying beds can be an attributed to mosquitoes and rodent problems. In addition,
odor can also create nuisance, which can be mitigated by spreading lime on sludge, thereby
avoiding anaerobic conditions.
Table 9.7 indicates the performance of sand drying beds (in terms of sludge dewatering) in
Jahra Plant, Kuwait, between time periods 1985-2010.
Example 9.3. Solids loading in drying bed. The conditioned sludge is applied to a sand
drying bed, 6m by 25 m in size, at a depth of 35 cm. The solids content of the sludge is 2%.
Table 9.7 Performance of sludge drying beds in Jahra Plant, Kuwait.

Year Thickened Sludge Sludge Solids Area of Drying Beds Number of Drying Beds
(m3 /d) (kg/d) (m2)
1985 143 4290 12045 32
1990 190 5700 16004 43
1995 228 6840 19205 51
2000 266 7980 22405 60
2010 352 10545 29607 79
Source: Muzaini, 2003.
The drying period is 25 days, after which the sludge is removed for another application in the
drying bed. Calculate the yearly solids loading rate. Assume the specific gravity of the sludge
to be 1.02.
Solution
a. The volume of sludge per application, V
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b. Yearly solids loading rate

Solids =
Loading rate
9.7 Design Problem

This section provides a step-wise design procedure of anaerobic digesters (for sludge
stabilization) through Example 9.4, to assist the reader in terms of understanding the key
elements required during the procedure.

Example 9.4. Anaerobic digester design. Calculate the size of the required anaerobic
digester for treating sludge with the following properties:
Average design flow 4000 m3/d

Dry solids removed 0.20 kg/m3
Ultimate BOD removed 0.18 kg/m3
Solids content 5%
qc 20 d
Y 0.05 kg/kg BOD
kd 0.03 d-1
Solid specific gravity 1.01
Waste utilization efficiency 70%
Step 1. Production of sludge volume per day
Sludge volume
Step 2. Total BOD loading

Loading=
Step 3. Required digester volume
Step 4. Mass of volatile solids produced per day
Equation (9.11):
CHAPTER 9
Step 5. Methane (CH4) and total gas (CH4+CO2) volume production per day
The volume of methane is 65-69% of the total gas volume. Assume 69% value.
Total gas volume=

Questions
1. Write short notes on: (a) gravity thickener; and (b) DAF systems for sludge
thickening.
2. What are the advantages of two stage anaerobic digesters, over a single stage digester?
3. What is the impact of shock loading on anaerobic digester performance?
4. Differentiate between the operating mechanism of continuous belt filter presses and
pressure filtration
5. Calculate the size of anaerobic digester for sludge stabilization with the following
properties:
Average design flow 5000 m3/d
Dry solids removed 0.30 kg/m3
Ultimate BOD removed 0.14 kg/m3
Solids content 4%
qc 25 d
Y 0.05 kg/kg BOD
kd 0.04 d-1
Solid specific gravity 1.01
Waste utilization efficiency 60%
CHAPTER 9

References
Barnes, D., Bliss, P.J., Gould, B.W., Vallentine, H.R. 1981. Water and wastewater engineering systems.
Pitman Publishing Inc.
Davis, M. L. and Cornwell, D. A. 1991. Introduction to environmental engineering. 2nd ed. NewYork,
McGraw-Hill.
Droste, R.L. 1997. Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA.
Federeal Register. 1993. Standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge; final rules. 40 CFR Part 257 et al.
Part II, EPA, Washington DC., 58 (32), 9248-9415
Haandel, A.and Lubbe, J. 2007. Handbook biological waste water treatment, design and optimization of
activated sludge systems, Quist publishing, Leidschendam, The Netherlands.
Hammer, M. J. 1986. Water and Wastewater technology. John Wiley, New York, USA.
Heukelekian, H., Weisberg, E. 1956. Bound water and activated sludge bulking. Sewage Ind. Wastes, 28 (4),
558-574.
McCarty, P. L. 1964. Anaerobic waste treatment fundamentals. Public Works, 95 (9), 107-112.
Metcalf and Eddy. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse. 3rd Edition, Edited by
G.Tchobanoglous and F.L. Burton, McGraw-Hill, Toronto, Canada.
Muzaini, S. A. 2003. Performance of sand drying beds for sludge dewatering. The Arabian Journal for
Science and Engineering, Volume 28 (2B), 161-169.
Ross, C. C., Valentine, G. E. Jr. 2008. In: Use of Coupled Biological/Dissolved Air Flotation Processes for
Treatment of Food and Dairy Processing Wastewaters, 2008 North Carolina AWWA‐WEA Annual
Conference, 1-8, USA.
US EPA. 1979. Sludge Treatment and Disposal. Design manual no. EPA 625/1-79-011, Center for
environmental research information, USA.
US EPA. 1987. Dewatering Municipal Wastewater Sludges. Design manual no. EPA 625/1-87-014, Center
for environmental research information, USA.
US EPA. 1991. Evaluating sludge treatment process. Washington DC, USA.
US EPA, 2003. Gravity Thickening. Office of Water, EPA 832-F-03-022, USA.
US EPA. 2006. Multi-Stage Anaerobic Digestion. Office of Water, EPA 832-F-06-031, USA.
Water Environment Federation (WEF) and American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1991. Design of
municipal wastewater treatment plants. Vol. II, Virginia, USA.
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), 1987. Operation and Maintenance of Sludge Dewatering CHAPTER 9
Systems. Manual of Practice No. OM-8. Water Pollution Control Federation, Water Task Force on Sludge
Thickening, Conditioning, and Dewatering.
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF).1988. Sludge Conditioning. Manual of practice FD-14,
Virginia, USA.
WEF. 1996. Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. WEF 5th ed.,Vol. 3.

10
Chapter
Natural Treatment:
Ponds and Wetlands
Chapters 4-9 provide a brief discussion on pollutant removal mechanisms (from
wastewater), employing conventional treatment technologies. Apart from these
technologies, the treatment of wastewater can also be carried out via natural systems, such
as: wastewater stabilization ponds, and constructed wetlands (Figure 10.1). These natural
technologies primarily depend on naturally occurring energies such as wind, solar radiation
and biomass storage (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Such properties of natural treatment
systems provide unique advantages over conventional technologies which require
significant input of fossil fuel energies.
Figure 10.1 Typical natural treatment technologies for wastewater treatment.
This chapter provides a concise description of pollutant biodegradation routes in natural

treatment systems (i.e. wastewater stabilization ponds, and constructed wetlands). Firstly,
classification of waste stabilization ponds, corresponding pollutant removal mechanisms,
along with a design example have been demonstrated in sections 10.1-10.5. Secondly, the
configuration of wetland systems, along with the removal routes of pollutants have been
illustrated in sections 10.6-10.11. A brief description on floating treatment wetlands have
been provided in the latter sections of this chapter.
10.1 Stabilization Ponds

Wastewater stabilization ponds are shallow earthen basin where waste water is naturally
treated. A part of the system can be aerobic to produce acceptable effluents. The majority
portion of O2 in ponds is provided by photosynthesis. Artificial aeration can also improve the
oxygen contents of the ponds. Treatment ponds can be employed alone, or can be combined
with other processes for industrial and domestic wastewater treatment. The main
advantages of treatment ponds can be enlisted as (Mara, 1976):
Ÿ Ponds are simple to construct, and require lower maintenance costs.
Ÿ They often achieve higher degree of BOD, and pathogen removal (bacteria, virus,
CHAPTER 10
protozoa and helminths).

Ÿ Ponds can tolerate hydraulic and organic shock loads.
However, such systems generally require substantial land area, which is the major capital cost.
10.2 Classification of Stabilization Ponds

According to the metabolic operations, ponds can be classified into: anaerobic, facultative,
aerobic and maturation ponds, as illustrated below.
Anaerobic ponds. These ponds are often used for the treatment of strong wastewater, such
as industrial or agricultural wastewater. Sometimes they are also used as the first element of a
Natural Treatment:Ponds and Wetlands 269

treatment series, for reducing organic strength. Anaerobic ponds lack DO and algae; organic
compounds are degraded in absence of oxygen, according to the process described in
Chapter 9. Anaerobic ponds are 2-5 m deep; the incoming organic load is usually greater
than 100 g BOD/m3.d, with a typical retention time of 20-50d (US EPA, 1983). A well
designed anaerobic pond often achieves 40% BOD removal at 10o C, and greater than 60% at
20o C.
The main advantages of anaerobic ponds are lower sludge production; however, generation
of odorous compounds is a major disadvantage. Table 10.1 indicates typical BOD removal
efficiencies in anaerobic ponds.
Table 10.1 BOD removal and loading in anaerobic ponds at various temperatures.
Note that T denotes temperature.
Temperature BOD removal Volumetric loading

°C % g/m3.d
<10 40 100
10-20 2 T+20 20 T-100
20-25 2 T+20 10 T+100
>25 70 350
Source: Alexiou and Mara, 2003.
Facultative ponds. In facultative ponds, both aerobic and anaerobic zones co-exist (Figure
10.2). The aerobic conditions in the upper portions of the pond are usually maintained by
O2 production from algae; in addition, atmospheric O2 penetration also provides minor
contribution for maintaining aerobic conditions.
The stagnant conditions of the sludge, along the bottom portion of the ponds prevent O2
transmission, thereby resulting anaerobic conditions. The aerobic zone is extended
downwards, due to wind and sunlight penetration. In contrast, calm conditions and weak
lighting cause rising of the anaerobic layer, towards the surface. As such, the middle portion
between aerobic and anaerobic zone is commonly referred as facultative zone, due to
fluctuating phenomena.
The products of anaerobic zones (i.e. organic acids and gases), are released and become
soluble food for aerobic organisms (in the aerobic zone). The common species of aerobic
zone include Beggiatoa alba, Sphaerotilus natans, Achromobacter, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium
CHAPTER 10
etc. Subsequently, the solids produced in the aerobic zone settle to the bottom where they
die, providing food for the anaerobic organisms. The aerobic and anaerobic degradation of
organic matter produces nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon dioxide.
A special symbiotic relationship exists between the bacteria and algae in the aerobic zone, as
shown in Figure 10.2. Bacteria use O2 as an electron acceptor, to convert organics into stable
end products such as CO2, NO3-, and PO43-. Algae, with the help of sunlight, employ these
compounds as energy source, producing O2 as end product, which is again utilized by the
bacteria.
The photosynthetic activities of algae can cause diurnal variation of the DO concentration in
facultative ponds. The DO concentration rises after sunrise, due to photosynthetic activity;

Reaeration
Figure 10.2 Pollutant removal routes in facultative ponds.
the concentration reaches to a maximum level in the afternoon, followed by sharp decrease
during the night, when photosynthesis ceases and respiratory activities consume oxygen.
During day time, the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate provide more carbon dioxide for
the algae, leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions. As a result, the pH of the water can rise to above 9.
Typical organic loading in facultative ponds ranges within 22-67 kg BOD/ha.d; the
detention time varies within 25-180 d. Typical depths are within 1.2-2.5 m, with a surface
area of 4-60 ha (US EPA, 1983). Table 10.2 shows the variation of organic loading rates with
temperature.
Table 10.2 Loading rates for facultative ponds.
Temperature BOD loading

°C kg BOD5/ha/d
<10 11-22
0-15 22-45
>15 45-90
CHAPTER 10
Source: Reed et al.1988
Maturation ponds. The maturation ponds generally comprise of a greater length-to-width

ratio (up to 10:1), to simulate plug flow regime (Mara et al., 1992). Maturation ponds
receive effluent from facultative ponds. The primary function of maturation pond is to
remove pathogens. The principal factors influencing faecal bacterial removal mechanisms in
maturation ponds can be enlisted as: (a) time and temperature; (b) higher pH (> 9); (c)
higher light intensity; and (d) dissolved oxygen concentration.
Time and temperature are the major parameters used for the design of maturation ponds, as
faecal bacterial mortality is critically dependent on these parameters. Peak algal activities

(during daytime) increase pH values (>9), thereby enhancing faecal bacterial mortality.
Light with wavelengths between 425 – 700 nm can also damage the cells of faecal bacteria.
Light mediated mortality is substantially dependent on oxygen concentration, and higher
pH values.
The water depth of maturation ponds varies between 1-1.5 m, with BOD loading less than 17
kg/ha.d; the retention time is short, ranging within 4-15d (Lin, 2007).
Aerobic ponds. They are most often designed as the final cells in a multi-staged pond
system. The depth of aerobic ponds is shallow ranging within 0.3-0.6 m. Such shallow depth
allows sunlight penetration to the bottom of the pond, encouraging algae growth and
maintaining aerobic conditions throughout the pond. Mechanical aeration can also be
provided in these ponds. Sludge zone is not provided in these ponds due to lower loadings of
solids. Aerobic ponds generally have shorter retention time (i.e. 3-5 d). The application of
these ponds is limited in warmer climate, where higher removal of BOD is required.
10.3 Nutrient Removal in Stabilization Ponds

The stabilization ponds promote numerous nitrogen removal routes, such as: (a)
assimilation of ammonia and nitrate into algae, bacteria and plants; (b) conversion of
ammonia into nitrate (i.e. nitrification) in the upper aerobic zone, followed by
denitrification in the lower anoxic zone; (c) ammonia volatilization (into gaseous form),
due to higher pH. The nitrogen removal percentages in waste stabilization ponds range
between 46-95% (on annual basis) in ponds (US EPA, 1983).
Phosphorus removal in stabilization ponds is associated with algal, plant uptake,
precipitation and sedimentation. Suspended aerobic microbes remove phosphorus from
bulk liquid. Some of these microbes settle in the lower anaerobic zone of the ponds, and
eventually die, and are anaerobically digested, causing release of some of the stored
phosphorus in the bulk water. For stringent phosphorus discharge criteria, alum addition is
necessary, and is applied 1-2 weeks prior to the pond discharge. Alum is usually dosed from
the boat, to allow homogeneous mixing. For domestic loads of 4-11 kgBOD5/ha.d, required
alum concentrations often vary between 80-100 mg/L to achieve an effluent phosphorus
concentration of <1 mg/L.
Box 10.1
CHAPTER 10
Performance of facultative ponds at Pagla sewage treatment plant.

The sewage of Dhaka city is treated at Pagla sewage treatment plant, operated by Dhaka Water Supply
and Sewerage Authority (DWASA). The treatment plant includes primary sedimentation tanks and
facultative ponds. The ponds were designed to receive BOD and suspended solid concentrations 120
and 80 mg/L respectively (from primary sedimentation tanks), to produce effluent concentrations 50
and 60 mg/L respectively. Water quality measurement in 2009-2010 indicated that effluent BOD and
suspended solid concentrations across the effluent of the ponds were 49 and 58 mg/L respectively,
when subjected to influent concentrations 127 and 119 mg/L respectively from the primary tanks. The
effluent concentration of the design parameters (across the ponds) was lower than the design values,
indicating higher performances of these systems at Pagla sewage treatment plant.

10.4 Design of Facultative Ponds
The modelling of pond systems assumes complete mixing of solids (i.e.; CSTR flow pattern)
without recycling, in the liquid portion. The solids that fall in the bottom are not
resuspended, and the settling rates of solids (in ponds) cannot be quantified. As such the
mass balance of solids cannot be computed; however, mass balance of soluble food can be
quantified, assuming uniform mixing of soluble food throughout the reactor liquid.
Assuming first order food conversion rate, the mass balance of soluble food can be written as:
10.1
10.2
Equation (10.2) can be arranged as:
10.3
Where S/S0 = fraction of soluble BOD remaining

K = reaction rate coefficient, d-1
q = hydraulic detention time, d
V = reactor volume, m3
Q = flow rate, m3/d
For several reactors, that are arranged in series, the substrate balance can be written across a
series of n reactors, as shown in Equation (10.4):
10.4
For the treatment of municipal wastewater, at least three ponds (of same size) are arranged
in series. In such cases, the first pond, referred as primary pond retains most of the incoming
solids, thus are heavily loaded. As such, primary ponds are often aerated, to hinder
development of anaerobic environment.
With regards to the mixing pattern in ponds, a wider range of dispersion occurs because of
reactor shape, size, wind action or aerators. As such, it is not pragmatic to consider complete
mixing of flow. Thirumurthi (1969) recommended that ponds be designed as dispersed flow
CHAPTER 10
reactors, assuming a non ideal flow pattern between CSTR and plug flow regime, by
proposing the use of pond dispersion numbers (df). The equations proposed by
Thirumurthi (1969) are demonstrated below:
10.5
10.6

10.7
10.8
Where Le = effluent BOD, mg/L

Li = influent BOD, mg/L
KBOD D
= dispersed flow first order reaction rate for BOD removal at any
temperature, d-1
KBOD D20
= dispersed flow first order reaction rate for BOD removal at 20oC, d-1
θf = mean hydraulic retention time in facultative pond, d
df = dispersion numbers
D = coefficient of longitudinal dispersion, m2h-1
v = mean velocity of travel, mh-1
l = mean path length of a typical particle in the pond, m
T = minimum pond temperature, oC
The value of K differs with temperature, as illustrated in Equation (10.9):
10.9
Values of K20 range from 0.2-1.0, whereas, temperature coefficient θ varies between 1.03-1.12.
To facilitate the use of the complicated Equation (10.5), Thirumurthi developed a graphical
inter-relationship (Figure 10.3) between food removal, and Kθ values for dispersion factors
ranging from infinity for CSTR reactors, to zero for plug-flow reactors.
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.3 Graphical plot of the Thirumurthi equation.

Although some photosynthesis occurs in facultative lagoons, O2 requirements are often met
by aeration. As such, two kg of O2 should be supplied for each kg of incoming BOD5. The rate
of O2 transfer (from the aerator) often ranges between 0.3-2kg/kW.h. Table 10.3 illustrates
typical design criteria of pond systems.
Table 10.3 Design criteria of pond systems.

Parameter Design criteria
Short detention ponds
Cell numbers (flow < 400 m3/d) 2 minimum
(flow > 400 m3/d) 4
Hydraulic detention time, d/cell 3 minimum
Depth, m 3 minimum
Sludge removal frequency, yr 5-10
Long detention ponds
Cell numbers 2 minimum
Hydraulic detention time, d 60
Depth, m 1.5-2
Source: Heinke et al., 1991
10.5 Design Example

This section illustrates the design procedures of facultative ponds through a solved example.
Example 10.1. Facultative pond design. Wastewater flow from an area averages 4000
m3/d during November (winter) and 6000m3/d during June (summer). The average
temperature of November is 10oC, and in June (summer) average temperature is 30oC. The
mean concentration of influent BOD5 is 300mg/L. Reaction coefficient K is 0.23 d-1 at 20oC,
and θ is 1.06. Prepare a facultative pond treatment system for the area to remove 95% of the
incoming BOD.
Solution
Step 1. Rate constants at summer and winter
Summer:
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Winter:
Step 2. Determine
If 95% of BOD has to be removed, then the percent remaining,
Step 3. Determine detention time θ
Assume dispersion factor = 0.5, and (step 2), Kθ can be measured from Figure 10.3.

From graph (Figure 10.3), Kθ = 6
At summer,
At winter,
Step 4. Calculate pond volume

Use longest detention time (i.e. in winter), θ=46.1 d
Volume of ponds,
Use three ponds, each with equal volume; as such, volume of each pond = 61467 m3
Step 5. Calculate pond area
Use a pond depth of 1.5m.
The area of each pond=
Add 1m depth for sludge storage in primary pond.

Step 6. Calculate aeration requirements
Assume, photosynthesis is not sufficient to meet O2 requirements in the primary pond
throughout the year. As such, aerators have to be provided, to meet O2 demand.
For summer conditions:
Assuming dispersion factor to be 0.5, Figure 10.3 can be employed for calculating
From Figure 10.3, with d = 0.5,
BOD removed =
O2 supplied =
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Assuming aerator transfer efficiency as 1 kg O2/kW.h:

d kWh
Power of aerators= d kW
Use 5 aerators 27 kW each.

Step 7. Diagram of pond arrangements
Figure 10.4 Typical arrangement of ponds.
10.6 Constructed Wetlands: Definition and Classification

Constructed wetlands are engineered wetlands that have saturated or unsaturated
substrates, emergent/floating/submergent vegetations, and a large variety of microbial
communities. The wetlands are built for water pollution control. Constructed wetlands can
be classified into two groups: (a) surface flow; and (b) subsurface flow wetlands.
Surface flow wetlands are similar to natural wetlands, with shallow flow of wastewater
(usually less than 60cm deep) over saturated soil substrate. Such wetlands are similar to
natural wetlands, in terms of appearance. The pollutant mechanisms in surface flow systems
include: sedimentation, filtration, oxidation, reduction, precipitation and adsorption.
Figure 10.5 illustrates a diagram of surface flow wetland systems, employed for wastewater
treatment.
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Figure 10.5 Surface flow wetland systems for the treatment of wastewater.
In subsurface flow wetland systems wastewater flows beneath the media surface, where it
comes into contact with an inter-connected mesh of plants, media and attached biofilms.
Depending on the flow pattern, subsurface flow wetlands can further be classified into: (a)
vertical subsurface flow (VSSF); and (b) horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) wetlands.
VSSF wetlands employ packed media with plants, and wastewater flows vertically
downwards through the media (under the force of gravity ) towards outlet. The main media
is overlaid on large stones, to facilitate effluent drainage. The macrophytes (i.e. plants) are
usually planted in coarse sand, which provides the top surface.

Wastewater is dosed intermittently into the bed surface of VSSF wetlands, allowing
alternative wet and dry periods. During the interval between the successive doses the bed
remains unsaturated, which allows diffusion of oxygen inside the media. When the
wastewater is being dosed, it traps this pore air ensuring better oxygen transfer throughout
the bed. As such, these systems promote higher oxygen distribution, effective for NH4-N and
BOD5 removal from wastewater.
Figure 10.6 provides a graphical and pictorial view of VSSF systems for wastewater
treatment.
(a)
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(b)
Figure 10.6 (a) Schematic diagram of VSSF systems; and (b) photograph of VSSF systems
(source: http://sustainableengineeringresearch.wordpress.com/experimental-projects/)

In HSSF systems, the media is kept saturated (Brix 1994); the outlet is generally located at
0.6 m height from the bottom of the tank. Wastewater flows horizontally from inlet towards
outlet, beneath the media surface. During this passage of water, it comes into contact with a
network of media, attached microorganisms and root zones. Since these wetlands are
operated under saturated conditions, anoxic-anaerobic environments are predominant
throughout the media, fostering denitrification. Figure 10.7 provides the components and
flow path of HSSF systems, along with a photo plate.
(a)
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(b)
Figure 10.7 (a) Schematic diagram of HSSF systems; and (b) photograph of HSSF
systems.
A combination of VSSF-HSSF or HSSF-VSSF systems, known as hybrid wetland systems

can also be employed for wastewater treatment. These systems are effective, in terms of
utilizing aerobic and anaerobic phases of VSSF and HSSF systems respectively, thereby
achieving higher pollutant removal rates from wastewater (Vymazal, 2005).

Figure 10.8 shows three parallel hybrid wetland systems. Each system consists of a VSSF
system, followed by a HSSF system, to provide treatment of wastewater.
Figure 10.8 Hybrid wetland systems.
Table 10.4 indicates advantages and disadvantages of VSSF and HSSF wetland systems,
when employed for wastewater treatment.
Table 10.4 Advantages and disadvantages of VSSF and HSSF wetlands.
Type Advantages Disadvantages

Vertical flow Smaller area demand. Short flow distances.
wetlands Good oxygen supply, good nitrification, Poor denitrification, higher technical
(VSSF) better organics and solids removal, demand, low nitrate removal.
simple hydraulics.
Higher purification from the beginning, Loss of performance in P removal.
better than HF beds as water flows from
surface to bottom which enhances
oxygen mixing.
Horizontal flow Long flowing distance, nutrients High area demand, clogging problem is
wetlands gradients can be established, efficient in observed, sulphur transformation can
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(HSSF) the removal of solids, organics. affect nitrification sensitivity.

Denitrification possible. Careful calculation of hydraulics
necessary for optimal oxygen supply, low
ammonium oxidation.
Formation of humic acids for N, P Equal wastewater supply is complicated.
removal.
10.7 Components of Treatment Wetlands

Plants, microorganisms, and wetland media are the main components of constructed
wetlands. These elements form an inter-connected network providing physical, chemical

and biological treatment to the flowing wastewater. The following sections provide brief
descriptions on these components.
Plants. Wetland plants (macrophytes) typically grow in water or soil media, subjected to
oxygen deficiency. The macrophytes employed in the constructed wetlands can be divided
into four groups (Williams, 1964):
Ÿ Emergent macrophytes: These are usually seen on water saturated or submerged
soil; examples including: Acorus calamus, Carex rostrata, Phragmites australis, Scirpus
lacustris, Typha latifolia. Oxygen is transferred from their roots into surrounding
rhizosphere, to facilitate aerobic bacteria degradation (Moshiri, 1993).
Ÿ Floating leaved macrophytes: These are rooted in submersed sediments having
water depth 0.5m-3.0m, and have either floating or slightly aerial leaves; examples
include Nymphaea odorata, and Nuphar lutea.
Ÿ Submerged macrophytes: These have their photosynthetic tissue submersed by
water, grow well in oxygenated water and are mainly used for polishing secondary
treated wastewater (Moshiri, 1993).
Ÿ Freely floating macrophytes: They freely float on surface water. These plants are
capable of removing N and P by incorporating those into plant biomass, by nitrogen
denitrification, and they also remove solids; examples including: Lemna minor,
Spirodela polyrhiza, Eichhornia crassipes.
Table 10.5 provides the characteristics of common aquatic plants of wetland systems.
Table 10.5 Commonly used aquatic plants in constructed wetlands.
Common name Desirable Seed Salinity Optimal pH Root

Scientific name temp. germination tolerance penetration
˚C ˚C ppt* cm
Cattail
Typha 10-30 12-24 30 4-10 30
Common Reed
Phragmites 12-33 10-30 45 2-8 60
Rush
Juncus 16-26 --- 20 5-7.5 ---
Bulrush
Scirpus 16-27 --- 20 4-9 76
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Sedge
Carex 14-32 --- --- 5-7.5 ---
*ppt= parts per thousand.
In Bangladesh the macrophyte species that can be employed in the wetland systems are listed
below (according to their types) (Saeed et al., 2014).
Ÿ Emergent macrophytes: Phragmites australis, Cyperus papyrus, Cyperus
difformis, Dracaena sanderiana, Hydrocotyle umbellate, Echinodorus cordifolius,
Colocasia esculenta, Caladium sp., Hymenocallis littoralis, Canna indica,
Alternanthera philoxeroides.

Ÿ Submerged macrophytes: Hygrophila polysperma, Bacopa caroliniana.
Ÿ Rooted floating macrophytes: Nymphea pubescens, Nymphoides indica.
Ÿ Floating leaved macrophytes: Salvinia auriculata, Salvinia minima, Pistia stratiotes.
Microorganisms. Constructed wetlands provide an ideal environment to support the
growth of microorganisms, which break down wastewater pollutants by biodegradation.
Bacteria, Fungi, Algae are the predominant microorganisms of the wetlands. A brief
description of the microorganism characteristics is available in Chapter 6.
Media. Wetland media play a critical role in pollutant removal from the wastewater, as the
media provides attachment surfaces to microbial communities, and ingredients for bio-
reactions. The nature of wetland media is also an important factor to determine
environmental condition (such as redox potential), inside the wetland matrix.
Gravel is the most common media employed in subsurface flow wetlands. Typical gravel
sizes used in HSSF wetlands are: 3-6 mm, 5-10 mm, and 6-12 mm. VSSF systems usually use
graded gravel with a top layer of washed sharp sand. The media depth in VSSF wetlands is
often maintained around 0.7 m, whereas in HSSF systems such depth is maintained around
0.6 m. According to UK specification the arrangement of gravel media (in VSSF wetlands) is
given in Table 10.6 (WRc, 1996).
Table 10.6 Size of gravel beds used in VSSF wetlands.
Layer Depth Substrate size

Top Layer 8 cm Sharp sand
15cm 6 mm washed pea gravel
10 cm 12 mm round washed gravel
Bottom Layer 15cm 30-60 mm round washed gravel
Apart from gravel, other types of media can also be used in wetland systems to enhance
pollutant removal mechanisms. Table 10.7 indicates different unconventional media, along
with pollutant removal efficacy (employing such media), in wetland systems.
Table 10.7 A list of unconventional media employed in wetland systems.

Literature Media Used Pollutant Removal Efficiency (%)
source NH4-N NO2-N NO3-N TN TP TSS BOD COD
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Effert et al., Sand - - - 1-11 - - 100 -

1985.
Wood and Laterite - - - - 96 - - -
McAtamney
1996.
Drizo et al., Shale 100 - 85-95 - 99 - - -
1997.
Ubranc, Mixed 41 - 98 - 63 53 4 47
1997. gravel, sand,
peat, soil

Literature Media Used Pollutant Removal Efficiency (%)
sourced NH4-N NO2-N NO3-N TN TP TSS BOD COD
Gray et al., Maerl - - - 41- 98 - - -
2000. 59
Brix et al., Darup - - - - >80 - - -
2001. natural sand
NymØlle - - - - 70 - - -
and SorØ
sands
Diatomaceous - - - - 60 - - -
earth
Marble - - - - 70 - - -
Bastviken et Peat Summer: 55 - 55 44 - - - -
al., 2003. Winter: 80 20 20 70
Aslam et al., Compost - - - - - 48- 35-77 45-78
2007. 73
Gunes, 2007. Peat - - - 58 40 95 - 92
Chan et al., Coal slag 51 - - 69 23- 78 - -
2008. 38
Yalcuk and Zeolite 71 - - - 56.2 - - 23
Ugurlu, 2009.
Zhao et al., Alum sludge 49-93 - - 11- 75- 46- 57-84 36-84
2010. 78 94 83
Saeed and Wood- 84-99.6 - - 57- 22.8- 14.1- 36- -
Sun, 2011 a, d. mulch 98 60.3 55 71. 6
10.8 Pollutant Removal Mechanisms in Wetland Systems

Wetlands are capable of removing pollutants from wastewater through a complex variety of
physical, chemical and biological processes. In terms of biodegradation pathways, the
wetlands are more diverse than conventional biological treatment systems (WRc, 1996).
Major pollutant removal mechanisms often observed in wetlands include: a) settling and
filtration of suspended particles; b) precipitation and chemical transformation to remove
nutrients and metals; c) adsorption of nutrients on the surfaces of plants, substrates,
sediment, etc; d) microbial transformations that remove organic matter and nutrients; and
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e) predation and natural die-off that remove pathogens (Jayakumar and Dandigi, 2003).
The pollutants that can be removed from wastewater employing wetland systems include:
nitrogen, organics, phosphorus, solids, coliforms and metals.
Nitrogen (N). Major pathways of nitrogen transformations, which ultimately remove N
from the wastewater in constructed wetlands include: ammonification, biological
nitrification, denitrification, and plant uptake (Vymazal, 1995), as illustrated in Figure 10.9.
Ammonification involves conversion of organic nitrogen to NH4-N. In a constructed
wetland, this process decreases with depth, indicating that ammonification is faster in the

Living
organisms
Excretion of reduced N by animals

Death and Desay ammonia
assimilation
NH3
N2 fixation N2 NH2OH
N2O NO NO2
nitrate reduction
by assimilation
NO3
Figure 10.9 Nitrogen cycle in wetland systems.
upper zone of the wetlands where the condition is aerobic, and slower in the lower zone
where the environment switches from facultative to obligate anaerobic conditions (Reddy
and Patrick, 1984). The ideal pH range for ammonification is 6.5-8.5 (Patrick and Wyatt,
1964; Vymazal, 1995). Ammonification proceeds faster at higher temperature, doubling
rate with temperature increase of 10˚C (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
Nitrification and denitrification (Chapter 7) is the major nitrogen removal mechanisms in
subsurface flow wetland systems (Bachand and Horne, 2000; Reilly et al., 2000). The VSSF
systems are efficient in terms of converting NH4-N to NO3-N, due to predominant aerobic
conditions of such systems. The HSSF systems are capable of reducing NO3-N to N2 gas, as a
result of anoxic conditions inside the bed media. As such, a combination of VSSF, followed
by HSSF system is very effective, for achieving substantial N removal.
Presence of macrophytes is essential for wetlands, in terms of improving nitrogen removal
performances because they: (a) provide surfaces and oxygen for the growth of
microorganisms, enhancing nitrification (Langergraber, 2005); and (b) supply carbon
necessary to optimize denitrification process (Masi, 2008). Nitrogen uptake by plants differs
according to the system configurations, loading ranges, wastewater types and environmental
conditions; the contribution of plants, in terms of nitrogen removal had been reported
CHAPTER 10
within the range 0.5- 40.0% of the total nitrogen removal (Drizo et al., 1997; Shamir et al.,
2001; Healy and Cawley, 2002; Meers et al., 2008; Kantawanichkul et al., 2009). In addition,
plant biomass can also contribute to nitrogen removal; a research study by Shamir et al.,
(2001) reported 60% accumulation of total N in plant biomass. However, decaying plant
materials can also contribute to increase of nutrient concentration across the effluent
through leaching (Brodrick et al., 1988).
Minor nitrogen removal routes such as: ammonia volatilization and adsorption can also
contribute to nitrogen removal in wetland systems. Ammonia volatilization depends on pH
of wastewater; an increase of pH (above 9.3) can cause volatilization (WRc 1996).
Adsorption occurs through cation exchange, with detritus and inorganic sediments in

surface flow wetlands and with the media in subsurface flow wetlands. However, the
adsorbed ammonia is bound loosely to the substrate and can go back to the bulk water
column, if the concentration of NH4-N is reduced and vice versa (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
Apart from these nitrogen removal routes, a limited studies illustrated novel nitrogen
removal routes in constructed wetlands, such as: Anammox (Dong and Sun, 2007) and
Canon process (Sun and Austin, 2007). However, to date researchers have not been able to
consistently implement these novel biodegradation routes in the wetlands, due to lack of
knowledge on optimal operational conditions, and environmental parameters associated
with such pathways.
Organics. Aerobic degradation of organics is often observed in VSSF wetlands, due to
presence of oxygen inside the bed media. Consequently, dominancy of anaerobic condition
in HSSF wetlands allows the removal of organics through anaerobic pathways (Garcia et al.,
2010; Zhang et al., 2010).
The removal of organics in wetland systems is also dependent on input loading. Current
literature reports increase of organics removal with loading, up to 1.14-14 g/m2.d; above this
loading limit, the organics removal rate can decrease (Coombes 1990; Ruan et al., 2006). In
addition, temperature and hydraulic retention time can impose severe effect on organics
removal in constructed wetlands.
The removal of nitrogen and organics often follows contradictory pathways in constructed
wetlands. Nitrification process is usually inhibited, until BOD concentration drops below
200 mg/L (Sun et al., 1998), due to slower metabolism of nitrifiers (Grady et al., 1999).
Subsequently, higher organics removal rates limit the availability of organic carbon, for
NO3-N denitrification. As such, to promote simultaneous organics removal and
nitrification- denitrification, artificial aeration can be provided coupled with carbon
addition, externally or internally (i.e. by providing organic media).
Box 10.2
Internal generation of carbon in VSSF wetland systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 a; d).
A synthetic domestic wastewater was treated in five lab-scale VSSF wetland reactors, which had
Phragmites australis planted in different types of media: organic wood mulch, and mixture of gravel-
wood mulch media. The VSSF systems with organic mulch media exhibited higher nitrogen removal.
The total nitrogen removal varied within 72-97.8%, where as BOD removal efficiency ranged between
CHAPTER 10
24%-71%. Such higher denitrification rates could be attributed to the catering of organic carbon from
the organic mulch media (i.e. internal generatrion of carbon), thereby facilitating nitrogen removal
from wastewater. These findings illustrated the possibilities of simultaneous nitrification-
denitrification, and organics removal in a single wetland reactor.
Phosphorus (P). Phosphorus in constructed wetlands is primarily removed via substrate

retention/sorption, precipitation/ dissolution, and plant/microbial uptake (Vymazal,
2007). Sedimentation is also an important mechanism, for the removal of particulate
inorganic and organic P (Liikanen et al., 2004).

Adsorption of P (by media) in constructed wetlands is observed, when the substrate is rich
with Fe or Al (Luderitz and Gerlach, 2002; WRc, 1996). However, for iron rich materials,
aerobic condition has to be maintained to prevent release of P into the bulk liquid (Noorvee
et al., 2007). Microbial uptake of P includes rapid uptake but low storage (Vymazal, 2007).
The wetland macrophytes also contribute to P removal (from wastewater). The uptake
capacity of P by macrophytes has been estimated within 30-150 kgP/ha/yr. Current
literature reports removal percentages of P (by wetland plants), within a range of 1.8-39%
(Healy and Cawley, 2002; Meers et al., 2008). P uptake by plants in constructed wetlands
may dominate, when the wetland substrate is subjected to P saturation.
Solids. Solids from wastewater is primarily removed via filtration (by the packed media of
VSSF, HSSF systems), or through settling of particles. However, if the influent wastewater
comprises of higher amount of non-degradable particles, they can accumulate in the media
pores (Tuszynska and Pempkowiak, 2008), resulting clogging of beds. Such phenomenon is
undesirable for wetland systems, as it can cause: (a) blockage of media porosity; (b)
reduction of hydraulic conductivity of the bed; and (c) decrease of flow retention time,
resulting short-circuiting. Clogging also prevents oxygen transportation from atmosphere
by diffusion and convection process into the substrates of wetlands, thereby enhancing the
failure of the treatment systems (Langergraber et al., 2003).
To date, no mathematical formula has been formulated to prevent clogging of wetland
systems. Platzer and Mauch (1997) reported to limit input COD loading rate within 25 g
COD/m2 d, for avoiding clogging. Bed resting (i.e. non-dosing) can also minimize clogging,
as the resting period promotes the degradation of organic materials, accumulated inside the
media.
Coliforms. The removal of coliform bacteria in constructed wetlands is usually achieved by
three processes: (a) physical (filtration, sedimentation, and UV radiation); (b) chemical
(oxidation, adsorption, and exposure to toxins from other microbes); and (c) biological
processes (antibiosis, ingestion by nematodes and protozoa, and natural die off) (Ottova et
al., 1997). However, in subsurface flow wetlands light is not the main factor of bacterial
removal, and is governed by predation of bacteria (Davies and Bavor, 2000), performed by
protozoa, lytic bacteria, and bacteriophages (Stottmeister et al., 2003).
Coliform removal efficiencies in wetlands depend on several factors, such as: substrate,
presence of plants, temperature, flow of wastewater, and maturity of the root system.
CHAPTER 10
Bacterial removal efficiency in wetlands is also a function of the inflow bacterial population,
which indicates that higher inflow populations fosters greater removal efficiencies (>90% for
coliforms, and >80% for fecal streptococcus without disinfection) (Kadlec and Knight,
1996). However, it should be noted that the effluent concentrations of bacterial populations
can never become zero (Kadlec and Knight, 1996) without disinfection, as majority of the
wetlands are exposed to wildlife.
Figure 10.10 shows a conceptual diagram of pollutant removal mechanisms, in VSSF and
HSSF systems. Subsequently, Table 10.8 summarises common pollutant removal routes in
wetland systems.

Figure 10.10 Conceptual diagram of pollutant removal routes in VSSF and HSSF systems.
Table 10.8 Common routes of pollutant removal in wetland systems.
Wastewater constituent Removal Mechanisms

Nitrogen Ammonification followed by nitrification-denitrification
BOD Sedimentation, aerobic/anaerobic degradation
Phosphorus Sorption by soil and plant uptake
Suspended solids Sedimentation/ filtration
Pathogen Sedimentation, filtration, natural die-off, UV radiation, toxic effect from
plant roots
Tables 10.9-10.10 illustrate the pollutant removal efficacy of the wetland systems, employed
in different parts of the world (Vymazal et al., 2006).
Table 10.9 Treatment efficiencies of vegetated HSSF constructed wetlands-worldwide

experience.
Concentration (mg/L) Loading (kg/ha/d)

Inflow Outflow Removal Inflow Outflow Removal rates Efficiency
% %
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BOD5 108 16 82.5 39.2 7.6 31.6 80.6

COD 284 72 74.6 120 34.6 85.4 71.2
TSS 107 18.1 83.1 53.6 11.6 42 78.4
P 8.74 5.15 41.1 1410 960 450 31.9
TN 46.6 26.9 42.3 6440 3940 2500 38.8
NH4-N 38.9 20.1 48.3 3880 2550 1330 34.3
NO3--N 4.38 2.87 34.3 980 670 310 31.6

Table 10.10 Treatment efficiencies of vegetated VSSF constructed wetlands-worldwide
experience.
Concentration (mg/L) Loading (kg/ha/d)

Inflow Outflow Removal Inflow Outflow Removal rates Efficiency
% %
BOD5 145 27.2 81.6 93.2 8.6 87.5 85.3
COD 303 75 71.3 158 46 112 71.2
TSS 97 18.4 77.5 92 12.7 79.3 82.8
P 8.6 4.4 52.6 1390 700 690 55.2
TN 61 35 39.7 11020 5370 5650 50.4
NH4-N 45.6 15.8 65.1 8490 2190 6300 62.2
NO3--N 1.55 15.1 -16 260 3390 -8
10.9 Influence of the Environmental Factors

Since constructed wetlands are natural treatment technologies, they are critically influenced
by environmental parameters, such as oxygen and temperature as illustrated below.
Presence of oxygen. Presence of oxygen is extremely critical for wetland systems for
achieving nitrification and organics removal. VSSF wetlands promote more oxygen
diffusion than horizontal flow constructed wetlands, and has the capability to transfer
oxygen at a rate of 50-90 g O2/m2.d. In contrast, HSSF systems are water logged, thereby
hindering the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen inside the media.
The most common wetland macrophytes (i.e. Phragmites australis) has the ability to pass
oxygen, from its leaves through stems and rhizomes and out from its fine hair roots into the
root zone or rhizosphere . The literature reports the oxygen contribution by the plants within
a range 0.02- 12g O2/m2 (Bavor et al., 1988; Armstrong et al., 1990; Brix and Schierup,
1990).
Temperature. Theoretically, temperature has a significant effect on the intensity of
microbial activities. Denitrification has been found to proceed slowly at low temperatures
(e.g. 5˚C), and its reaction rate increases exponentially with higher temperature and reaches
a plateau between 20-25˚C, as long as other environmental factors do not restrict the rate
(U.S. EPA, 1975). Katayon et al., (2008) found that temperature between 30-32˚C is
CHAPTER 10
beneficial for nitrification in constructed wetlands. Other research studies (Ruan et al., 2006;
Akratos and Tsihrintzis, 2007) also documented the negative impact of lower temperature,
on nitrogen and organics removal routes in treatment wetlands.
10.10 Design Guidelines for the Wetland Systems

According to Brix and Arias (2005), the design guidelines of HSSF and VSSF wetlands for
treating domestic sewage are given below:
HSSF wetlands:
Ÿ Minimum area for a single household is 25 m2.

Ÿ The minimum length of the system should be 10 m.
Ÿ The bottom of the bed should have a slope of 10% from inlet to outlet.
Ÿ Inlet depth should be 0.6 m and should be deeper towards the outlet.
Ÿ Inlet and outlet zones should be filled with stones to prevent exposure of wastewater.
Ÿ 0.5 mm thick membrane should enclose the whole system, and the membrane must
be protected by a geotextile or sand.
Ÿ The substrate must be uniform sand with d10 between 0.3-2 mm and d60 between 0.5-8
mm; the uniformity coefficient should be <4.
Ÿ Phragmites australis should be planted into the system.
VSSF wetlands:
Ÿ The sewage must be pre-treated in a two or three chamber sedimentation tank
(minimum volume 2 m3 for a single household with up to 5 population equivalent).
Ÿ The necessary surface area of the root zone system is 3 m2 per population equivalent
(minimum area for a single household is 15 m2).
Ÿ Filter depth should be 1.0 m with sand medium (d10 between 0.25-2 mm and d60
between 1-4 mm and the uniformity coefficient, U = d60/d10 should be <3.5), clay and
silt contents (less than 0.125 mm) must be less than 0.5%.
Ÿ Minimum 0.5 mm thick membrane should enclose the whole system; the membrane
must be protected by a geotextile or sand.
Ÿ Phragmites australis should be planted into the system to prevent filter clogging.
Ÿ Wastewater should be distributed evenly on the beds with distribution pipes
insulated by a 0.2 m layer of coarse wood chips, sea shells on the surface of the filter to
protect them against frost.
Ÿ Loading frequency should be 16-24 pulses per day, when half of the water is
recirculated within the system.
Box 10.3
Baffled constructed wetlands for municipal wastewater treatment in Bangladesh
(Saeed et al. 2014).
A three stage wetland system train was employed by Saeed et al. (2014) to provide treatment of
municipal wastewater in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The wetland train included a baffled VF wetland as the
first stage (Figure 10.11 a), followed by a second stage baffled HF wetland (Figure 10.11 b), and a final
CHAPTER 10
stage integrated SF- floating treatment wetland (Figure 10.11 c). Different types of organic and
inorganic media were employed in the systems, that were planted with nineteen macrophyte types. The
system was operated under hydraulic loading and seasonal variation. Wastewater sample analyses
across inlet-outlet (of the whole system) indicated substantial nitrogen and organics removal
performances. Incoming NH4-N, NO3-N, BOD5 and COD concentrations were 107.5, 115.5, 1903.0,
and 4048.0 mg/L respectively. Removal percentages of such pollutants were 82.3, 89.6, 97.0, and 94.4%
respectively. The wetland train also achieved 99.9% E. Coli removal percentages from municipal
wastewater. Such enhanced performances could be attributed to the flow direction by the baffle walls
(integrated inside the systems), through aerobic-anaerobic pockets of the media stimulating
biodegradation.

influent
media
flow
baffle walls
influent
outlet
water table
flow effluent
media
baffle
walls
outlet
effluent
(a) (b)
CHAPTER 10
(c)
Figure 10.11 Pilot scale (a) baffled VF wetland; (b) baffled HF wetland; and (c)
pictorial plate of three stage wetland systems for the treatment of municipal
wastewater in Bangladesh.

10.11 Modelling of Nitrogen and Organics Removal in
VSSF and HSSF Systems
Currently, the kinetic modelling and system design of subsurface flow wetlands is primarily
based on first order plug flow model, commonly referred as Kickuth equation (Cooper et al.,
1996), according to Equation (10.10).
10.10
Where, A = media area, m2

K = first order rate constant, m/d
Cin and Cout = influent and effluent pollutant concentration, mg/L
Q = hydraulic loading, m3/d
However, the accuracy of the Kickuth equation is now being questioned by the wetland
researchers, due to the following reasons: (a) the first order models assume indefinite
pollutant removals in a biological reactor, whereas maximum removal rates in such systems
are often observed; and (b) the postulation of plug flow may not be appropriate, due to the
packed media; it is likely that the flow is being diverged in all directions by the media when
the wastewater flows towards outlet, particularly in the vertical flow wetlands.
In contrast to the Kickuth equation, complex wetland models (Mayo and Bigambo, 2005;
Akratos et al., 2009) are often not practical for the design of treatment wetlands, due to the
presence of many empirical relations. A complex model with many guessed parameters is
susceptible to inaccurate design outcome. As such, further development of wetland models
is desirable to overcome the inaccuracy of Kickuth equation, and the impracticality of
complex models.
A balanced approach between the simplistic kinetic approach, and complex mechanistic
models have been proposed by Saeed and Sun (2011b; c), for modelling nitrogen and
organics removal in wetland systems. In these studies, the authors combined Monod
kinetics with CSTR and plug flow pattern, for matching nitrogen and organics removal
performances in VSSF and HSSF wetland systems respectively. The following sections
describe such modeling approaches, to describe biodegradation routes of pollutants in
wetland systems.
CHAPTER 10
Modelling for VSSF systems. Monod kinetics, which contains the parameters of substrate
concentration (Cout), half saturation constant of limiting substrate (Chalf, mg/L) and
maximum volumetric pollutant removal rates (Kmax, g/m3/d), can be expressed as:
10.11
CSTR flow pattern in a reactor can be expressed as:
10.12

Where, Cin = inlet pollutant concentration (mg/L)
t = hydraulic retention time (days)
Combining volumetric maximum pollutant removal rates (Kmax, g/m3/d) with media height
(h) and porosity (e) results areal maximum pollutant removal rates (K, g/m2/d), as
expressed in equation (10.13), to correlate inlet and outlet pollutant concentrations (Saeed
and Sun, 2011b; 2011c).
10.13
Equation (10.13) can be used to predict nitrogen and organics degradation in VSSF systems.
For the first step of NH4-N transformation (i.e. from NH4-N to NO2-N) during nitrification,
the half saturation constant value (Chalf for Nitrosomonas degradation) has been measured as
0.05 mg/L (Verstraete and Vaerenbergh, 1986). As such, 0.05 mg/L can be used as the Chalf
value in Equation (10.13) for nitrification. For NO3-N denitrification, half saturation nitrate
constant in the Monod kinetics has been reported as 0.14 mg/L (Wiesmann, 1994). For
heterotrophic biodegradable organics (BOD5) removal, half saturation degradation
constant is recommended as 60 mg/L for wastewater treatment (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
For COD, half saturation COD constant can be taken as 20 mg/L, as suggested by Vaccari et
al., (2006) for sewage treatment.
Figure 10.12 illustrates the correlation plot of Equation (10.13), for modelling nitrogen and
organics removal in nine VSSF wetland systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b; c), evaluated by
statistical parameter coefficient of determination (R2). As observed in Figure 10.12, Monod
kinetics with CSTR flow pattern showed closer interrelationship, for predicting nitrogen
and organics biodegradation routes in VSSF systems. The k value indicates Monod kinetic
rates (g/m2/d) of such reactions, determined from the slope of the plots.
Modelling for HSSF systems. For HSSF systems, the combination of Monod kinetics,
combined with plug flow pattern provided closer match, in terms of predicting nitrogen and
organics removal (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b). As such, Equation (10.11) can be rearranged in
the form of Equation (10.14), for developing Monod plug flow model.
10.14
CHAPTER 10
Applying the boundary conditions of idealized plug flow pattern in the above equation
yields:
10.15
Arranging Equation (10.15) in terms of areal maximum pollutant removal rates (K, g/m2/d)
yields equation (10.16), that expresses the combination of Monod kinetics with plug flow

Figure 10.12 Correlation plot of Monod CSTR equation for predicting nitrogen and
organics removal in VSSF systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b; c).
pattern, to correlate inlet and outlet pollutant values across HSSF wetlands (Sun and Saeed,
2009; Saeed and Sun, 2011 b).
10.16
Equation (10.16) may be used to correlate inlet and outlet NO3-N, BOD5 and COD values in
CHAPTER 10
HF wetlands. The half saturation constant for these target pollutants can be used as 0.14, 60
and 20 mg/L respectively, as described previously.
Figure 10.13 expresses the correlation plot of Equation (10.16) in terms of matching
nitrogen and organics removal in three lab-scale HSSF systems, and 80 full-scale HSSF
systems in the UK (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b). As observed in Figure 10.13, Equation (10.16)
indicates closer match for predicting denitrification and organics removal (indicated by R2)
in HSSF systems.

Figure 10.13 Correlation plot of Monod plug flow equation for predicting nitrogen and
organics removal in HSSF systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b).
10.12 Floating Treatment Wetland: An Innovative

Natural Treatment System
The sections as described earlier (in this chapter) illustrate pollutant removal mechanisms
of subsurface flow and surface flow wetland systems. Apart from these natural reactors, a new
natural treatment system has been employed recently which is referred as floating treatment
wetland. Floating treatment wetland includes emergent macrophytes, supported by a
CHAPTER 10
buoyant mat structure (that floats on water column) with media to support the
macrophytes. The stems of the macrophytes remain above the water column (Figure 10.14),
whereas roots grow inside the water column extracting nutrients directly from water column.
Microbiological population is attached on the roots, forming a complicated network of roots
and biofilms. As wastewater passes through such network, biological removal of pollutants
occurs (along with nutrient uptake by the roots).
Floating treatment wetlands provide coverage above the water column (via floating mats
and macrophytes), thereby hindering the penetration of sunlight and growth of algae. A
minimum water depth of approximately 0.8–1.0 m (Headley and Tanner, 2012) is
recommended for employing floating treatment wetlands to encounter roots anchoring into

the bottom sediments. If the roots are attached in the sediments floating mats will be
submerged when the water level rises, which can damage the mat structure.
Different types of buoyant mats such as air tight frames with nets, integral buoyancy mats,
suspended cables above water column supporting macrophytes, and rigid frames that are
suspended close to water surface supporting plant growth can be designed.
Floating mat Hanging roots
Figure 10.14 Floating mat and hanging roots of a floating wetland.

A wide range of plants can grow on buoyant mats. A list of such plants has been provided in
Table 10.11 (Headley and Tanner, 2012).
Table 10.11 List of macrophytes for floating wetlands.
Species Source
Cyperus Giganteus Wetland
Cyperus papyrus Lake
Glyceria maxima Rivers and wetlands
Miscanthidium violaceum Lake
Panicum hemitomon Lake
CHAPTER 10
Phragmites australis River delta

Pycreus nitidus River delta
Rhynchospora asperula Wetland
Schoenoplectus californicus Wetland
Scirpus cubensis Wetland
Thalia multiflora Wetland
Typha latifolia Wetland
Typha x glauca Lake
Vossia cuspidata Lake

The macrophytes available for floating treatment wetlands in Bangladesh are: Canna
Indica, Thalia Dealbata, Sagittaria Trifolia, Hymenocallis Coronaria, Hymenocallis
Caribaea, Centella Asiatica, Echinodorus v. Oriental, Ceratopteris Thalictroides, Cyperus
Diandrus, Bulrush, Panicum Amarum, Phragmites, Glyceria Maxima, Pycreus Nitidus,
Pennisetum Purpureum, Peltandra Virginica, Lobelia Cardinalis
10.13 Pollutant Removal Mechanisms in Floating

Wetlands
Different types of wastewater such as: agricultural drainage, eutrophied lake water, storm
runoff, aquaculture wastewater, swine wastewater, secondary treated wastewater can be
treated employing floating treatment wetlands. Pollutants for example: solids, organics,
nutrients, pathogens etc. can be removed from wastewater, when these natural bio-reactors
are employed.
Solids. Floating mats and macrophytes reduce algae (due to absence of sunlight), which can
be a significant source of suspended solids in open channels. The hanging roots inside water
column reduce flow velocity, accelerating the settling of suspended solids. Finer solids (not
removed by the settling process) are captured by the root-biofilm network. A study by Smith
and Kalin (2000) reported 0.02 kg of captured solids/m2 of root surface/ year, where Typha
species were used as macrophyte to provide treatment of acid mine drainage pond.
Organics. Particulate organic matters are trapped by the biofilm- root network, and are
subjected to biological degradation. A portion of the trapped solids settle in the bottom
surface of water bodies, and is being degraded biologically. A number of studies (Revitt et al.,
1997; Van Acker et al., 2005) reported COD removal rates between 31-68% employing
floating treatment wetlands, that provided treatment of combined sewer flow and airport
runoff.
Nutrients. Nitrification usually occurs in biofillms closer to the hanging roots.
Subsequently, presence of plant derived carbon stimulates denitrification in the anaerobic
pockets of floating wetland systems. In addition nitrogen and phosphorus uptake by plants
also contributes to nutrients removal. Table 10.12 records nutrient removal rates by floating
wetlands, as reported during different scientific studies.
Table 10.12 Nutrient removal rates by floating wetlands.
CHAPTER 10
Parameter Unit Removal rates Reference

NH4-N g/m2/d 32.0–40.0 Wu et al. (2006)
NO3-N g/m2/d 114.0 Stewart et al. (2008)
TN g/m2/d 1.1–2.5 Boonsong and Chansiri (2008)
TP g/m2/d 1.3–1.9 Kyambadde et al. (2005)
Pathogens. Pathogenic microorganisms are generally removed in floating wetlands via

entrapment into the root- biofilm networks (beneath the mat). In addition these
microorganisms may also be adsorbed by the organic matters, that are filtered by the root-
biofilm networks. However, destruction of pathogens by UV radiation is inhibited, due to
the shades provided by the floating mats and macrophytes.

Box 10.4
Application of floating treatment wetlands in Bangladesh.
A pilot-scale floating mat (Figure 10.14) was employed in Bangladesh by a research team headed by the
lead author of this book. Such system was implemented to observe its pollutant removal performances
from Gulshan lake. Water quality analyses indicated BOD5 and E. Coli removal performances between
78.0-81.0% and 76.0-92.0% respectively. The system also achieved 95.0% turbidity removal
performances.
After the pilot-scale research, real scale floating wetland systems were employed by the same research
team at Sukandighi, Lalmonirhat district. Ten floating mats were employed; the floating mats were
constructed with airtight UPVC pipes to achieve buoyancy. Fish nets were used to support media (i.e.
straw and soil). Local macrophytes were collected from nearby water channels, and were planted.
Within three weeks of implementation visual clarity of water had been observed. Figure 10.15 provides
a pictorial view of the employed floating systems at Sukandighi.
Figure 10.15 Real scale floating wetlands at Sukandighi. CHAPTER 10

Questions
1. What are the main advantages of natural treatment systems, in terms of wastewater
treatment?
2. What is the main reason of achieving higher nitrification rates in VSSF systems?
3. Why anaerobic conditions dominate in HSSF systems?
4. Enlist the major nitrogen removal routes in wetland systems.
5. How wetland macrophytes contribute to nitrogen removal from wastewater?
6. Why clogging is undesirable for wetland systems?
7. What is the relationship between bacteria and algae in stabilization ponds?
8. What are the principal mechanisms for faecal bacterial removal in maturation ponds?
9. Wastewater flow from an area averages 5000 m3/d through out the year. The average
yearly temperature is 28oC. The mean concentration of influent BOD5 is 400mg/L
with 70% being soluble. Reaction coefficient K is 0.23 d-1 at 20oC, and θ is 1.06.
Prepare a facultative pond treatment system for the area to remove 85% of the soluble
BOD.
CHAPTER 10

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Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology, Vol 51, 113-154. Springer-Verlag, Berlin and Heidelberg.
Williams, L.G. 1964. Relative strontium and calcium uptake by green algae, Science, 146, 1488.
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in the bed medium in phosphorus and heavy metal removal. Hydrobiologia, 340, 323-331.
Wu, Q.T., Gao, T., Zeng, S. and Chua, H. 2006. Plantz-biofilm oxidation ditch for in situ treatment of
polluted waters. Ecological Engineering, 28, 124–130.
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Yalcuk, A. and Ugurlu, A. 2009. Comparison of horizontal and vertical constructed wetland systems for
landfill leachate treatment. Bioresource Technology, 100, 2521-2526.

Zhang, L-y., Zhang, L., Liu, Y-d., Shen, Y-w., Liu, H. and Xiong, Y. 2010. Effect of limited artificial aeration
on constructed wetland treatment of domestic wastewater. Desalination, 250, 915-920.
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demonstration of a novel alum sludge-based constructed wetland system for enhanced wastewater
treatment. Process Biochemistry, doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2010.08.023.
CHAPTER 10

11
Chapter
Water Pollution:
Analysis and Control
Water is considered to be polluted when it contains enough anthropogenic contaminants to
render it unfit for a specific beneficial use; such as drinking, recreation or fish propagation.
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into the water
bodies (such as lakes, streams or rivers, oceans, aquifers) without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds. Water, because of its polar molecular structure, has a stronger
tendency to dissolve other substances than any other common solvent and hence referred to
as the universal solvent. Pure water is practically not found in natural conditions in water
bodies, it usually has something dissolved or suspended in it. It is only when these dissolved
or suspended substances go beyond a certain concentration in comparison with the water
quality standards for a particular beneficial use, the water is considered to be contaminated.
Although anthropogenic activity is the primary cause of water pollution, natural phenomena
such as storms, cyclones, algal blooms, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can also cause a
major change in water quality and ecological status of water.
In many parts of the world, the introduction of pollutants from human activity has seriously
degraded water quality even to the extent of turning pristine streams to foul open sewers with
only a few life forms and fewer beneficial uses. Most of the rivers in urban areas in developing
countries are considered as end points for effluent discharge from industries. In Bangladesh,
industrial effluents from a cluster of industries in and around Dhaka in addition to untreated
domestic sewage from DWASA sewerage lines are indiscriminately polluting the rivers
surrounding the nation’s capital. The most severe deterioration occurs in the dry season,
when a decrease in river flow (sometimes tidally fluctuating) augments the effect of
pollution bringing down the dissolved oxygen level close to zero at certain reaches of these
rivers and thereby making the survival of fish almost impossible. The minimum requirement
of dissolved oxygen for healthy fish population is 5 – 8 mg/L.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 The dumping of untreated industrial waste into the Turag River in Tongi. The
dark colored water shows how heavily the river has been contaminated with chemical
waste (Inset). (Photo source: The Daily Star, August 2, 2011, www.thedailystar.net).
In today’s world, the disease burden associated with polluted water has made it an issue of
global concern. In the past, epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera have been
Water Pollution: Analysis and Control 307

responsible for the deaths of thousands of lives in the United States. Fortunately, epidemics
of such diseases have been largely eliminated in the United States and other developed
countries as a result of treating drinking water prior to consumption or through widespread
vaccination. But this is certainly not the case worldwide; outbreaks of waterborne diseases
continue to threat the developing countries. It has been suggested that water pollution is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more
than 14,000 people daily. In Bangladesh, where sanitation conditions are largely inadequate,
contamination of water becomes a death trap. About 80% of the diseases are water-related
that include cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, diarrhea etc. claiming on an average one-
tenth of each person’s productive time and causing death in 20-30% cases. Providing water,
safe for drinking and other purposes is essential for life and is one of the most important goals
of development. Water quality management is concerned with the control of pollution from
human activity so that the water is not degraded to the point that it is no longer suitable for its
intended use.
Box 11.1
Water Pollution in historical times: “The Great Stink” in London
Until the late 16th century, London citizens were

reliant for their water supplies on water from
shallow wells, the River Thames and its tributaries,
or natural springs. In 1815 house waste was
permitted to be carried to the Thames via the
sewers. So for several years human waste was
dumped into the Thames which was potentially
pumped back to the same households for drinking,
cooking and bathing. Around 1858, there were over
200,000 cesspits in London. Emptying one cesspit
cost a shilling - a cost the average London citizen
then could hardly afford. As a result, these cesspits
turned their household environment severely
odorous. During that time flush toilets were
introduced, replacing the chamber-pots that most
Londoners had used. These dramatically increased
the volume of water and waste that was being
poured into existing cesspits. These often
overflowed into street drains designed originally to
cope with rainwater, but now also being used to
CHAPTER 11
carry outfalls from factories, slaughterhouses and

Figure: A caricature commenting on a
letter from Faraday on the state of the other activities, contaminating the city before
river in the times magazine emptying into the River Thames. The summer of
1858 was unusually hot. The Thames and many of
its urban tributaries were overflowing with sewage; the warm weather encouraged bacteria to thrive and
the resulting smell was so overwhelming that it affected the work of the House of Commons

(countermeasures included draping curtains soaked in chloride of lime, while members considered
relocating upstream to Hampton Court) and the law courts (plans were made to evacuate to Oxford and
St Albans). This particular period in the summer of 1858 in London is known as the time of “The Great
Stink” or “The Big Stink” referring to the noxious smell emanating from the untreated waste in Thames
river and the cesspits in central London. Heavy rain finally ended the heat and humidity of summer and
the immediate crisis ended. However, a House of Commons select committee was appointed to report
on the Stink and recommend how to end the problem. Numerous caricatures emerged at that time to
humorously portray the period of the Great Stink. One such caricature is shown in the figure to depict
Faraday’s comments on the state of the river Thames in the Times magazine of July, 1855.(Source:
www.wikipedia.org)
To understand how much waste can be assimilated by a water body, we need to know about
the type of pollutants and the manner in which they affect water quality. This chapter deals
first with major types of pollutants and their sources, placing the emphasis on categories of
pollutants found in domestic wastewaters. To understand the impact of human activities on
water quality, the fate of contaminants particularly oxygen-demanding wastes on rivers and
streams will be discussed in detail. This chapter will also focus on the characteristics of a
typical lake environment and how water pollutants affect these conditions.
11.1 Water Pollutant Categories

To understand the effects of water pollution it is necessary to classify pollutants into various
categories. Pollutants can be classified either by (a) nature of their origin or (b) groups of
substances they contain. According to nature of their origin, a pollutant can be classified as
either a point source or a dispersed/non-point source.
Point sources. A point source pollutant is one that reaches the water from a pipe, channel or
any other confined and localized source. Domestic sewage and industrial wastes are called
point sources because they are generally collected by a network of pipes or channels and
conveyed to a single point of discharge into the receiving water. After applying proper
wastewater treatment, the pollution from point sources can either be reduced or eliminated.
Figure 11.2shows the point source discharge locations on Sitalakhya, Balu and Turag rivers;
all these rivers surround Dhaka city, the nation’s capital. Major pollutants are from the
industries which discharge their effluents either directly on the rivers or on different
channels (khals) which connect to these rivers.
Non-point sources. A dispersed or non-point source is a broad, unconfined area from
which pollutants enter the water body. Surface runoff from agricultural areas may carry silt,
pesticides, fertilizers or animal wastes to streams but not from a particular point. These
CHAPTER 11
materials can enter the water all along the stream as it flows through the area. Point source
pollution can be easier to deal with compared to nonpoint source pollution; point sources
can be readily identified and treatment plant may be installed to reduce pollution. The
regulatory agencies can monitor the effluents from the treatment plant from time to time and
may impose restrictions on effluent discharge. On the other hand, pollution from a non-
point source is difficult to control; the most effective way is to set appropriate restrictions on
landuse.

Figure 11.2 Point source loadings (in kg/day) in Sitalakhya and Balu rivers. BODu =
Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen Demand, NH3-N = Ammonia-Nitrogen (Source: Alam et al.
2011).
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Figure 11.3 Non-point source pollution in Buriganga (Image source: The Daily Star,
www.thedailystar.net).

Based on the groups of substance they contain, pollutants can be categorized by the
following seven broad groups, also shown in Table 11.1, which also includes the principal
sources of each group:
(1) Oxygen-demanding wastes
(2) Nutrients
(3) Pathogens
(4) Suspended solids
(5) Salts
(6) Toxic metals
(7) Toxic organic compounds
(8) Heat
Table 11.1 Major pollutant categories and principal sources of pollutants.
Point sources Non-point sources

Pollutant category Domestic Sewage Industrial wastes Agricultural runoff Urban runoff
Oxygen-demanding X X X X
wastes
Nutrients X X X X
Pathogens X X X X
Suspended solids/ X X X X
sediments
Salts X X X
Toxic metals X X
Toxic organic chemicals X X
Heat X
Oxygen-demanding wastes. Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving water with the
consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen is termed oxygen-demanding material. Oxygen
demanding materials are primarily from human waste and food residue. Food processing
and paper industries also produce oxygen-demanding wastes. As these wastes are oxidized, it
reduces the amount of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) available threatening fish and other aquatic
lives. In extreme cases as in anaerobic conditions, the higher forms of life (such as fish) may
be killed or driven off. Also, as the DO is depleted, undesirable odors, tastes and colors not
only reduce the acceptability of water for domestic supply but also reduce its attractiveness
for recreational use. The oxidation of certain inorganic compounds may also contribute to
the oxygen demand. There are several measures of oxygen demand. The two most
commonly used are the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen
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Demand (BOD) (see section 6.4). COD is the amount of oxygen needed to chemically
oxidize the wastes while BOD is the amount of oxygen needed to biologically oxidize the
waste. BOD has been traditionally used as the most important measure for the strength of
organic pollution. Conventional wastewater treatment reduces the amount of BOD in the
effluent but do not eliminate BOD completely.
Nutrients. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to the growth of living
things. But if they are present in excessive amounts, it causes some organisms to proliferate at

the expense of others and grossly disturb the food web. For example, these nutrients in
excessive amounts can stimulate the growth of algae which eventually die and decompose in
turn removing oxygen from water, potentially leading to levels in which aquatic species may
become unsustainable. Algae and decaying organic matter add color, turbidity, odors and
objectionable tastes to the water and diminish its acceptability for domestic use. The process
of nutrient enrichment is called eutrophication and will be discussed in detail in later
sections. Major sources of nitrogen and phosphorus include municipal wastewater
discharges, runoff from animal feedlots, chemical fertilizers and also phosphorus-based
detergents.
In addition to these anthropogenic sources of nutrients, there are also natural sources that
may add nitrogen to the water bodies. Certain bacteria and blue-green algae can directly
obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere. These life forms are abundant in lakes and have high
biological productivity. Certain form of acid rains can also contribute nitrogen to the lakes.
Pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms found in wastewater include bacteria, viruses and
protozoa excreted by diseased persons or animals. If wastes containing these
microorganisms are discharged into surface waters, they render it unfit for drinking and if
they enter the water supply, it can cause epidemic of enormous proportions. With the advent
of chlorination, which began in 1908 in the United States, outbreak of waterborne diseases
has become rare. However, developing countries today are still susceptible to high death
rates from these diseases mostly because of the lack of adequate sanitation facilities. If the
concentration of these pathogenic organisms in the surface water becomes very high, the
water may also be unsafe for swimming, fishing or other recreational uses.
Box 11.2
The State of Buriganga river today
CHAPTER 11
Figure Left: The Department of Environment collects samples of untreated waste

being discharged into the Buriganga river by a factory in Keraniganj. Right: A DoE
official finds 1.45mg oxygen in a litre of Buriganga water (Image source: the Daily Star,
July 5, 2011).

In Dhaka, an average of 15,000 metric tons of human waste is generated daily. The only waste treatment
plant for the city is located at Pagla in Narayanganj with a capacity of treating 1,20,000 m3 of sewage. It
was installed in 1973-74 and renovated in 1991-92 but can treat sewage at only one-third of its capacity.
The rest of the waste dumped into rivers, canals and other water bodies. Residential areas including
Uttara, Baridhara, Badda, part of Mirpur and Mohammadpur, Dhonia, Shyamoli, Kalyanpur, Banani,
part of Gulshan and Jatrabari and a large area of the city's northern part altogether consisting of 80% area
of Dhaka city remain out of WASA sewerage network. Due to unavailability of sewage connections, a
large number of house-owners link sewage discharge connection directly to storm water drainage line.
Some people illegally connect their sewage line to the drainage line even where sewage network is
available to evade service charges. This results in dumping of untreated waste to rivers and water bodies
in and around the city. Buriganga, once the lifeline of Dhaka city, is now severely polluted as it receives
the major portion of this untreated sewage. Besides this, untreated industrial effluent is discharged from
a cluster of industries along the river. Most industries do not have in-house treatment plants, and even if
some of them had it, they would not use it perhaps to save operation cost in blatant violation of
environmental rules. 500 tanneries in Hazaribagh including 200 large units discharge 4950 m3 of
obnoxious organic wastes every day and recent evidence points out that they are percolating into the
subsurface and polluting the groundwater as well. Also, illegal grabbing of the river has obstructed the
river’s natural flow and exacerbated the situation. Previously the Department of Environment has filed
cases against the factories for environmental pollution under the Bangladesh Environment Protection
Act and fined some of those industries in various degrees, but the industries are still managing to operate
unabatedly through various loopholes of the law. Grassroots movements are in progress initiated by
various concerned groups in Bangladesh to stop pollution and save the Buriganga river.
Suspended solids. Organic or inorganic particles that are carried by the wastewater into
receiving waters are termed suspended solids. When the speed of the water is reduced by
flowing into a pool or a lake, many of these particles settle to the bottom as sediment. In
common usage, the word sediment also includes eroded soil particles which are being
carried by water even if they have not yet settled. Colloidal particles which do not settle
readily are the cause of turbidity found in many surface waters. Organic suspended solids
may also exert an oxygen demand. Inorganic suspended solids are discharged by some
industries but result mostly from soil erosion. As excessive sediment loads are deposited into
lakes and reservoirs, their usefulness is reduced. Even in rapidly flowing streams, sediments
can disrupt ecological habitats of many aquatic species. For domestic water supply, excessive
suspended solids necessitate water treatment at an increased cost.
Salts. All naturally occurring water contains some sort of salt; but the problem arises when
the concentration of salt goes beyond such a level which makes it unsuitable for a particular
purpose. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a very common and simple measure of salinity in
CHAPTER 11
water. As a rough approximation, freshwater can be considered to be water with less than
1500 mg/L TDS; brackish waters may have TDS values up to 5000 mg/L; saline waters are
those with concentrations above 5000 mg/L. According to Bangladesh Environmental
Conservation Rules (1997), drinking water has a permissible maximum contaminant level
of TDS of 1000 mg/L. High concentration of salts can also damage crops and cause soil
pollution, therefore for irrigation water the permissible level is 2100 mg/L. Industrial

discharge often consists of high amount of TDS. For the rivers which are used for irrigation,
the concentration of salts progressively increase downstream as the amount of water
available to dilute the salts becomes lower due to evaporation and diversions and as more
and more salty irrigation drainage water is added to the flow.
Toxic metals. The list of toxic metals (often referred to as heavy metals) includes aluminum,
arsenic, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium, thallium, tin, titanium and zinc. Some of these metals,
such as iron, are essential nutrients in our diets, but in higher doses are extremely toxic. The
adverse impacts include nervous system and kidney damage, creation of mutations and
induction of tumors. Lead comes from exhaust of automobiles that use leaded gasoline, zinc
comes from tire wear.
Toxic organic compounds. Many industrial discharges contain toxic metals or toxic
organic substances. Pesticides, also a toxic organic chemical, may be carried into water in the
surface runoff from agricultural areas. Perhaps the most dangerous among these are
chlorinated organic hydrocarbons (organochlorines) (e.g. DDT, aldrin, endrin, heptachlor,
methoxychlor). They not only possess toxic characteristics but also persistent, tend to
Box 11.3
Water Pollution from Textile Dyeing Industries in Bangladesh
Figure Discharge of textile dyeing wastewater into a natural water body (Source:
Ahmed et al. 2012).
Textile is the top foreign exchange earning sector in Bangladesh, at the same time wastewater from
textile dyeing has also become the top polluter of water and soil resources in the country. In Bangladesh,
textile dying industries are grouped into red category that requires extensive Environmental Impact
CHAPTER 11
Assessment (EIA) and installation of treatment facilities to establish textile dyeing (GoB, 1997). But
most of the industries do not have a treatment plants and discharge untreated effluent with very high
pollution potential in water or on land. Some industries have physico-chemical and biological treatment
plants which can reduce BOD, COD and colour to some extent but extended aeration and high dose of
chemicals are required to reduce SS, BOD and COD to acceptable levels. On the other hand, the
dissolved solids in the effluent remain very high. Some industries dilute the effluent by adding fresh
water to meet the effluent quality standards but the total pollution loads discharged in the environment

remain unchanged. Many of the treatment plants are not operated continuously for high cost of
operation. As a result, severe pollution of water and soil resources around the industrial belt in
Bangladesh due to indiscriminate disposal of wastewater has become a great environmental concern.
Textile dyeing requires huge quantity of water, which is contaminated with large quantities of salt, dye
pigments and dissolved and suspended impurities either derived from fabrics or added for dyeing and
discharged as wastewater. The wastewater from textile dyeing is characterized by high pH, turbidity,
colour, dissolved and suspended solids, BOD and COD. The usual BOD of composite dyeing
wastewater ranges from 300 to 600 mg/L, COD from 350 to 800 mg/L, Suspended Solids from 250 to
350 mg/L and Total Dissolved Solids as high as 3000 mg/L. Treatment of textile wastewater is
relatively difficult and costly. Pollution and public health problems caused by textile dyeing wastewater
have become the focus of the press and environmentalists for a number of years. The department of
Environment as per provisions of ECA (1995) is trying to deal with the matter by setting deadlines for
installing ETP and imposing fines for not operating ETPs but no improvement of situation is visible.
About 100 units out of 300 knit processing industries within Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturers &
Export Association (BKMEA) may have installed ETPs. It has been reported in local news media that
some of the dyeing industries are hiding their effluent by pumping it underground. The resulting
pollution of groundwater will have far reaching consequences.
It is not possible to control environmental pollution from dyeing wastewater by the existing liberal
effluent quality standards (EQS) of Bangladesh. The present effluent quality standards were formulated
18 years ago considering the abundance of effluent receiving water (surface water) in Bangladesh. In
recent times, the flow of the existing streams have tremendously reduced in the dry season and on the
other hand, composite dyeing industries have greatly flourished in the country during the last decade.
Moreover, there are no suitable streams in the close vicinity of many factories for disposal by dilution.
The improvement of quality of the industrial effluent is required to prevent pollution of the
environment. The quality of the land around clusters of factories like Export Processing Zones (EPZs)
in Bangladesh is fast deteriorating, even after largely complying with the EQS of Bangladesh (ECR,
1997). Discharge of excessive amount of salt with the effluent is mainly responsible for elevated water
and soil salinity making the land around industrial clusters barren. The combined wastewater
discharged from an industrial cluster is shown in Figure above.
Effective treatment of wastewater from dyeing industries and safe disposal of treated effluent and sludge
are the only options to protect the environment. Chemical coagulation by an appropriate coagulant and
oxidation by a strong oxidizing agent are required to remove colour and biological treatment can reduce
BOD and COD. But these conventional methods cannot reduce salt content of the wastewater.
Advanced treatment methods like Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR), Electro-chemical and Membrane
Bio-filtration (MBR) processes are being used for the treatment of dyeing wastewater.
CHAPTER 11
bioaccumulate. All organics having similar properties are termed POP, Persisting Organic
Pollutants. POPs are prone to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport and
deposition and are likely to cause significant adverse human health or environmental effects
near to and distant from their sources. Government of Bangladesh has signed the Stockholm
Convention on POP on 23 May 2001. As a Party and signatory to the Convention,
Bangladesh is required to take actions to generate awareness of harmful consequences of
POPs, to reduce their releases, and their ultimate elimination. The Stockholm Convention

identifies 12 substances as POPs, which include (a) 9 substances used as pesticides, (b)
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) and (c) Dioxins and Furans. The nine pesticides are
Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphone, DDT and
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB).
Heat (thermal pollution). Heat is considered as a pollutant because of the adverse effect it
can have on the oxygen levels and aquatic life in a river. Typically the source of heat in natural
rivers is the discharge of cooling water as it passes through the condensers collecting the
waste heat in power plants. The cooling water, previously withdrawn from the river, may be
subjected to a temperature increase of upto 15°C after it serves to condense the steam. The
discharge of warm water into the river is usually called thermal pollution. Increase in
Box 11.4
Bioaccumulation of DDT
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton Fish eating bird
0.025 ppm
0.123 ppm 124 ppm
Small fish
1.04 ppm
Predatory fish
4.83 ppm
Figure Process of biological magnification. DDT concentrations increase in

organisms higher in the food chain.
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is the most well-known organochlorine pesticide which has
been widely used in the United States to control insects that carry diseases such as malaria, typhus and
plague. It was a contributed to literally saving millions of lives and also, terms of human toxicity it was
considered relatively safe. It was its impact on the food chain, rather than human toxicity, which led to its
ban in the United States. It appeared that DDT had two properties which made it particularly harmful in
food chains. Firstly, it was extremely persistent, that is, it lasts in the environment for a long time before it
is broken down into other substances. Secondly, they are quite soluble in lipids which means they tend
CHAPTER 11
to accumulate in fatty tissue. The effect of this is that the organisms at higher trophic levels in the food
chain will have progressively increasing concentrations of DDT accumulated in their tissue. The
concentration in the body is the highest at the top of the food chain where the adverse effects will be
manifested. It was the adverse effect of DDT on the reproductive system of birds that focused attention
to this pesticide. DDT interfered with calcium metabolism of birds, resulting in eggs with shells that are
too thin to support the weight of the parent. This phenomenon in which the concentration of a chemical
increases at higher levels in the food chain is known as biomagnification.

temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen in water and increase the rate of metabolism
of fish. This changes the ecological balance of fish. Several species of fish adapt well in
warmer waters while several others prefer colder waters. In the outfall region, a certain
species of fish may thrive due to warmer waters but problems may arise if there is a sudden
shift in environmental conditions (e.g.decrease in temperature due to plant shutdown for
Figure 11.4 (a) Thermal effluent having a temperature 8.7°C in excess of the ambient
water river water temperature being discharged in the Sitalakhya River by the
Siddhirganj 210 MW Power Plant in Narayanganj. (b) Thermal pollution from power
plants can be eliminated by using recirculation cooling towers or ponds.
repair). Sudden decrease in temperature may cause fish kills in significant proportions. Since
thermal effluents also reduce the amount of DO available; a river that may accept a certain
sewage load without much adverse effects, could have unacceptably low DO levels when a
power plant is added. Thermal pollution may be controlled by passing the heated water
through a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser. The heat is dissipated
into the air and the water can then be either discharged to the river or pumped back to the
plant for reuse as cooling water (Figure 11.4 (b))
11.2 Pollutant Discharge Limits

If pollutant discharge continues unabated, rivers and lakes will lose their acceptability for
their intended beneficial use. That is why there are regulatory agencies, whose primary
responsibility is to impose restrictions on the quality of domestic or industrial effluents on
water bodies on the basis of certain guidelines or standards of a particular country. Water
quality standards are therefore necessary to ensure that the appropriate quality of water is
available for a particular use by the consumer. In Bangladesh, the Department of
Environment (DoE) is the main regulatory agency which monitors effluent discharges by
CHAPTER 11
the industries and verify their compliance with the standards stated under the
Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR), 1997. It has the authority to cancel permits or
issue fines to the industries if they find them under violation of the standards. Table 11.2 and
11.3 show the standards for industrial and domestic effluent discharge to water bodies as
stated in the ECR, 1997.

11.3 Water Quality Assessment Methods
Chemical assessment. Chemical assessment techniques are well known and involve
regular sampling of water in the natural system and/or at some point in the abstraction and
treatment processes and of most effluents before they are released back into the
environment. The assessment involves regular testing for the presence and concentration of
the major chemical parameters described in Tables11.2 and 11.3.Description of these tests
are available in Standard Methods (2012) and will not be discussed in this chapter.
Table 11.2 Bangladesh Standards for sewage discharge into

surface and inland water bodies.
Parameters Unit Values
BOD mg/l 40
Nitrate mg/l 250
Phosphate mg/l 35
Suspended Solids (SS) mg/l 100
o
Temperature C 30
Coliforms number/100ml 1000
Source:Schedule- 9, Rule-13, Environment Conservation Rules, 1997.
Table 11.3 Bangladesh Standards for industrial effluent

discharge.
Ammonia-nitrogen (as elementary N) mg/l 50
Ammonia (as free ammonia) mg/l 5
Arsenic (as As) mg/l 0.2
BOD5 at 20oC mg/l 50
Boron mg/l 2
Cadmium (as Cd) mg/l 0.05
Chloride mg/l 600
Chromium (as total Cr) mg/l 0.5
COD mg/l 200
Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) mg/l 0.1
Copper (as Cu) mg/l 0.5
Dissolved oxygen (DO) mg/l 4.5-8
Electro-conductivity (EC) µSiemens/cm 1200
Total dissolved solids mg/l 2100
CHAPTER 11
Fluoride (as F) mg/l 2

Sulfide (as S) mg/l 1
Iron (as Fe) mg/l 2
Total kjeldahl nitrogen (as N) mg/l 100
Lead (as Pb) mg/l 0.1
Manganese (as Mn) mg/l 5
Mercury (as Hg) mg/l 0.01

Nickel (as Ni) mg/l 1.0
Nitrate (as elementary N) mg/l 10.0
Oil and grease mg/l 10
Phenolic compounds (as C6H5OH) mg/l 1.0
Dissolved phosphorus (as P) mg/l 8
pH 6-9
Selenium (as Se) mg/l 0.05
Zinc (as Zn) mg/l 5
Total dissolved solids mg/l 2100
Temperature (thermal effluent) °C (summer) 40
°C (winter) 45
Suspended solids mg/l 150
Cyanide mg/l 0.1
Source: Schedule –10, Rule-13, Environment Conservation Rules, 1997
Biological assessment. Environmental stresses alter the physico-chemical environment of

the receiving water body which may disrupt the ecological balance of the system. Thus by
measuring the extent of the ecological upset, the severity of the impact can be assessed. The
sensitivity or tolerance to pollution may vary from species to species. For example, some
species are very sensitive to the dissolved oxygen present in water and will not be found if the
dissolved oxygen falls below a certain level. On the other hand, some species are more
tolerant in this respect. The overall effects of an altered physico-chemical environment are
changes in species composition, changes in dominant groups within species, changes in
behavior, high mortality of sensitive life stages (e.g. eggs) while changes in physiology,
metabolism and morphological deformities may occur. The water quality may be assessed
through field inspection by noting these changes in various species from different trophic
levels and comparing them with those expected in a clear, unpolluted water environment.
There are several methods of assessing water quality using biological indicators which are
described in several texts, e.g. Trivedi, 1981 and Spellerberg, 1991. The advantages and
disadvantages of biological assessment compared to chemical assessment is shown in Table
11.4.
11.4 Oxygen Demand of Wastes

Oxygen-demanding wastes have been a pervasive surface-water problem throughout the
world and its effect on water quality (typically dissolved oxygen) of lakes and streams has
been an issue of particular interest to researchers and engineers. To understand the fate of
oxygen-demanding wastes on rivers, we need to first understand the factors affecting oxygen
CHAPTER 11
consumption during a degradation process. This section describes the nature of different
oxygen demands exerted by organic matter and how we can estimate them.
Oxygen demand of organic matter. When biodegradable organic matter is released into a
body of water, microorganisms, especially bacteria, feed on the wastes, breaking it down into
simpler organic and inorganic substances using up oxygen in the process:

Table 11.4 Advantages and disadvantages of different water quality monitoring
techniques.
Realm Performance of Performance of

chemical monitoring biological monitoring
Precision (i.e. pollutant concentration Good Poor
assessment)
Discrimination (i.e. what kind of pollution) Good Poor
Reliability (how representative is a single or Poor Good
limited number of samples)
Measure of ecological effects No Yes
Cost Relatively high Relatively low
Source: From Akolkar et al. 2008
Box 11.5
Macroinvertebrates as Bioindicators of River Water Quality
Figure: Left: Macroinvertebrate sampling sites in several rivers in Bangladesh to

assess the biological environment. Right: Water quality map generated from the
categories of biological indicators for the rivers around Dhaka city. The different
stretches of the river are color-coded as water classes I to V, indicating good to
worse, according to their water quality assessed from the biological indicators.
CHAPTER 11
(Source: Bari et al. 2008).
The species most commonly used for the investigation of river water quality are the larger and more
easily visible invertebrate animals which colonize the substrate of all the rivers. Such animals are
collectively referred as macroinvertebrates, of which the main constituents are young aquatic stage of
certain insects. Within this bottom dwelling community, the sensitivity and tolerance to pollution varies
considerably from species to species. In 2006, a macroinvertebrate sampling programme was

undertaken in 34 sites in 25 rivers in the north-eastern region of Bangladesh in order to determine the
ecological health of the rivers. This study used Multi-Habitat Sampling (MHS), Rapid field
biomonitoring protocol and classified the rivers in Class I, II, III, IV and V based on ASSESS-HKHbios
score index. The water quality map prepared as shown in the figure above provides a good visual picture
of the pollution status of the river. The water quality map shows the state of the Buriganga river to be the
worst due to effluents discharged from Hazaribagh tannery and other industrial installations along the
bank of the river as wells as untreated sewage disposal from Dhaka city. On the eastern side, the Turag
river has been seen to be extremely polluted. On the northern side, the Tongi khaal has been found to be
extremely polluted mainly because of the wastewater discharged from Tongi industrial area. The upper
reach of Balu river is extremely polluted (Water Quality Class V) due to agricultural runoff. The
condition improves slightly (Water Quality Class III) further downstream before it gets worse again
near its junction with Tongi khaal (Water Quality Class IV) which contributes heavy pollution to the
river. Again in the downstream reach of Balu river, the pollution level increases and it becomes class V.
Before the confluence with Sitalakhya river, the water quality of Balu river improves slightly to class IV
and Sitalakhya river near Kanchpur, the water quality class is III. The Dhaleswari river has been found to
be of water quality class IIIas there is no direct discharge of sewage or effluents. The water quality classes
thus obtained through biomonitoring techniques fairly agree with the recorded physico-chemical
parameters of the respective rivers. (Source: Bari et al. 2008)
Microorganisms (Organic matter) + O2 → CO2 + H2O + New cells + Stable products

The actual BOD (see section 6.4) is less than the theoretical BOD, which is the oxygen
demand determined from the stoichiometric relationship between carbon in the organic
matter and oxygen, due to the incorporation of some of the carbon into new bacterial cells.
Theoretical BOD is of limited usefulness in practice since it considers a particular, single
pollutant with a known chemical formula.
The total amount of oxygen that will be required for biodegradation is an important measure
of the impact that a given waste stream will have on the receiving body of water. While we
could imagine a test in which the oxygen required to completely degrade a sample of waste
would be measured, such a test would require an extended period of time (several weeks),
making it impractical. As a result, it has become standard practice simply to measure and
report the oxygen demand over a shorter, restricted period of 5 days, realizing that the
ultimate demand is considerably higher. The 5-day BOD, or BOD5, is the total amount of
oxygen consumed by microorganisms during the first 5 days of biodegradation. BOD5 was
chosen as the standard value for most purposes because the test was devised by sanitary
engineers in England, where rivers have travel times to the sea of less than 5 days, so there was
no need to consider oxygen demand at longer times. Since there is no other time which is any
CHAPTER 11
more justifiable than 5 days, this value has become firmly entrenched.
Laboratory measurement of BOD5. In its simplest form, a BOD5 test would involve
putting a sample of waste into a stoppered bottle, measuring the concentration of dissolved
oxygen in the sample at the beginning of the test and again 5 days later. The difference in DO
would be the 5-day BOD. Light must be kept out of the bottle to keep algae from adding
oxygen by photosynthesis and the stopper is used to keep air from replenishing DO that has
been removed by biodegradation. To standardize the procedure, the test is run at a fixed

temperature of 20°C. Since the oxygen demand of typical waste is several hundred
milligrams per liter, and since the saturated value of DO for water at 20°C is only 9.1 mg/L, it
is usually necessary to dilute the sample to keep final DO above zero. If during the 5 days the
DO drops to zero, then the test is invalid, since more oxygen would have been removed had
more been available.
The 5-day BOD of a diluted sample is given by
11.1
where DOi = the initial dissolved oxygen of the diluted wastewater

DOf = the final DO of the diluted wastewater
P = the dilution fraction
= Volume of wastewater /(Volume of wastewater plus dilution water)
A standard BOD bottle holds 300 mL, so P is just the volume of wastewater divided by 300
mL.
In some cases it is necessary to seed the dilution water with microorganisms to assure that
there is an adequate bacterial population to carry out the biodegradation. In such cases, to
find the BOD of the waste itself, it is necessary to subtract the oxygen demand caused by the
seed from the demand in the mixed sample of waste and dilution water.
To be able to sort out the effect of seeded dilution water from the waste itself, two BOD
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.5 Bottles specifically designed for incubation of water samples for BOD
analysis. A flared mouth forms a water seal which prevents the drawing of air into the
bottle during incubation. The interior shape of the bottle is such that the entrained air is
sweeped out of the stopper opening. Glass stopper design uses a conical extension to
displace excess sample which further insures no air entrapment in the sample. (Krackeler
Scientific, Inc.).

bottles must be prepared, one containing just the seeded dilution water and the other
containing the mixture of both the wastewater and seeded dilution water. The change in DO
in the bottle containing just seeded dilution water (called the "blank"), as well as the change
in DO in the mixture are then noted. The oxygen demand of the waste itself (BODw) can then
be determined as follows:
11.2
where BODm = BOD of the mixture of wastewater and seeded dilution water
BODw = BOD of the wastewater alone
BODd = BOD of the seeded dilution water alone
Vw = the volume of wastewater in the mixture
Vd = the volume of dilution water in the mixture
Vm = the volume of the mixture = Vd + Vw
As before, let P equal the fraction of the mixture that is wastewater = Vw/Vm so that (1 – P) is
the fraction of the mixture which is seeded dilution water = Vd/ Vm. Rearranging Eq. (11.2)
gives
11.3
Substituting the definitions of P and (1-P) into Eq. (11.3) gives
11.4
Since BODm = DOi – DOf and BODd = Bi - Bf

Where, Bi = initial DO in the seeded dilution water (blank)
Bf = final DO in the seeded dilution water
The final expression for the BOD of the wastewater itself is
11.5
Example 11.1. Unseeded 5-Day BOD Test. A standard 5-day BOD test is run using a mix
consisting of 3 parts distilled water and 1 part wastewater. The initial DO of the mix is 9.0
mg/L and the DO after 5 days is determined to be 1.0 mg/L. What is the BOD5?
Solution.
The dilution fraction, P = 1/4 = 0.25. Using Eq. (11.1), the 5-day BOD,
CHAPTER 11
= (9.0 – 1.0)/0.25 = 32 mg/L
Example 11.2. A Seeded BOD Test. A mixture consisting of 30 mL of waste and 240 mL
of seeded dilution water has an initial DO of 8.55 mg/L; after 5 days, it has a final DO of 2.40
mg/L. another bottle containing just the seeded dilution water has an initial DO of 8.75
mg/L and a final DO of 8.53 mg/L. What would be the 5-day BOD of the waste?

Solution
The dilution factor P is
P = 30/(240 + 30) = 0.11
Using Eq. (11.5)
= 54 mg/L
Factors affecting BOD rate constant. As discussed in section 6.4, the BOD kinetics can be
described as a first-order reaction and the BOD reaction rate constant, k, is a factor that
indicates the rate of biodegradation of wastes in streams. As k increases, the rate at which DO
is consumed also increases. The magnitude of the reaction rate will depend on three factors:
(1) nature of the waste, (2) ability of organisms to utilize the waste and (3) temperature.
Not all naturally occurring organic compounds are degraded at equal rates. The complexity
of the hydrocarbon structure dictates the rate of degradation. Simple sugars and starches are
easily degraded and will, therefore, have a large BOD rate constant. On the other hand
cellulose degrades slowly and will have lower reaction rates. Table 11.5 shows a summary of
some typical BOD rate constants. The lower rate constants for treated sewage compared to
raw sewage result from the fact that easily degradable organics are more completely removed
than less readily degradable organics during wastewater treatment. Again, a particular group
of microorganism may be well suited to degrade certain kinds of organic matter. When such
organic matters are discharged in the receiving streams, this group of microorganism
generally thrives and dominates the microbial population. When BOD is determined in the
laboratory, it is important to have the microorganisms which have adapted to that particular
kind of waste so that rate constants become representative of actual conditions in the river.
Finally, temperature speeds up reaction rates like most biological processes. Ideally, BOD
rate constants should be experimentally determined for the temperature of the receiving
water. But the temperature can vary both temporally (with changing seasons) and spatially
(along different reaches of the river). Therefore, the standard practice is to determine BOD
at a certain temperature (which is 20°C) and adjust the rate constant for the temperature of
the receiving water using Eq. (6.17) (see section 6.4 for details).
Oxygen demand due to nitrification. Many organic compounds (e.g. proteins) contain
not only carbon but also nitrogen that can be oxidized by microorganisms resulting in the
consumption of molecular oxygen. The mechanisms and rate of this oxidation is different
from those of carbon oxidation. Therefore, to separate these processes, the oxygen demand
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.5 Typical values for the BOD rate constant.

sample k (20°C)(day-1)
Raw sewage 0.35-0.70
Well-treated sewage 0.10-0.25
Polluted river water 0.10-0.25
Source: Davis and Cornwell (1985)

resulting from the oxidation of carbon is usually termed as Carbonaceous BOD (CBOD)
and that resulting from the oxidation of nitrogen is termed as Nitrogenous BOD (NBOD).
When living things die or excrete waste products, nitrogen that was tied to the complex
organic molecules gets released as ammonia by bacteria and fungi. In aerobic environments
nitrite bacteria (Nitrosomonas) convert ammonia to nitrite (NO2- ), and nitrate bacteria
(Nitrobacter) convert nitrite to nitrate (NO3-) through nitrification process (see equations
7.2 and 7.3).
Nitrification is just one part of the biogeochemical cycle for nitrogen, which is shown in
Figure 11.6. As is suggested there, nitrogen exists in many forms as it moves through the
biosphere. In the atmosphere it is principally in the form of molecular nitrogen (N2) and
nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrogen is first transformed into either ammonia (NH3) or nitrate
(NO3) in the process called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation occurs during electrical
storms when N2 oxidizes, combines with water, and is rained out as HNO3. Certain bacteria
and blue-green algae are also capable of fixing nitrogen. Under anaerobic conditions, certain
denitrifying bacteria are capable of reducing NO3 back into NO2 and N2, completing the
nitrogen cycle.
Plants Animals
Fixation
Atmospheric
nitrogen Death,
N2 N2O excreta
Lightning
Denitrification
Nitrite Nitrite Ammonia Organic

NO3- NO2 NH3 N
Figure 11.6 Biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen.
However, the process through which organic nitrogen is converted into Ammonia and then
to nitrite and nitrate (nitrification) is the main concern in this section. It appears that this
conversion happens sequentially and it is a matter of days before the rate of oxidation of
ammonia is sufficient enough to create a significant oxygen demand (see Figure 11.7).
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.8 illustrates the two oxygen demands as they may be exerted in a BOD experiment.
In typical municipal wastes, NBOD does not exert itself for at least 5-8 days, so most 5-day
BOD tests are not affected by nitrification. This lag period is due to the fact that the bacterial
population takes some time to reach a sufficient population for the amount of NBOD
exertion to be significant. This is true for untreated sewage. However, if there is a sufficient
number of nitrifying bacteria present as in treated sewage, NBOD may begin to be exerted
from the very onset (Figure 11.8) and confound measurements of BOD if only CBOD is

Figure 11.7 Changes in nitrogen species in polluted water under aerobic conditions
(Adapted from Masters, 2001).
desired. Therefore, it is now an accepted practice to modify wastes in a way (using chemical
inhibitors) that will inhibit nitrification during that 5-day period. The rate constant for
nitrification is also affected by temperature and can be adjusted using Eq. (6.17).
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.8 Illustrating the carbonaceous and nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand.
Example 11.3. Quantifying Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand. Some domestic wastewater

has 40 mg/L of nitrogen either in the form of organic nitrogen or ammonia. Assuming that
very few new cells of bacteria are formed during the nitrification of the waste, find
a. The ultimate nitrogenous oxygen demand.
b. The ratio of the ultimate NBOD to the concentration of nitrogen in the waste.

Solution
a. The equation for the nitrification:
NH3 + 2O2 NO3- + H+ + H2O
The molecular weight of NH3 is 17 (14 + 3 × 1) and the molecular weight of O2 is 32 (2 × 16).
The above reaction indicates that one g-mole of NH3 (17 g) requires two g-moles of O2 (2 ×
32 = 64 g). Since 17 g of NH3 contains 14 g of N, and the concentration of N is 40 mg/L, the
final, or ultimate, NBOD:
NBOD = 40 mgN/L ×(17 g NH3/ 14 g N) ×(64g O2/17 g NH3) = 183 mg O2/L
b. The oxygen demand due to nitrification divided by the concentration of nitrogen in the
waste is
183 mg O2 / 40 mg N= 4.57 mg O2/mg N
The total concentration of organic and ammonia nitrogen in wastewater is known as the
total Kjeldahl nitrogen, or TKN. As was demonstrated in the above example, the
nitrogenous oxygen demand can be estimated by multiplying the TKN by 4.57.
Ultimate NBOD ≈ 4.6 × TKN 11.6
Alternate measures of oxygen demand. Some organic materials, such as cellulose,
phenols, benzene, and tannic acid, resist biodegradation. Others, such as pesticides and
various industrial chemicals, are nonbiodegradable because they are toxic to
microorganisms. The chemical oxygen demand, COD, is a measured quantity that does not
depend either on the ability of microorganisms to degrade the waste or on knowledge of the
particular substances in question (details in section 6.4). However, COD does not
distinguish between the oxygen demand of the organic matter due to biodegradation, and
the chemical oxidation of inert organic matter. Nor does it provide any information on the
rate at which actual biodegradation will take place. The measured value of COD is higher
than BOD, though for easily biodegradable matter the two will be quite similar. In fact, the
COD test is sometimes used as a way to estimate the ultimate BOD. In municipal
wastewaters, COD ≈ 1.6 BOD5.
Although the 5-day BOD is chosen as the standard metric to characterize most wastewater,
the ultimate BOD is actually a better indicator of the total waste strength. This is because
different type of wastewaters having the same BOD5 but different BOD reaction rates will
exhibit a difference in ultimate BOD. This is illustrated in Figure 11.9 for a municipal and an
industrial wastewater. Although both wastewaters have the same BOD5, the industrial
wastewater has a lower reaction rate and hence a higher ultimate BOD, and can be expected
to have a greater impact on the dissolved oxygen in a river.
CHAPTER 11
11.5 Fate of Oxygen Demanding Wastes in Rivers

The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is one of the most commonly used indicators of a
river's health. As DO drops below 4 or 5 mg/L, the forms of life that can survive begin to be
reduced. In nature, clean waters are saturated with oxygen or nearly so. When oxygen-
demanding wastes are discharged into a stream, they undergo aerobic decomposition,

Figure 11.9 Comparing the oxygen demand of industrial and municipal wastewater.
Box 11.6
Oxygen-demanding wastes in Sitalakhya River
Figure Spatial variation of Ammonia-Nitrogen, Nitrate-Nitrogen,BOD5 and DO

CHAPTER 11
along Sitalakhya River (Alam et al, 2011).

The water quality of Sitalakhya river is of particular importance not only for ecological and commercial
reasons but also for concerns regarding the supply of safe drinking water. The largest surface water
treatment plant in Bangladesh located at Saidabad draws water from it through the intake at Sarulia
about 400 m downstream of its confluence with BaluRiver to supply drinking water to the residents of
the nation’s capital. In recent years, the water quality of Sitalakhya has been widely studied particularly

because of the high intensity of industries along its reach. A study conducted during 2008-2009 assessed
the effect of industrial pollution on water quality of the Sitalakhya river. Figure shows the profile of some
significant water quality parameters along the entire reach of the Sitalakhya river during the dry season
when the water quality scenario is the most critical. These profiles indicate a deterioration of water
quality parameters (increased BOD5, NH3 and depleted Dissolved Oxygen) starting from around 30 km
downstream of Ghorashal Bridge. This is because there is a high density of industrial installations on
both sides of the river as well as connections to polluted drainage canals. It may be noted here that, the
increase in BOD5 starting from 30 km downstream of Ghorashal bridge coincides with the starting point
of the depletion of DO levels in the river (i.e. the DO sag curve, described later). The BOD5 levels
eventually come down further downstream near the confluence of Dhaleshwari river and consequently
the DO levels also tend to recover to some extent. Also, high ammonia concentration in the river
(highest near Sarulia, where it threatens the operation of the Saidabad water treatment plant) eventually
is decreased downstream mostly due to dilution. Some conversion from Ammonia to nitrate takes place
as there is an increasing trend in nitrate levels. Since Sitalakhya is not a long river, the residence time of
these pollutants in this river is unlikely to exceed the typical time required for NBOD to fully exert.
depleting the dissolved oxygen resources in the process. This process is called
deoxygenation. Streams and rivers can naturally assimilate biodegradable wastes to some
extent and thus recovering from the effect of pollution without significant or permanent
environmental damage. This capacity for self-purification depends on the strength and
volume of pollutants as wells as the discharge or flowrate of the rivers. It is commonly said
that "the solution to pollution is dilution”. The effects of dilution and the constant flushing
action of the flowing water are obvious factors involved in the waste assimilative capacity of a
stream. But not as obvious, but equally important, is the effect of oxygen transfer between the
air-water interface, a process termed as reaeration. Atmospheric oxygen is constantly being
dissolved through the air-water interface replenishing the DO in the water. Fast-flowing,
shallow, turbulent streams are reaerated more effectively than slow, deep, meandering
streams. This is because in turbulent, shallow streams, the water becomes well-mixed
throughout its depth and there is a constant renewal of air-water interface.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.10 The dissolved oxygen sag curve showing the effect of oxygen-demanding
wastes on the DO levels in a stream or river.

The rate of deoxygenation is proportional to the available BOD. Since the BOD immediately
after the discharge is the highest and decreases gradually over time, the slope of the
deoxygenation curve will be steep initially and will become gradually milder (see Figure
11.10). On the other hand, the rate of oxygen transfer from the air into the water depends on
the difference between the saturation DO and the actual DO of the water. The larger the
difference is, the faster will be the rate of reaeration. The slope of the reaeration curve
gradually increases as the deoxygenation curve falls (see Figure 11.10). At any given time, the
DO level in the stream is a combined effect of deoxygenation and reaeration. In other words,
the actual DO is equal to the sum of the DO on the deoxygenation curve and the DO on the
reaeration curve. The resultant DO curve will have a dip where the DO is minimum and is
also known as the DO sag curve. Since the product of velocity and time is distance, the
horizontal or x-axis in Figure 11.10 can also be labeled as distance for a given reach of the
stream and the DO curve is practically the profile view of the DO concentrations along the
length of the stream and also called the dissolved oxygen profile.
The purpose of this section is to develop a simplified mathematical tool to predict the spatial
DO concentration in a river system. This is accomplished by performing simple analytical
treatment to the equations describing deoxygenation and reaeration, the two key processes
governing the DO balance in a river. For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that there is a
continuous discharge of waste at a given location on the river, the waste is uniformly mixed at
any given cross section of river, and also there is no dispersion of wastes in the direction of
flow.
Mixing and dilution. When a point discharge of wastewater enters a flowing stream, the
physical process of mixing and dilution begins immediately. But with the exception of small
turbulent streams, it is unlikely that the pollutants will be thoroughly mixed in the stream
flow at or near the point of discharge. Instead, a waste plume forms, as illustrated in Figure
11.11. The length of this gradually widening mixing zone depends on the channel geometry,
the flow velocity, and the design of the discharge pipe.
In water pollution control, it is often necessary to predict the BOD concentrations and DO
levels downstream from a sewage discharge point. One of the first computations needed for
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.11 Dilution of pollutants from a point source, such as a sewage treatment
plant, occurs within the mixing zone of the stream.

this involves the effect of dilution. Assuming that the pollutant is completely mixed in the
streamflow (at a point just below the end of the mixing zone), the diluted concentration of
any water quality parameter can be calculated using the following mass balance equation:
11.7
Where, Cd = diluted concentration

Cs = original concentration
Cw = concentration in the wastewater
Qs = stream discharge
Qw = waste discharge
Deoxygenation. As mentioned earlier, the rate of deoxygenation at any point in the river is
assumed to be proportional to the BOD remaining at that point. That is,
Rate of deoxygenation = kdLt 11.8
-1
where kd = the deoxygenation rate constant (day )
Lt = the BOD remaining t (days) after the wastes enter the river (mg/L)
Substituting Eq. (6.14), which gives BOD remaining at any time t, into Eq. (11.8) gives
Rate of deoxygenation = 11.9
where L0 is the BOD of the mixture of streamwater and wastewater at the point of discharge
estimated using Eq.(11.7)
The deoxygenation rate constant kd is often assumed to be the same as the (temperature
adjusted) BOD rate constant k obtained in a standard, laboratory BOD test. For deep, slowly
moving rivers, this seems to be a reasonable approximation, but for turbulent, shallow,
rapidly moving streams, the approximation is less valid. Such streams have deoxygenation
constants that can be significantly higher than the values determined in the laboratory.
In general, BOD is exerted more rapidly in a river because of turbulent mixing, larger number
of “seed” organisms, and BOD removal by organisms in the stream bed as well as by those
suspended in the water. A method has been developed to estimate kd from k using the
characteristics of the stream (Bosko, 1966):
11.10
-1
where kd = deoxygenation coefficient at 20 °C (day )
k = BOD rate constant at 20 °C (day-1)
CHAPTER 11
u = average stream velocity (m/s)

H = average stream depth (m)
η = bed activity coefficient
The bed activity coefficient may vary from 0.1 for stagnant or deep water to 0.6 or more for
rapidly flowing streams. Adjustments to the deoxygenation rate constant for temperatures
other than 20°C can be made using Eq. (6.17).

Example 11.4 Downstream BOD. A municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges
1.2 m3/s of treated effluent having an ultimate BOD of 60.0 mg/L into a stream that has a
flow of 9.3 m3/s and a BOD of its own equal to 6.0 mg/L. The deoxygenation constant kd is
0.20/day.
a. Assuming complete and instantaneous mixing, estimate the ultimate BOD of the
river just downstream from the outfall.
b. If the stream has constant cross section so that it flows at a fixed speed equal to 0.30
m/s, estimate the BOD of the stream at a distance 40,000 m downstream.
Solution
a. The BOD of the mixture of effluent and stream water can be found using Eq. (11.7):
mg/L
b. At a speed of 0.30 m/s, the time required for the waste to reach a distance 30,000 m
downstream would be
s = 1.54 days
So, the BOD remaining at that point, 40 km downstream, would be

= 8.96 mg/L
Reaeration. The rate at which oxygen is replenished is proportional to the difference

between the actual DO in the river at any given location, and the saturated value of dissolved
oxygen:
Rate of reaeration = 11.11
-1
where kr = reaeration constant (time )
DOs = saturated value of dissolved oxygen
DO = actual dissolved oxygen at a given location in the river
The reaeration constant kr is very much dependent on the particular conditions in the river. A
fast moving, shallow stream will have a much higher reaeration constant than a sluggish
stream or a pond. Many attempts have been made to empirically relate key stream
parameters to the reaeration constant, with the most commonly used formulation being the
following (O'Connor and Dobbins, 1958):
11.12
CHAPTER 11
where kr = reaeration coefficient at 20 °C (day-1)

u = average stream velocity (m/s)
H = average stream depth (m)
Typical values of the reaeration constant kr for various bodies of water are given in Table
11.6. Adjustments to the reaeration rate constant for temperatures other than 20°C can be
made using Eq. (6.17) but with a temperature coefficient θ equal to 1.024

The solubility of oxygen in water (DOs) varies with temperature, barometric pressure and
salinity. Table 11.7 gives representative values of the solubility of oxygen in water at various
temperatures and chloride concentrations.
Table 11.6 Typical reaeration constants for various water bodies.
Water body Range of kr at 20°C (base e)

(day-1)
Small ponds and backwaters 0.10-0.23
sluggish streams and large lakes 0.23-0.35
Large streams of low velocity 0.35-0.46
Large streams of normal velocity 0.46-0.69
Swift streams 0.69-1.15
Rapids and waterfalls >1.15
Source : Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1985)
DO sag curve. As illustrated in Figure 11.10, the DO sag curve represents the resultant effect
of deoxygenation and reaeration. Therefore the equation describing the DO sag curve (or
the DO sag equation) is derived from the superposition of the equations describing
deoxygenation and reaeration. In practice, the DO sag equation is described using oxygen
deficit rather than dissolved oxygen concentration to make it easier to solve the integral that
results from the mass balance. The oxygen deficit (D) is defined by the amount by which the
actual dissolved oxygen concentration is less than the saturation value:
11.13
The saturation value of oxygen for a particular temperature and salinity is derived from Table
11.7. The term initial DO deficit is used to define the DO at the beginning of the sag curve
where the waste discharge mixes with the river. The initial deficit is calculated as the
difference between the saturated DO and the concentration of DO after mixing (Equation
11.7)
Table 11.7 Solubility of oxygen in water (mg/L) at 1 atm pressure.
Chloride concentration in water (mg/L)
Temperture(°C) 0 5000 10000 15000
0 14.62 13.73 12.89 12.10
5 12.77 12.02 11.32 10.66
10 11.29 10.66 10.06 9.49
15 10.08 9.54 9.03 8.54
20 9.09 8.62 8.17 7.75
CHAPTER 11
25 8.26 7.85 7.46 7.08

30 7.56 7.19 6.85 6.51
Source: Thomann and Mueller (1987)
Therefore, combining the two equations (11.9) and (11.11) yields the following mass
balance equation which describes the rate of increase of the oxygen deficit:
Rate of increase of the deficit = Rate of deoxygenation - Rate of oxygenation (reaeration)

11.14
Integrating Eq. (11.14), the equation for the DO sag curve can be obtained (graphically
shown in Figure 11.12)
11.15
Eq. (11.15) is the classic Streeter-Phelps oxygen-sag equation first described in 1925. In this
equation, D0 is the initial DO deficit and t represents the time of travel in the stream from the
point of discharge to the point in question downstream.
If the stream has constant cross-sectional area, and it is traveling at a speed u, then time and
distance downstream are related by
x = ut 11.16
where x = distance downstream
u = stream velocity
t = elapsed time between discharge point and distance x downstream
And Eq. (11.15) can be rewritten as:
11.17
Subtracting the oxygen deficit, given by (11.15) or (11.17), from the saturation value DO,
gives DO as a function of time or distance downstream. A plot of this DO is given in Figure
11.12. As can be seen in the figure, the stretch of the river immediately downstream of the
discharge point (x = 0 or t = 0) oxygen is depleted at a faster rate than aeration can replace
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.12 The Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag curve.

causing a dip in the DO curve. After a certain point in time or distance, the DO reaches a
minimum. At this point, which is called the critical point, the rate of deoxygenation equals
the rate of reaeration. Beyond the critical point, reaeration exceeds deoxygenation and the
stream naturally recovers.
Zones of pollution. The DO sag curve resulting from a point source of pollution divides the
stream into four relatively distinct zones which are illustrated in Figure 11.13. The first is the
zone of degradation which occurs just below the location where the outfall sewer meets the
river. In this zone fish population shows an increasing trend with the increase in the number
of protozoa which feed on bacteria but gradually declines as the dissolved oxygen decreases.
The river becomes turbid and dark in color with floating solids and other visual evidences of
pollution. Dissolved oxygen drops rapidly and anaerobic decomposition starts at the bottom
deposits of settable organics. In the bottom, sludge forms, which will contain redish worms
and earth worms etc. In the case of extreme pollution, the zone may become devoid of
oxygen and anaerobic decomposition starts. This is called the zone of active decomposition or
septic zone. Sludge decomposition starts forming scum at the surface, objectionable odor by
hydrogen sulphide becomes prominent and color of water becomes darkish. Fungi will
disappear giving way to anaerobic bacteria. Higher forms of life is confined to sludge worms,
rat tailed maggots, psychoda etc. Other higher forms of aquatic lives or desirable species
either die or migrate out of the area. After most of the organics have been decomposed by the
microbes in the water, the rate of reaeration will exceed the rate of deoxygenation, the
dissolved oxygen increases towards its saturation value and the zone of recovery begins. This
zone is characterized by gradually clearing water with no offensive odors with desirable
aquatic species reappearing. The number of bacteria is diminished while protozoa, rotifer
and crustacea populations are increased. When the organic loading is low or there is enough
dilution, the zone of recovery may progress immediately after the zone of degradation
without a zone of active decomposition. Following the zone of recovery is the zone of clear
water. In this zone the natural aquatic ecosystem of the stream is restored. Dissolved oxygen
content will be approaching closer to the saturation values, diverse species of aquatic
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Figure 11.13 Pollution and self-purification of stream and changes in the aquatic
ecology by the disposal of sewage/industrial wastewater.

organisms such as clear water algae will thrive which will use the stable inorganic nutrients
remaining in the water. Higher form of aquatic lives will also be present. In other words, the
stream has recovered its original quality through the process of self-purification. Additional
point discharges along the reach will alter this model of pollution zones but nevertheless, this
pollution model remains invaluable in understanding stream pollution and proposing
technical solutions to the problem.
Computation of minimum DO. It is important to be able to predict the minimum
dissolved oxygen level in a polluted stream or river and where it occurs. For example, if a new
sewage treatment plant is to discharge its effluent into a stream, it is possible that
conventional (secondary) treatment levels will not remove enough BOD to prevent
excessively low DO downstream. To determine if some form of advanced treatment is
required to preserve the water quality of the river, it is necessary to compute the minimum
DO caused by the sewage effluent and to compare it to the allowable limits for a particular
beneficial use.
The time to critical point (tc)can be found by differentiating Eq. (11.7), setting it equal to
zero and solving it for t:
11.18
The maximum deficit can then be found by substituting the value obtained for the critical
time in Eq. (11.15).
Example 11.5 Oxygen Sag Curve. A municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges 0.2
m3/s of treated effluent having BOD5 of 50.0 mg/L and DO of 2 mg/L into a stream that has a
flow of 0.45 m3/s and a BOD5 of 2 mg/L and DO of 8 mg/L. The temperature of the river is
25°C. The deoxygenation constant kd is 0.23/day at 20°C. The stream has a depth of 2.6 m
and the average stream velocity is 0.2 m/s.
a. Find the critical distance downstream at which DO is a minimum.
b. Find the minimum DO.
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Solution:
The BOD and DO of effluent and stream can be found using Eq. (11.7)
mg/L

= mg/L
Ultimate BOD of the stream, = 24.6 mg/L
The saturation value of DO at 25°C is given as 8.26 mg/L (from Table 11.6), so the initial
deficit would be
= 2.06 mg/L
To estimate the reaeration constant we can use the O’Connor and Dobbin’s relationship
given in Eq. (11.12)
= 0.4 day-1
Adjusting the reaeration and deoxygenation constants for stream temperature (using Eq
6.17):
= 0.45 day-1
= 0.29 day-1
a. Using Eq. (11.18) we can find the time at which the deficit is maximum
= 2.45 days
The critical distance downstream would be

x = utc= 0.2 m/s × 3600 s/hr × 24 hr/day × 2.45 days = 42,336 m
b. The maximum deficit can be found from Eq. (11.15)
= 7.78 mg/L
So the minimum value of DO will be the saturation value minus this maximum deficit:
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DOmin = 8.26 – 7.78 = 0.48 mg/L

Effect of temperature on DO sag curve.The effect of temperature on DO sag curve is
important particularly in cases where thermal effluents are involved. The rate of
deoxygenation increases while the solubility of oxygen decreases with increase in
temperature. The combined effects of these are two folds: (1) the critical DO reduces and
(2) the critical DO is reached at an earlier time (or distance). Thus a stream that may have

sufficient DO in a colder period may have unacceptably low DO in a warmer season. Figure
11.14 shows this potential adverse impact associated with a change in seasonal temperature.
Effect of NBOD. So far the effect of carbonaceous BOD has been considered in the DO sag
Figure 11.14 At higher temperature the minimum DO is lowered and occurs at a location
closer to the discharge source.
curve. However in some cases the nitrogenous BOD may have similar impact on DO levels.
Nitrogenous BOD can be incorporated into the DO sag curve by adding an additional term
to Eq. (11.15):
11.19
where kn = the nitrogenous deoxygenation rate constant (day-1)

Ln = ultimate NBOD after waste and river have mixed (mg/L)
With the additional term for NBOD, it is not possible to find the critical point analytically as
in Eq. (11.18). It must be found by trial and error solution of Eq. (11.19).
Multiple point sources.The classical DO sag curve assumes that there is only one point
source discharge of waste into the river. In reality, there may be multiple point sources.
Multiple point sources can be handled by dividing the river into multiple reaches, with each
of the point sources located at the beginning of each reach. The oxygen level and residual
BOD can be calculated at the end of each reach which will be subsequently used to determine
the initial conditions (parameters D0 and L0 of Eq. (11.15)) of the following reach. Dividing
the river into reaches is also necessary if there are changes in flow regime (e.g. changes in
aeration due to depth changes due to dredging, installation of dams etc.). Figure 11.15 shows
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an application of the DO sag equation for Buriganga river for multiple point sources.
Other factors affecting DO levels. The oxygen-sag curve is affected by a number of other
factors besides those already discussed. If there are large deposits of organic matter in river
sediments, they shall exert their own oxygen demand. These organic matters can be natural
deposits of leaves, dead aquatic plants or can be sludge deposits from wastewaters receiving
little or no treatment. Decomposition of these organic matters will utilize the oxygen
resources in the overlying water column and if their oxygen demand becomes significant,

Figure 11.15 Application of the Streeter-Phelps DO sag equation in computing the DO of
Buriganga river for multiple point sources. Curve A is the present predicted dry flow
profile with observed river sampling results. Curve B is the expected dry flow DO profile
after implementation of pollution control measures (Ahmed and Mohammed, 1988).
they must be included in the water quality model. Algae and aquatic plants can add DO
during the daytime hours while photosynthesis is occurring, but deplete the DO at night for
respiration. The net effect is a diurnal variation in DO that can lead to elevated levels of DO
in the late afternoon and lower levels at night. Plant growth is usually highest in the summer
when flows are low and temperatures are high, so that large nighttime respiration
requirements can coincide with the worst cases of oxygen depletion from BOD exertion. To
properly model all of these effects and their interactions is an exceedingly difficult task.
Sophisticated water quality models, available commercially as software packages, rely on
computers to simulate all these interactions and can predict water quality parameters
relatively accurately. However, the simplified model presented above can serve as a first
approximation to reality.
Application of the DO curve in water quality management. The DO sag curve can be
used to assess the adequacy of water treatment facilities or to determine the location of an
effluent discharge outfall. DO standards are generally set to protect the aquatic species in a
river or to make the river useful for a particular purpose. For a known waste discharge and a
known set of river hydromorphological characteristics, the DO sag equation can be applied
to find the DO at the critical point. If this value is higher than the standard, then the river has
sufficient assimilation capacity. If this value goes below the standard then additional
management measures are required. Usually the environmental engineer operating the
treatment plant has control over two parameters, L0 and D0. By increasing the efficiency of
CHAPTER 11CHAPTER 11
the treatment process or by adding additional treatment steps, the BOD of the wastewater
can be reduced and thereby reducing L0. Often, the stream quality can be improved by
aerating the wastewater and bringing it close to saturation prior to discharge and thereby
reducing the initial DO deficit of the mixed stream (D0). If none of these work to meet the
standards, alternate options are to be sought and these include building structures across
rivers to promote aeration, looking for alternate outfall locations where dissolved oxygen
levels are higher etc.

When using the DO sag equation, it is important to determine the adequacy of management
strategies under the worst case scenario (using the conditions that will cause the lowest DO
concentration). Usually these conditions occur when the flow of the river is low and
temperatures are high. A frequently used criterion is the “10-year, 7-day low flow,” which is
the recurrence interval of the average low flow for a 7-day period estimated using the partial
duration series technique. Low river flows reduce dilution of wastewater, thereby increasing
L0 and D0. The value of kr is usually reduced by low flow because of smaller flow velocities.
Also in higher temperatures, kd is increased and DO saturation is decreased. The simulation
of DO under these circumstances will be the worst possible condition of the stream.
11.6 Water Quality in Lakes and Reservoirs

The pollution of natural lakes or conservation reservoirs poses problems that are somewhat
different from the problems caused by pollution of streams or rivers. This is primarily
because of the difference in physical characteristics between lakes and streams. Water in a
stream is constantly in motion and providing a flushing action for incoming pollutants. But
in lakes, apart from its internal circulations, water is relatively still and retained for longer
periods of time. In some cases, pollutants discharged into a lake can remain there for many
years. Seasonal temperature changes also affect the water quality in lakes and reservoirs.
In streams, organic pollutants affect the oxygen profile. In lakes, water quality may be more
dependent on plant nutrients than on organics from sewage. Phosphorus and nitrogen are
the most critical plant nutrients. When pollutants containing phosphorus and nitrogen
compounds accumulate in a lake, rooted aquatic plants and free-floating algae may grow
profusely. This excessive growth, known as algal blooms, forms slimy mats that float on the
lake surface(Figure 11.16 (a)). They are unsightly and, along with the thick growths of
weeds that develop along the shore, they interfere with boating, swimming, and fishing and
diminish the quality of the lake for recreational purpose. Although algae tend to grow very
quickly under high nutrient availability, they are short-lived and their death results in high
concentration of organic matter which starts to decay. The decay process consumes
dissolved oxygen in the water. Without sufficient dissolved oxygen in the water, aquatic lives
may die off in large numbers. Some algae can release toxins which can also kill fish in massive
numbers (Figure 11.16 (b)). If the lake water is used for water supply, the algae may clog the
filters in the treatment facility and require additional measures for cleaning. This may
increase the cost of treatment. Furthermore, algae impart undesirable taste and odor to the
water and additional chemicals may be required to make the water more palatable.
The algae and aquatic weeds eventually die and settle to the bottom of the lake, where they
are decomposed by bacteria and protozoa. This exerts an oxygen demand on the water
column and may deplete the DO in parts of the lake. Decaying plants, along with silt carried
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into the lake by overland runoff and feeder streams, gradually accumulate in significant
amounts as sediment at the lake bottom. This makes the lake shallower and can alter the
ecological environment of the lake including a shift in aquatic species.
A knowledge of the lake systems is essential to understand the role of nutrients in
determining the lake water quality. This section describes the natural life-cycle of a lake and
the characteristics of a typical lake environment and how seasonal variations and nutrient

Figure 11.16 (a) A spectacular “red tide” bloom (non-toxic) of Noctilucascintillans in New
Zealand. (Photo by M. Godfrey) (b) Dead fish from a Kareniabrevis bloom in Texas. At
high concentrations, toxins produced by this organism can cause massive fish kills.
(Photo by Brazosports) (Image source: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute).
Box 11.7
Algal bloom in the Bay of Bengal and its human health implications
Using satellite measurements, such as the
Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS),
researchers can identify algal blooms in the
ocean all over the world and quantify algal
biomass from the color intensity. The figure
shows a CZCS image for the Bay of Bengal
taken in October, 1982 showing algal blooms
along the coast triggered by the nutrient
loading brought to the bay by the major rivers
and their tributaries. These annual algal
blooms are characteristic of coastal areas near
densely populated cities. Recent
investigations revealed that the emergence of
CHAPTER 11
phytoplankton in the Bay of Bengal is

correlated with the occurrence of cholera
outbreaks in coastal regions and other cities in
Figure: A CZCS image showing the ocean color Bangladesh. Vibrio cholerae, the bacteria
of Bay of Bengal responsible for cholera disease has been
known to associate with phytoplankton and it is likely that the bacterial populations in inland and coastal
waters also thrive during the time of algal blooms. The cholera outbreaks in this region might also include

other factors which are complex and difficult to quantify. Therefore, although the relationship of several
climatic factors as well as algal blooms and cholera have been found to be significant, developing the
most precise predictive model for cholera outbreak in this region is still a challenge and is a field of active
research. (Source: www.nasa.gov)
loading can affect these characteristics. Emphasis will be given on the effect of phosphorus in
lakes and phosphorus loading management strategies because phosphorus is usually the
limiting nutrient in such environments.
Eutrophication and lake productivity. Eutrophication is a natural process in which lakes
gradually become shallower and more productive through the introduction and cycling of
nutrients. A lake's productivity may be determined by measuring the amount of algal growth
that can be sustained by the available nutrients. Most lakes start out geologically as deep,
cold, clear bodies of water. At this stage, they are called oligotrophic lakes. They usually have a
sand or rock bottom, very few nutrients, a very low level of productivity due to the scarcity of
nutrients and high levels of oxygen. Over the years, nutrients slowly accumulate and various
forms of aquatic lives appear. Silty sediments begin to form at the bottom as the lake passes
through a mesotrophic stage of existence. The eutrophic stage of a lake's life cycle is
characterized by a relatively shallow and warmer body of water, with enough nutrients to
support large populations of plants and diverse aquatic lives and relatively low levels of
oxygen. In a eutrophic lake, there are frequent algal blooms, as previously described, and at
certain times of the year the water at the bottom may be devoid of dissolved oxygen.
Although a more productive lake usually will have a higher fish population, the number of the
most desirable fish may decline. Table 11.8 summarizes the differences between
oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes. Further aging or eutrophication leads to what is called a
senescent lake, characterized by thick deposits of organic silts and very high nutrient levels.
Senescent lakes are very shallow, with much rooted emergent vegetation growing
Table 11.8 General characteristics of eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes.
Character Eutrophic Oligotrophic

Basin shape Broad and shallow Narrow and deep
Lake substrate Fine organic salt Stones and inorganic silt
Lake shoreline Weedy Stony
Light penetration low high
Water color Yellow or green Green or blue
Chlorophyll-a concentration (µg/L) >15 0.3 – 2.5
Total P (ppb) 10 - 30 <1 – 5
Total N (ppb) 300 - 650 <1 – 200
CHAPTER 11
Oxygen High at the surface, low under High

the thermocline
Phytoplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Zooplankton Few species, high numbers Many species, low numbers
Macroinvertebrates Many species, high numbers Moderate species, low numbers
Fish Many species Few species
Source: Adapted from Kiely, 1998

throughout the lake. Eventually, what was once a lake will become a marsh as natural
geological and ecological processes continue. The aging of a lake is illustrated in Figure
11.17.
Figure 11.17 The different stages of the life cycle of a lake.
The aging process of the lake is natural and inevitable and lake eutrophication, from the
oligotrophic through the senescent stages, takes many thousands of years. It is an
exceedingly slow process. But many people use the term eutrophication synonymously with
pollution in reference to lakes. To eliminate the ambiguity, the term cultural eutrophication
is often used in this regard. Cultural eutrophication is caused when human activity accelerates
these naturally occurring processes where excess nutrients are added from fertilizers or
sewage input leads to pollution. Similarly, damming a river leads to concentration of organic
matter upstream of the dam and can lead to enriched, lake-like conditions with increased
primary production. The Kaptai Lake located upstream of the Karnaphuli river in
Bangladesh is such a manmade lake.
Eutrophic lakes are necessarily polluted, but pollution contributes to eutrophication. Water
quality management in lakes is primarily concerned with slowing eutrophication to at least
the natural rate. This is generally accomplished by controlling phosphorus. To understand
why this is so, it is necessary to understand the factors contributing to algal growth and why
phosphorus is the limiting nutrient.
The role of phosphorus in eutrophication.There are many factors that control the rate of
primary production in a lake, including the availability of sunlight to power the
photosynthetic reactions and the concentration of nutrients required for growth.The
amount of light that can penetrate through the water to aid the photosynthesis reactions is
CHAPTER 11
related to the transparency of the water, which is in turn a function of the level of
eutrophication. An oligotrophic lake may allow sunlight to penetrate to considerable depths
(~ 100 m or more), while eutrophic lakes may be so murky that photosynthesis is limited to a
thin layer of water very near the surface. While the amount of sunlight available can be a
limiting factor in algal growth, it is not something that one would imagine controlling as a
way to slow eutrophication. Since nutrient stimulation by human activity is the prime cause
of cultural eutrophication, restricting the available nutrients to control cultural

eutrophication is a more feasible option. All algae require macronutrients such as carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus, and micronutrients such as trace elements and the lack of any one
nutrient will essentially limit the total algal population.
Among the nutrients required for algal growth, nitrogen and carbon can be derived mostly
from natural sources. For example, carbon is derived from carbon dioxide dissolved in water
which is pretty much always available and since the atmosphere is virtually an inexhaustible
source of this gas. Although nitrogen in lakes is usually in the form of nitrate (NO3-) which
comes from external sources by way of inflowing streams or groundwater as a result of
human activities, the atmosphere itself is an unending repository of nitrogen gas. Some
photosynthetic microorganisms can also fix nitrogen gas from the atmosphere directly by
converting it to organic nitrogen. In lakes the most important nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms are photosynthetic bacteria called cyanobacteria, formerly known as blue-
green algae because of the pigments they contain. Because of their nitrogen-fixing ability,
cyanobacteria have a competitive advantage over green algae when nitrate and ammonium
concentrations are low but other nutrients are sufficiently abundant. Therefore, controlling
the Carbon and Nitrogen inputs is practically not feasible since algae can find a way to
proliferate even without the inputs generated from human activities. On the other hand,
Phosphorus in lakes originates from external sources only and is taken up by algae in the
inorganic form (PO43-) and incorporated into organic compounds. The relative amounts of
nitrogen and phosphorus that are required for algal growth can be estimated from
stoichiometric considerations using the general algal photosynthesis equation:
106 CO2 + 16 NO3- + HPO42- + 122 H2O + 18 H+ → C106 H263O110 N16 P + 138 O2
The ratio of the weights of nitrogen to phosphorus in this algae would be
For a first approximation, it takes about 7 times more nitrogen than phosphorus to produce a
given amount of algae. Accounting for variations in plant stoichiometry, however, N/P
ratios in a body of water over 20 generally indicate that phosphorus is the limiting nutrient,
whereas N/P ratios of 5 or less reflect nitrogen limited systems.
Of all the nutrients, only phosphorus is not readily available from the atmosphere or the
natural water supply. For this reason, phosphorus is deemed the limiting nutrient in lakes.
The amount of phosphorus controls the quantity of algal growth and therefore the
productivity of lakes. It typically takes only a concentration of about 0.02 mg/L of inorganic
phosphorus to cause algal blooms in a lake; the inorganic nitrogen concentration can be
more than 10 times that level. On the other hand, even with very high nitrogen levels, if
phosphorus concentrations are kept below 0.02 mg/L, excessive growths of algae usually do
CHAPTER 11
not occur.
There is a direct correlation between the phosphorus concentration and chlorophyll a, one
of the green pigments involved in photosynthesis and generally used as a proxy to algal
concentration in the water body. The empirical relationship is given by:
log (Chlorophyll a) = -1.09+1.46 log PT 11.20

where, Chlorophyll a = concentration of chlorophyll a, mg/m3
PT = total phosphorus concentration, mg/m3
A simple phosphorus balance in a lake. Since phosphorus is the most common limiting
nutrients for lake eutrophication, research in the past few decades mostly centred around its
availability and significance in the lake environment. An idealized lake model is shown in
Figure 11.18. Phosphorus can enter the lake from a variety of sources, including the
incoming stream flow, runoff from adjacent lands, and industrial or municipal point sources.
It is removed by both settling into sediments and by flowing out with the stream flow leaving
the lake.
Figure 11.18 A simplified phosphorus model for a lake.

If we assume that the lake is well mixed, and that steady-state conditions prevail, we can write
the following mass balance equation for phosphorus incorporating the above mentioned
two competing processes:
Rate of addition of P = Rate of removal of P
S = QP + VsAP 11.21
where S = the rate of addition of phosphorus from all sources (g/s)
P = the concentration of phosphorus (g/m3)
Q = the stream outflow rate (m3/s)
vs = the phosphorus settling rate (m/s)
A = the surface area of the lake (m2)
The steady-state concentration of Phosphorus is therefore,
11.22
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The settling rate vs is an empirically determined quantity that is difficult to predict with any
confidence. Thomann and Mueller (1987) suggest that lakes have a settling rate of
approximately 3-30 m/year.
Example 11.6. Phosphorus loading in a lake. Consider a lake with 200 × 106 m2 of surface
area for which the only source of phosphorus is the effluent from a wastewater treatment
plant. The effluent flow rate is 0.45 m3/s and its phosphorus concentration is 10.0 mg/L (=

10.0 g/m3). The lake is also fed by a stream having 30 m3/s of flow with no phosphorus. If the
phosphorus settling rate is estimated to be 10 m/year.
(a) Estimate the average phosphorus concentration in the lake.
(b)What level of phosphorus removal at the treatment plant would be required to keep
the average lake concentration below 0.010 mg/L?
Solution
(a) The phosphorus loading from the wastewater treatment plant
S = (10 × 0.5) = 5 g/s
This is the total phosphorus loading in the lake.
The flow rate out of the lake would be the sum of the inlet stream flow and the effluent flow.
Q = (30 + 0.5) = 30.5 m3/s
The estimated settling rate is: vs = = 3.17×10-7 m/s
Using Eq. (11.22), the steady-state phosphorus concentration would be
= = 0.053 mg/L
This is above the 0.01 mg/L limit which is suggested as an acceptable concentration.
(b) To reach 0.01 mg/L, the total phosphorus loading must be
= = 0.94 g/s
The wastewater is currently contributing 5 g/s of phosphorus. There is need for 81 per cent
phosphorus removal.
Thermal stratification in lakes. Nutrients stimulate algal growth, and the subsequent
death and decay of that algae can lead to oxygen depletion. This oxygen depletion problem
can be exacerbated by certain physical characteristics of the lake such as thermal
stratification.
An important property of water is that density is greatest at approximately 4°C – water above
or below this temperature floats on water at 4°C. Also, warmer water floats on cooler water.
A lake warmed by the sun during the summer will tend to have a layer of warm water floating
on top of the denser, colder water below. Conversely, in the winter, if the lake's surface drops
below 4°C, it will create a layer of cold water that floats on top of the more dense, 4°C water
below. During the year, as the water body warms and cools seasonally, a changing
CHAPTER 11
temperature profile along the depth emerges. In winter, temperatures are relatively uniform
throughout the lake and any wind action can practically mix the lake water from top to
bottom. Progressing through Spring and Summer, the surface of the water starts to get
heated up and the density differences between surface water and the water nearer to the
bottom inhibit vertical mixing in the lake. As temperature increases, discontinuity becomes
more pronounced until the water body is fully stratified into three parts: a warm epilimnion

on top, a cold hypolimnion at the bottom and a narrow region in between, called the
thermocline, where the temperature changes rather sharply with depth. Figure 11.19 shows
the stratification that typically occurs in a deep lake, in the temperate zone, during the
summer. Thermocline creates a barrier preventing the two water layers above and below
from being mixed up by the surface wind action.
Figure 11.19 Thermal stratification of a lake showing winter and summer stratification
temperature profiles.
The extent of stratification in lakes can be quantified by their densiometric Froude number
(F):
11.23
Where, ρ0 = reference density

∆ρ = density change over depth D
If FD> 0.32 → no stratification
0.01 <FD< 0.32 → moderately stratified
FD< 0.01 → strongly stratified
Example 11.7. Stratification of a lake. Determine the stratification category for a lake if
its length by width by depth is 10 km × 2 km × 25 m. The summer discharge is 10 m3/s. The
surface temperature in the summer is 25°C.
Solution
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ρsurface = 997 kg/m3

ρ0 = 1000 kg/m3
= = 2.3´ 10-4<< 0.01
Therefore, the lake is strongly stratified.

Thermal stratification and lake water quality. Thermal stratification in lakes has major
effects on both oxygen concentration and nutrient availability. Because of good mixing
(reaeration) and photosynthesis the epilimnion will be rich in DO. But the hypolimnion,
which is practically cut off from the overlying DO-rich waters, will have a lower DO and may
become anaerobic (devoid of oxygen). The only source of oxygen in the hypolimnion will be
the result of photosynthesis that will occur only if the water is clear enough to allow the
euphotic zone (the upper layer of water through which sunlight can penetrate) to extend
below the thermocline. That is, the hypolimnion of the clear, oligotrophic lake at least has the
possibility of having a source of oxygen, while that of the eutrophic lake does not. In addition,
the eutrophic lake is rich in nutrients and organic matter. The settling organic debris into the
hypolimnion leads to increased oxygen demands due to decomposition. During the course
of summer, the stratification becomes more and more stable as the epilimnion is further
heated creating more pronounced density differences in the water column. In the extreme
case, the hypolimnion of a eutrophic lake can become anaerobic during the summer, as is
suggested in Figure 11.20. On the other hand, the epilimnion, where the plants are, receives
no dissolved nutrients from the bottom, where the decomposition occurs, so primary
productivity becomes nutrient limited and declines over the summer.
Figure 11.20 Dissolved oxygen profiles under the conditions of the summer thermal
stratification for eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes.
As the seasons progress and winter approaches, the temperature of the epilimnion begins to
drop and the marked stratification of summer begins to disappear. Sometime in the fall, the
stratification will totally disappear, the temperature will become uniform with depth, and
wind action can cause complete mixing of the lake. Oxygen from the epilimnion becomes
mixed with the oxygen-poor hypolimnion and nutrients from the bottom are also get evenly
distributed throughout the lake. This phenomenon is termed as the fall overturn. Similarly, in
climates that are cold enough for the surface to drop below 4 °C, there will be a winter
stratification, followed by a spring overturn when the surface warms up enough to allow
complete mixing once again. Thus, temperate climate lakes have at least one, if not two cycles
of stratification and turnover every year. In winter, demands for oxygen decrease as
CHAPTER 11
metabolic rates decrease, while at the same time the capacity of water to hold oxygen
increases. Thus, even though winter stratification may occur, its effects tend not to be as
severe as those in the summer. The end results of such seasonal overturns are seasonal
blooms of phytoplankton, due to the replenishment of nutrients in autumn and increasing
temperatures and light levels in spring.
Water quality management in lakes. Since phosphorus is the limiting nutrient, the
primary objective of controlling the cultural eutrophication should be controlling the release

of phosphorus into the lakes. Once the input is reduced, the phosphorus concentration will
gradually fall as phosphorus is incorporated in the sediment or flushed from the lake. Other
strategies for reversing or slowing the eutrophication process, such as precipitating
phosphorus with additions of aluminum (alum), removing phosphorus-rich sediments by
dredging or even sealing the bed or bottom of the lake using perforated membrane-like
materials in order to prevent exchange of phosphorus between water and sediment, have
been proposed. However, if the input of phosphorus is not also curtailed, the eutrophication
process will continue.
The nuisances caused by excessive algal bloom in lakes and reservoirs may be alleviated
temporarily by the application of copper sulfate. The copper sulfate kills the algae, but its
dose must be carefully controlled to prevent killing of fish. Ferric Sulphate solutions have
been successfully used to reduce phosphate and Chlorophyll-a concentrations (Mason,
1991). Underwater weed cutters mounted on boats, can be used to remove root of aquatic
plants and dredges can be used to remove sediments, but these are not very practical
measures if the water body is very large. These measures can help speed up the removal of
phosphorus already in the lake system in association with other phosphorus reducing
options. Of course, the need to speed the recovery process must be weighed against the
potential damage from inundating shoreline areas with sludge and stirring up toxic
compounds buried in the sediment further exacerbating the situation.
The most prominent sources of phosphorus are municipal and industrial wastewaters,
seepage from septic tanks, and agricultural runoff that carries phosphorus fertilizers into the
water. Tertiary treatment of sewage can effectively remove much of the phosphorus, as well
as the nitrogen, from wastewater, but this is a very costly means of control. Another option
would be to divert the wastewater effluents around the lake into some other body of water
that are relatively less sensitive to nutrient inputs, such as a streams and rivers. But this
measure would be of less effective if most of the nutrient loading is being contributed by
dispersed (non-point) sources such as runoff from agricultural areas. In these cases, waste
minimization can be applied to the control of phosphorus loading to lakes from agricultural
fertilization by encouraging farmers to fertilize more often with smaller amounts and to take
effective action to stop soil erosion. On a household level, avoiding the use of phosphate-
based detergents or even in the dairying industry, using cleaning agents other than
phosphoric acid can reduce the amount of phosphorus entering into surface waters. CHAPTER 11

Questions
1. Why is surface water pollution a cause for concern in developing countries of the
world today?
2. What are point and non-point sources of pollution? Why are non-point sources of
pollution difficult to control?
3. Describe the different categories of pollutants by composition.
4. What is cultural eutrophication? How does thermal stratification affect the DO levels
in the lake?
5. Derive the Streeter-Phelps DO sag curve equation. What are the factors affecting DO
levels in rivers?
6. As an engineer, what are your options in managing river and lake water quality?
7. In a standard 5-day BOD test:
a. Why is the BOD bottle stoppered?
b. Why is the test run in the dark (or in a black bottle)?
c. Why is it usually necessary to dilute the sample?
d. Why is it sometimes necessary to seed the sample?
e. Why isn't ultimate BOD measured?
8. A BOD test is run using 100 mL of treated wastewater mixed with 200 mL of pure
water. The initial DO of the mix is 9.0 mg/L. After 5 days, the DO is 4.0 mg/L. After a
long period of time, the DO is 2.0 mg/L and it no longer seems to be dropping.
Assuming that nitrification has been inhibited so that the only BOD being measured
is carbonaceous:
a. What is the 5-day BOD of the wastewater?
b. Assuming no nitrification effects, estimate the ultimate carbonaceous BOD.
c. What would be the remaining BOD after 5 days have elapsed?
d. Estimate the reaction rate constant k.
9. For a solution containing 200 mg/L of glycine [CH2(NH2)COOH], whose
oxidation can be represented as
CH2(NH2)COOH + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
NH3 + 2O2 → NO3- + H+ + H2O
a. Find the theoretical CBOD.
b. Find the ultimate NBOD.
c. Find the total theoretical BOD.
10. The ultimate BOD of a river just below a sewage outfall is 50.0 mg/L and the DO is at
CHAPTER 11
the saturation value of 10.0 mg/L. The deoxygenation rate coefficient kd is 0.30/day
and the reaeration rate coefficient kr is 0.90/day. The river is flowing at the speed of
48.0 miles per day. The only source of BOD on this river is this single outfall.
c. Find the critical distance downstream at which DO is a minimum.
d. Find the minimum DO.
e. If a wastewater treatment plant is to be built, what fraction of the BOD would

have to be removed from the sewage to assure a minimum of 5.0 mg/L every
every- where downstream?
11. A lake with surface area equal to 80 ´ 106 m2 is fed by a stream having an average flow
of 15.0 m3/s and an average total phosphorus concentration of 0.010 mg/L. In
addition, treated effluent from a wastewater treatment plant adds 0.20 m3/s of flow
having 5.0 mg/L total phosphorus. The phosphorus settling rate is estimated at 10
m/year. Estimate the average total phosphorus concentration. What rate of
phosphorus removal at the wastewater treatment plant would be required to keep the
concentration of phosphorus in the lake at an acceptable level of 0.010 mg/L?
CHAPTER 11

References
Ahmed M. F., Ahmed, T. and Majed, N. 2012. Zero Discharge ETP for Textile Dyeing Industry: An
Advanced Option for Environmental Sustainability. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Environmental Technology and Construction Engineering for Sustainable Development, Sylhet, 10-12
March: 1-14
Ahmed, M.F. and Mohammed, K.N. 1988. Polluting effects of effluent discharges from Dhaka city on the
river Buriganga. Pollution Control in Developing Countries (Editor: Panswad, T.) Pergamon Press,
November, 123-129.
Akolkar, P, Agrawal, S. and Trivedi, R. C. 2008. Biological monitoring of water quality in India – needs and
constraints. ASSESS-HKH: Proceedings of the Scientific Conference “Rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya
– Ecology & Environmental Assessment”. Otto Moog, Daniel Hering, Subodh Sharma, IlseStubauer&
Thomas Korte (eds.)
Alam, M.A., Badruzzaman, A.B.M. and Ali, M.A. 2011. Water quality response to reductions in waste
loading of Sitalakhya River, Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Environment Technology (accepted)
Bangladesh Environment 2010 (eds. M. Feroze Ahmed and Saleh A. Tanveer). BAPA
Bari, M. F., Badruzzaman, A. B. M., Alam, M. S., Hoque, M. M., Saha, M., Huber, T., Fliendl, B. and Rahman,
M. A. 2008. Results and consequences of the ASSESS-HKH project in Bangladesh. ASSESS-HKH:
Proceedings of the Scientific Conference “Rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya – Ecology & Environmental
Assessment”. Otto Moog, Daniel Hering, Subodh Sharma, IlseStubauer& Thomas Korte (eds.)
Bosko, K. 1966. An explanation of the difference between the rate of BOD progression under laboratory and
stream conditions. Advances in Water Pollution Research, Proceedings of the Third International
Conference, Munich.
Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. 2007. Environmental Science Earth as a Living Planet. Wiley-India.
Davis, M.L. and Cornwell, D.A. 1991. Introduction to Environmental Engineering. 2nd Edition, McGraw-
Hill Inc.
Environmental Conservation Act (ECA), 1995, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of the
People’s Republic of Bangladesh
GoB. 1997. Environmental Conservation Rules 1997, Department of Environment, Ministry of
Environment and Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, June 1997.
GoB. 1997a. EA Guidelines for Industries, Department of Environment, Ministry of Environment and
Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, June 1997.
GoB. 2005. SRO No. 220-Rule/2005, Revision of the Environment Conservation Rules 1997, Ministry of
Environment and Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.
Kiely, G. 1998. Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill International (UK) Limited.
Mason, C. F. 1991. Biology of Freshwater Pollution, 2nd Edition, Longman, Harlow.
Masters, G.M. 2001. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. 5th Edition, Prentice Hall of
India.
CHAPTER 11
Nathanson, J. R. 2000. Basic Envrironmental Technology, Water Supply, Waste Management and
Pollution Control. 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall Inc.
R. Jones and R. W. Bachmann. 1976. Prediction of Phosphorus and Chlorophyll Levels in Lakes, Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation, vol. 48. p. 2179.
Rahman, I. and Ahmed, M.F. 2010. Evaluation of the Performance of Saidabad Treatment Plant, Dhaka.
Spellerberg, I. F. 1991. Monitoring Ecological Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Standard Methods 2012. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22nd edition.
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Environment
Federation.
Tchobanoglous, G. and Schroeder, E.D. 1985. Water Quality, Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Thomann, R.V. and Mueller, J.A. 1987. Principles of Surface Water Quality Modeling and Control. Harper
and Row, New York.
Trivedi, R. C. 1981. Use of Diversity, Index in Evaluation of Water Quality. Proceedings of the WHO
Workshop on Biological Indicators and Indices on Environmental Pollution. Central Pollution Control
Board, New Delhi.
CHAPTER 11

12
Chapter
Decentralized
Wastewater Treatment
As observed in Chapter 3 of this book, most of the areas in and around Dhaka City do not
have sewerage networks, for transporting wastewater into Pagla treatment plant. In such
cases decentralized wastewater treatment (DWWT) system can be an attractive option for
wastewater disposal and treatment. DWWT systems provide on-site treatment of
wastewater, generated from individual domestic houses, residential areas, isolated
communities and industrial or institutional facilities/clusters. DWWT systems can be
managed individually, or be integrated with centralized sewage treatment systems.
Design and management of DWWT systems can be achieved at a fraction of cost, required
for typical centralized treatment plants (Chapters 4-9). Table 12.1 summarizes some salient
features of DWWT systems, over conventional centralized treatment technologies.
Table 12.1 Comparison between centralized and DWWT systems.

Centralized systems DWWT systems
Reliability Require complex operation and Do not require intensive maintenance
maintenance schedules to ensure optimal for better performances.
performances.
Environmental May generate partially treated or Treated wastewater can be used
sustainability untreated wastewater, that may not meet locally, or can be safely disposed into
discharge standards. Also require higher local water channels. Energy
energy supply. requirement is low.
Financial Substantial grants, government funding Require less capital cost when
sustainability and subsidies are required for compared with centralized sewerage
construction, operation and maintenance. systems.
Affordability Score low on affordability due to Affordable due to lower costs when
substantial cost of installation, sewerage compared with centralized systems.
network, operational and maintenance Require locally available materials, as a
costs. majority portion of such systems is
based on natural technologies.
Source: IITs 2011.
The main advantages of DWWT systems are summarized below:

Ÿ DWWT systems can be constructed according to influent wastewater
characteristics.
Ÿ It can treat wastewaters from different sources such as: residential structures,
hospitals, schools, markets, hotels etc.
Ÿ Demand lower primary investment costs as no imports are needed.
Ÿ Require lower maintenance costs.
Ÿ Can provide efficient treatment of wastewater flow up to 1000 m3/d.
Ÿ Tolerant towards inflow fluctuations.
Ÿ Reliable and long-lasting construction design.
CHAPTER 12
Ÿ If properly managed, these systems can meet discharge criteria.

Ÿ Provide effective solution for ecologically sensitive areas.
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment 357

12.1 Components of DWWT Systems
Wastewater treatment in a DWWT system is achieved via: (a) primary treatment (settlers or
septic tanks); (b) secondary treatment (anaerobic baffled reactors); (c) tertiary treatment
(subsurface vertical flow and/or horizontal flow wetland systems); and (d) additional
tertiary treatment (polishing ponds or surface flow wetlands).
A brief description about the pollutant removal mechanisms in septic tanks, wetland systems
and ponds have been described in the previous chapters of this book. Figure 12.1 illustrates
an operational diagram of a typical DWWT train.
Primary treatment Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment
Anaerobic baffled Subsurface flow Surface flow

Septic tank
reactors wetlands wetlands
Figure 12.1 Typical DWWT configuration.
Box 12.1
Anaerobic baffled reactor for DWWT system.
Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) was developed by McCarty and co-workers at Stanford University,
and consists of several compartments (i.e. ranging between 3-16). The vertical baffles of a typical ABR
system direct the wastewater under and over the baffles, as it passes from the inlet to the outlet. Such
forced direction enhances contact between the wastewater and microorganisms of the sludge materials,
that settle on the bottom (of an ABR system). The over and underflow of the liquid also reduces
bacteria washout, allowing the ABR to retain active biological mass.
In an ABR system pollutants are generally removed from wastewater via anaerobic digestion (Figure
9.9- Chapter 9). As such, ABR is efficient in terms of organic and solids removal; however, the effluent
from an ABR may contain nitrogen, phosphorus and pathogenic microorganisms. To facilitate the
removal of these parameters, subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands should follow an ABR system in
a DWWT train (Figure 12.1). Figure 12.2 gives an operational diagram of a typical ABR unit.
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.2 Anaerobic baffled reactor.

12.2 Planning and Designing of DWWT Systems
Appropriate planning and designing are critical prior to the construction of a DWWT
system. The planning for employing a DWWT system should include (CSE, 2013):
Ÿ Identification of a site.
Ÿ Land availability of the proposed site.
Ÿ Topography of the land. Detailed examination of soil, slopes, hydrological
parameters are critical.
Ÿ Location of groundwater.
Ÿ Source and volume of generated wastewater.
Ÿ Local climate conditions.
Ÿ Socio-economical environment of the local area and target population.
Ÿ Identification of reuse options (if required).
Ÿ Rigorous analyses of construction, operational and maintenance costs.
The main objective of a DWWT system is to remove pollutants from wastewater, so that it
can either be disposed into the environment safely, or be reused. To meet such objectives an
engineer must consider the following factors, prior to the design procedures (CSE, 2013).
Ÿ The volume of incoming wastewater. Daily and peak hourly incoming flow should be
identified.
Ÿ Parameters of incoming wastewater, for example: BOD, COD, suspended solids, pH
and temperature should be measured.
Ÿ Local discharge standards should be examined carefully.
12.3 DWWT Design Factors

Wastewater generation. Typical water consumption rate is considered to be 100L/person
(P) /d. For domestic purposes, wastewater generation rate is around 80 % of the consumed
water. Wastewater generation rate (i.e. flow rate) is calculated in terms of volume per day.
Flow rate can be measured via: (a) employing a flow meter; (b) monitoring the rise of water
level in a closed chamber for a specific time period; and (c) calculating the required time
during initial filling of the first unit (of a treatment train) to overflow. It should be mentioned
that design of a DWWT system is dependent directly on the incoming flow rate; hence such
parameter must be measured accurately.
Sludge production rate. Sludge production in DWWT systems (i.e. in septic tanks and
ABR modules) is related with organic material (BOD/COD) removal from wastewater.
Such organic removal occurs through aerobic/ anaerobic process (see Chapters 6 and 9 of
this book); aerobic decomposition produces more sludge than anaerobic degradation. For
DWWT systems treating domestic sewage, sludge retention period (inside a septic tank) is
considered to be one year to allow anaerobic degradation. Desludging of the accumulated
sludge is necessary for efficient performances. If sludge removal frequency is 1 year then
approximately 0.1 liter of sludge per person (0.1 L/P/d) may be considered as the generated
sludge rate. If desludging intervals are greater than two years, sludge volume can be
CHAPTER 12
considered to be 0.08 L/P/d as sludge becomes compacted over time span.

Area requirement. The area required by the typical four units of a DWWT system (Figure
12.1) is dependent on wastewater volume. For one m3 wastewater, the required area has

been illustrated in Table 12.2. Please note that Table 12.2 indicates a series arrangement of a
VF wetland (after an ABR) followed by a HF wetland (prior to a SF wetland). It should also
be noted that integration of such hybrid wetland system (in a DWWT train) allows
nitrification in the aerobic VF wetland, followed by denitrification in the latter anaerobic HF
wetland. The last stage SF wetland can remove residual pollutants, that are not removed by
the previous units.
Table 12.2 Area requirement of different modules of a DWWT train.

Component Wastewater volume Minimum recommended
m3 area (m2)
Septic tank 0.5
ABR 1.0
VF constructed wetland 1.0 3.75
HF constructed wetland 6.5
Polishing pond or SF wetland 1.2
Total area12.95 m2
Depending on wastewater characteristics and land availability, a single VF or a HF wetland

can also be employed in a DWWT train, instead of a VF-HF hybrid system. In such cases,
total area requirement employing a VF (Table 12.3) or a HF (Table 12.4) wetland will be
lower when compared with Table 12.2 (employing combined VF-HF wetlands).
Table 12.3 Area requirement of a DWWT train with VF system as tertiary unit.
m3 area (m2)
Septic tank 0.5
ABR 1.0
1.0
VF constructed wetland 3.75
Total area 6.45 m2
Table 12.4 Area requirement of a DWWT train with VF system as tertiary unit.
m3 area (m2)
Septic tank 0.5
ABR 1.0
1.0
HF constructed wetland 6.5
Total area 9.2 m2
It should be mentioned that mathematical equations such as Kickuth equation or Monod

CHAPTER 12
kinetics combined with CSTR/ plug flow pattern (Chapter 10) may calculate higher area
requirements for VF/ HF wetlands, to provide treatment of wastewater volume indicated in
the Tables 12.2-12.4. As such, the proposed area values in Tables 12.2-12.4 are conservative,

as these numbers have been estimated from practical experiences. It is recommended to
provide greater area values (as indicated in the tables) for VF/ HF systems, if sufficient land
is available.
Dimensions of the units. The septic tank should be rectangular in shape, with length and
width ratio 3:1. All chambers should have equal depth; however, the depth of the first
chamber can be deeper since most of the sludge accumulates in this zone. Detailed design of
a septic tank has been provided in Chapter 3 of this book.
For an ABR system, the HRT should be designed as one day (24 hours) to ensure 70-90%
organic removal (CSE, 2013). HRT can be calculated as the ratio of reactor volume and
wastewater generation rate. The upflow velocity should be ≤ 2m/hr.
The media depth of VF and HF wetlands should range between 1.0-2.0 m, and 0.9- 1.5 m
respectively. A clear space (30-40 cm) above the media should be provided to accommodate
excess incoming flow (i.e. during rainy season). For VF and HF systems, greater depth and
length should be provided respectively to increase the retention time of wastewater inside
the system, enhancing removal performances. The bottom slope of VF and HF systems
should be 1%. Steeper slope will promote quick movement of wastewater from inlet to
outlet, resulting inadequate contact between plants, media, attached bacteria and
wastewater, that may lead to inefficient treatment performances. Different types of media
(Chapter 10) can be employed in wetland reactors. In DWWT wetland systems special
media for example cupola slag (size 25-50 mm) can be employed, to enhance phosphorus
removal. The chosen media should have a porosity ranging between 40-60%. Detail
information on wetland media is available in Chapter 10 of this book. A list of plants that can
be employed in the wetland systems of Bangladesh is also available in Chapter 10 of this
book. For surface flow wetland a shallow water depth between 0.5-0.6 m is recommended to
maintain aerobic conditions.
Other design factors. For septic tanks, the inlet pipe can be placed either: (a) below the
lowest scum level; or (b) above water level to evacuate gas. The chambers should be
designed to reduce turbulent flow, enhancing sedimentation of solids. The chambers should
be water sealed. Manholes should be provided above each chamber for regular inspection
and maintenance.
For ABR systems, the inlet pipes of every chamber should be placed at a certain height from
the bottom (of the reactor). Such arrangement allows the mixing of the incoming
wastewater with the stored sludge to foster anaerobic degradation, due to presence of
microbes inside the sludge mass. The chambers should be in series; the number of chambers
is dependent on peak hourly flow of wastewater. Last two chambers are often packed with
media to allow solid filtration and biological degradation by attached growth process.
Similar to septic tanks, the chambers of an ABR system must be water tight, with manholes
above each chamber for maintenance purposes.
The inlet perforated pipe for a VF system should be placed parallel to the length of the bed, so
CHAPTER 12
that wastewater can be distributed evenly over the media. Large stones may be placed on the
top of the media to allow even distribution of wastewater (inside the media), and to prevent
clogging. The outlet valve is generally placed at the bottom of the bed; large stones are placed
at the bottom to achieve homogenous wastewater distribution towards outlet. For HF

systems, the inlet perforated pipe should be placed parallel to the width of the bed, above the
inlet zone. Large stones should be placed in the inlet and outlet zones to prevent clogging.
The outlet valve is placed at a certain distance (0.6-1.2 m) from the bottom of the reactor, to
maintain constant water depth inside the media. Selected wetland site should not
contaminate drinking water source. To achieve such objective, bottom and side walls of the
wetland systems should be sealed to avoid groundwater contamination. Different materials
for example bricks, cement-sand plasters or low density poly ethylene sheets (LDPE) with a
thickness ≥ 0.5 mm can be utilized. Polyethylene sheets should have root resistance
properties; in addition these sheets should be UV resistant (if exposed to the sun). After
sealing, leakage tests should be performed by filling the bed with water and be left overnight.
If water loss is less than 2 mm, sealing is considered to be satisfactory.
Box 12.2
Design of a DWWT system for a residential building of 200 population.
Step 1. Determine water consumption rate

Assuming typical water consumption rate to be 100L/P/d, total water consumption rate by 200 people
can be calculated as: 200 ´ 100 = 20000L/d = 20m3/d
Step 2. Determine wastewater generation rate

Wastewater generation is around 80% of the consumed water. As such, total wastewater generation
from the residential building can be calculated as: 20000L/d ´ 0.8 = 16000 L/d = 16m3/d
Step 3. Area of the septic tank and ABR for generated wastewater
The area of the septic tank can be calculated as (Table 12.2): 16 ´ 0.5m2 = 8m2
From Table 12.2, the required area of the ABR can be calculated as: 16 x´ 1.0m2 = 16m2
To achieve 24 hrs retention time, the volume of the ABR unit can be calculated as: Q ´ t
= 16m3/d ´ 1d = 16m3
Step 4. Determine sludge generation rate
Approximately 0.1 L/P/d may be considered as the generated sludge rate, for desludging interval of one
year. As such, sludge production volume can be calculated as: 200 ´ 0.1L/P/d = 20L/d
Sludge production in a year can be calculated as: 20L/d ´ 365d = 7300L = 7.3m3
Step 5. Calculating the area of the wetlands for generated wastewater

From Table 12.2 the required area of VF, HF and SF wetlands can be calculated as:
Area of the VF wetland: 16 ´ 3.75m2 = 60m2
Area of the HF wetland: 16 ´ 6.5m2 = 104m2
Area of the SF wetland: 16 x 1.2m2 = 19.2m2
Step 6. Arrangement choices

The choice of the arrangements can be expanded between three options as illustrated below. Option A
is the best choice for achieving better pollutant removal performances, due to sequential aerobic-
CHAPTER 12
anaerobic zones of VF and HF wetlands respectively (Chapter 10). However, if sufficient land is not
available for choosing option A, the engineer may restrict his/ her choice between options B and C,
depending on the influent wastewater characteristics.

Option A:Total area requirement 207.2 m2
Septic tank ABR VF wetland HF wetland SF wetland

A=8m2 A=16m2 A=60m2 A=104 m2 A= 19.2 m2
Option B:Total area requirement 103.2 m2
Septic tank ABR VF wetland SF wetland

A=8m2 A=16m2 A=60m2 A= 19.2 m2
Option C :Total area requirement 147.2 m2
Septic tank ABR HF wetland SF wetland

A=8m2 A=16m2 A=104 m2 A= 19.2 m2
12.4 Maintenance of DWWT Systems

The treatment performance of a DWWT system can be enhanced by regular maintenance of
DWWT system modules. Such schedules can be divided into three categories: (a) general
maintenance; (b) maintenance of settler and ABR; and (c) maintenance of constructed
wetland systems.
(a) General maintenance: General maintenance schedules include overall maintenance of
the whole system, as illustrated below.
Ÿ Flow monitoring should be done during peak hours, when maximum wastewater
volumes are generated.
Ÿ For DWWT systems at hotels, canteens, hostels, and domestic premises grease trap
is required prior to the entrance of wastewater into the settler unit. The grease trap
should be cleaned bi-monthly, to prevent clogging. The pipes before and after the
grease trap should also be cleaned regularly.
Ÿ Skimming process is required to remove oil and grease, that float on the surface.
Ÿ The inlet and outlet pipes of all modules should be inspected monthly to prevent
overflow/backflow into the treatment units.
(b) Maintenance of settler and ABR: Maintenance schedules of settler and ABR units are
summarized below.
Ÿ For settler desludging should be carried out yearly, or once in two years (depending
on incoming wastewater quality). For ABR unit desludging should be done after 2/3
CHAPTER 12
years.
Ÿ During desludging from settler and ABR units, some sludge should be left inside the
system for the continuation of biological removal mechanisms.

Ÿ After desludging the removed sludge should be further treated prior to disposal.
Ÿ The filter materials of the ABR unit should be cleaned every 5 years to prevent
clogging.
Ÿ Growth of plants around the settler and ABR units should be controlled to prevent
the penetration of roots into pipes and chambers, which can damage structural
configurations.
(c) Maintenance of the wetland systems: The maintenance schedules of the wetland
systems are listed below.
Ÿ The inlet structure should be designed in such a way so that it can distribute incoming
flow homogeneously throughout the treatment zone.
Ÿ A drainage valve should be constructed at the bottom of the VF/HF wetlands to
allow drainage of wastewater (from the system) if required.
Ÿ For HF wetlands, macrophytes should be planted beneath water table.
Ÿ After planting the wetland systems should be water logged (with a mixture of
wastewater and fresh water), until the planted macrophytes are established. Such
mixture will also promote the growth of bacteria inside the systems.
Box 12.3
Baffled HF wetland in a DWWT train of WaterAid, Bangladesh.
The wetland research team at Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology previously conducted
research on baffled wetland systems, to provide treatment of municipal wastewater (Box 10.3 - Chapter
10). Enhanced pollutant removal performances were observed in such systems (Saeed et al. 2014), due
to flow direction by the baffles throughout the media. The output of this research (i.e. baffled wetland)
has been implemented in a DWWT system train of WaterAid Bangladesh at Pachtola Colony, Khulna.
The DWWT system has been designed to serve 285 people, with a design incoming flow rate of 28.5
m3/d. The system train includes a settler as the first stage, followed by an ABR unit, a baffled HF wetland
and a SF wetland as the polishing stage. The baffled wetland has been employed to utilize the effect of
the total media (of HF system), and attached biofilms in a compact land area. The baffled HF wetland
includes two baffle walls (inside the system- Figure 12.3), to direct the flow downwards (i.e. anaerobic
zone) and upwards (i.e. aerobic zone) enhancing biodegradation.
influent
water table
flow baffle
walls effluent
media
CHAPTER 12
inlet perforated walls perforated walls outlet
Figure 12.3 Baffled HF system in DWWT train of WaterAid, Bangladesh.

Ÿ Macrophytes should be harvested regularly to promote growth. Weak species should
be removed from the system.
Ÿ If clogging occurs, the wetland systems should be kept in resting mode (i.e. without
dosing of wastewater) for 21-30 days. After the specified time period, passing of
wastewater (from the previous treatment unit) can be commenced. However, if the
resting period doesnot encounter clogging, the media should be cleaned and refilled
into the wetland rectors.
12.5 Reuse of Wastewater

Reuse of treated effluent (particularly treated domestic effluent) can reduce the pressure on
fresh water sources (i.e. surface/ground water), as well as wastewater discharge problems
into the environment. Wastewater reuse/recycling/reclamation can be an excellent option
for DWWT systems, as these systems are generally employed in decentralized areas (i.e.
urban/rural), where source of fresh water can be scarce. Wastewater reuse can be divided into
two classes: indirect and direct reuse (WHO, 1973). When water is extracted from lakes,
rivers and aquifers containing sewage it is termed as “indirect reuse” while planned reuse of
treated wastewater for beneficial purposes is known as “direct reuse”. According to
Madungweet and Sakuringwa (2007), there are many benefits of wastewater reuse including:
Reduced costs: Recycled wastewater can reduce pressure on municipal supplies, thereby
saving drinking water used for such purposes.
Low environmental risks: Soil and plants can uptake many contaminants (i.e. salts,
nutrients and sediments) of the recycled wastewater. As such, groundwater pollution due to
the application of recycled wastewater is minimal, if proper wastewater treatment
technologies are employed.
Plant growth: Recycled wastewater contains nutrients which can supplement the growth of
plants, and maintaining soil fertility. The presence of nutrients in recycled wastewater also
reduces the necessity of artificial fertilizer addition.
Table 12.5 lists reuse categories and associated constraints. Subsequently, Table 12.6
illustrates the required guidelines for wastewater reuse.
Table 12.5 Wastewater reuse categories.

Reuse categories Constraints
Agricultural irrigation • Surface and ground water contamination if not
crop irrigation, commercial nurseries managed properly.
• Crops marketability, public acceptance.
• Public health concerns due to presence of virus,
bacteria and parasites.
Landscape irrigation • Effect of pathogens on public health.
parks, school yards, golf courses, cemeteries,
residential
CHAPTER 12
Industrial • Scaling, corrosion, biological growth, fouling.

cooling water, boiler feed, process water • Pathogen transmission in cooling water.
• Cross connection of potable and reclaimed water.

Reuse categories Constraints
Groundwater recharge • Contamination of groundwater aquifer.
groundwater replenishment • Organic chemicals in reclaimed water and their toxic
effects.
• Total dissolved solids, nitrates, pathogens in
reclaimed water.
Recreational uses • Health concerns due to presence of bacteria, viruses.
habitat wetlands, lakes, ponds, marsh • Eutrophication due to presence of nutrients.
enhancement, fisheries, snow making • Toxicity to aquatic life.
Aquaculture • Trace organics and their toxic impact.
• Public acceptance.
Other uses • Public health concern by pathogens due to
fire protection, air conditioning, toilet flush transmission by aerosols.
• Scale corrosion and biological growth
Source: Tchobanoglous and Angelakis (1996).
Table 12.6 Wastewater reclamation guidelines.
Treatment Reuse types Reclaimed Reclaimed wastewater Setback

level wastewater quality monitoring distances
Secondary1 Urban reuse pH = 6–9 pH – weekly 50 ft (15 m) to
Filtration2 Landscape ≤10 mg/L BOD – weekly potable water
Disinfection3 irrigation, vehicle biochemical oxygen Turbidity – supply wells
washing, toilet demand (BOD) continuous
flushing, fire ≤ 2 turbidity units Coliform – daily
protection, (NTU) Cl2 residual –
commercial air No detectable fecal continuous
conditioners, and coliform/100 mL4
other uses with 1 mg/L chlorine
similar access or (Cl2) residual (min.)
exposure to the
water.
Secondary Agricultural reuse pH = 6–9 pH – weekly 300 feet (90 m)
Disinfection for non-food crops ≤ 30 mg/L BOD BOD – weekly to potable water
Pasture for milking ≤ 30 mg/L total TSS – daily supply wells
animals, fodder, suspended solids Coliform – daily
fiber and seed (TSS) Cl2 residual
crops. ≤ 200 fecal –continuous
coliform/100 mL5
1 mg/L Cl2 residual
(min.)
Site specific Indirect potable Site specific. pH – daily 100 ft (30 m) to
Secondary and reuse Meet drinking water Turbidity – areas accessible
CHAPTER 12
Disinfection Groundwater standards after continuous to the public (if

(min.) recharge by percolation through Coliform – daily spray irrigation)
May also need spreading into vadose zone. Cl2 residual – site specific

Treatment Reuse types Reclaimed Reclaimed wastewater Setback
level wastewater quality monitoring distances
filtration potable aquifers. continuous
and/or Drinking water
advanced standards– quarterly
wastewater Other – depends on
treatment constituent
Source: US EPA, (1992).
Notes:
1
Secondary treatment processes include activated sludge processes, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, and
many stabilization pond systems. Secondary treatment should produce effluent in which both the BOD and TSS do not
exceed 30 mg/L.
2
Filtration means passing the effluent through natural undisturbed soil or filter media such as sand and/or anthracite.
3
Disinfection means the destruction, inactivation or removal of pathogenic microorganisms. It may be accomplished by
chlorination, or other chemical disinfectants, UV radiation or other processes.
4
The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 14/100 mL in any sample.
5
The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 800/100 mL in any sample.
Box 12.4
DWWT system at Bankers colony, Bhuj, Gujarat, India (CSE, 2013).
A DWWT system was employed at Bankers Colony, Bhuj, Gujarat by Hunnarshala Foundation in
collaboration with American India Foundation and Care today group in the year 2006. The system was
built on an area of 300 m2, with a design capacity of 300 kilo liters per day. The capital construction cost
was Indian Rs 14-15 lakhs; current maintenance cost is Rs 1-1.5 lakhs/year. The main objective of this
project was: (a) to provide wastewater treatment locally; and (b) to reuse treated effluent for
horticultural reuse.
The DWWT system includes a two chambered settler, an ABR system with nine chambers (last two
chambers are anaerobic filters), a planted filter and a polishing pond, arranged in series to form a
DWWT train. The effluent from the polishing pond is being reused; the remaining treated wastewater is
discharged into a storm water drain, that is linked with Hamirsar Lake.
Table 12.7 represents performance of the individual treatment unit of the DWWT train. As observed in
Table 12.7pollutant removal performances across the DWWT system is higher, with overall BOD and
COD reduction of 91% and 81% respectively. Subsequently, Figure 12.4 represents a pictorial view of
DWWT system at Bankers colony.
Table 12.7 Treatment performances of different units of DWWT train at Bankers colony.
Unit Settler inlet ABR inlet Planted filter inlet Polishing pond
pH 7.2 7.1 7 7
Suspended solids 1056 142 60 19
mg/L
CHAPTER 12
BOD 182 52 40 15
COD 260 101 90 49

Figure:12.4 Pictorial view of DWWT system at Bankers colony.
CHAPTER 12

Questions
1. What are the main advantages of DWWT systems when compared with
conventional centralized treatment processes?
2. Why integration of VF-HF hybrid wetland systems into a DWWT train enhances
removal performances?
3. What are the benefits of wastewater reuse from DWWT systems in a decentralized
area?
4. Design a DWWT system for a residential building (of a decentralized area) with 300
people. Provide a block diagram of the proposed DWWT system.
CHAPTER 12

References
CSE (Center for Science and Environment), 2013. Reinvent, Recycle, Reuse Toolkit on Decentralized
Wastewater Management. Published by CSE, New Delhi 110 062, India.
IITs, 2011. PPP models and technological solutions for sewage and waste management.
http://gangapedia.iitk.ac.in.
Madungwe, E. and Sakuringwa, S. 2007. Greywater reuse: A strategy for water demand management in
Harare? Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 32, 1231-1236.
Saeed, T., Muyeed, A., Afrin, R., Rahman, H., and Sun, G. 2014. Pollutant removal from municipal
wastewater employing baffled subsurface flow and integrated surface flow-floating treatment wetlands.
Journal of Environmental Sciences, 26, 726–736.
Tchobanoglous, G. and Angelakis, A. 1996. Technologies for wastewater treatment appropriate for reuse:
Potential for applications in Greece. Water Science and Technology, 33 (10–11), 15–24.
U.S Environmental protection agency, US EPA, 1992. Manual- Guidelines for Water Reuse, EPA/ 625/R-
92/004, US Environmental protection agency, Washington DC, USA.
WHO meeting of experts 1973. Reuse of effluents: methods of wastewater treatment and health safeguards.
World Health Organization, Tech. Rep. Ser. 517, Geneva.
CHAPTER 12

Appendix
Appendix A
Nomograph for the solution of Manning’s equation, for full flowing circular pipes.
Appendix 373
Appendix B
Ratios of sewer hydraulic elements.
Full

Appendix C
Graphical plot of the Thirumurthi equation.
Appendix 375
About the Book
This text book has been designed to cover the curricula of
undergraduate and postgraduate environmental engineering and
related courses, that are generally offered by the Civil and
Environmental Engineering Departments of the technological
universities in Bangladesh. The book is comprised of 12 chapters
covering a wide range of topics related to sanitation, wastewater
treatment, disposal and water pollution. Chapter 1 gives a brief
description on the importance of sanitation, wastewater
treatment and safe disposal, with an aim to provide the reader a
scope to think about the necessity of sustainable environmental
solutions for the country. Chapter 2 describes engineered
sanitation technologies in context of Bangladesh. Chapters 3-7
describe municipal wastewater transportation into treatment
plants, and different treatment stages for achieving safe disposal
criteria. Chapter 8 describes different approaches to provide
treatment of industrial wastewater. Chapter 9 includes a brief
description on sludge treatment (for safe disposal), generated
from wastewater treatment plants. Chapter 10 focuses on low-
cost natural treatment technologies, such as ponds and
constructed wetlands. Chapter 11 gives a brief description on the
factors associated with water pollution. Finally Chapter 12 gives
brief information and required guidelines for the construction,
operation and maintenance of decentralized wastewater
treatment systems.

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Environmental Sanitation,

Tanveer Ferdous Saeed

Tanveer Ferdous Saeed

First Published : November 2013, Agrahayan 1420

Cover and Design : Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal by Tanveer Ferdous Saeed,

Dhaka Prof. Dr. A K Azad Chowdhury

Tanveer Ferdous Saeed Ph.D (tanveer@alumni.ait.asia)

4 Preliminary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 81

5 Primary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 99

6 Secondary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 125

7 Tertiary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 183

8 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 217

9 Sludge Management 243

10 Natural Treatment: Ponds and Wetlands 267

11 Water Pollution: Analysis and Control 305

12 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment 355

1.1 Environmental Sanitation

in Bangladesh, as reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) of Department of Public Health

Middle East & North Africa

Latin America & Caribbean

Europe & Central Asia

East Asia & Pacific

Open defecation Unimproved Shared Improved

Figure 1.2 Sanitation coverage of South Asia in 2006.

4 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Organization Reporting % of % of household % of household % of

1.2 Wastewater Engineering

Grit and grease removal

Suspended growth Attached growth

Nitrogen and phosphorus control Disinfection

Figure 1.3 Flow chart of wastewater treatment process.

1.3 Wastewater Characteristics: Physical, Chemical and

6 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Properties Parameter Sources

1.4 Fate of Major Environmental Contaminants

Organic Nitrogen → NH4+ (ammonium) → NO2- (nitrite) → NO3- (nitrate)

Anaerobic decomposition is usually performed in absence of oxygen by a completely

8 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

1.5 Organization of the Book

conventional treatment plants. Chapter 10 provides brief information on natural treatment

Wastewater Wastewater Disposal and

Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapters 4-10, 12 Chapter 11

Figure 1.6 Block diagram of book organization.

10 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

12 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Sanitation Drinking Hygienic

Contact (Direct, Soil, Water etc.)

2.2 International Commitments and the Global

16 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Bangladesh Sanitation Trends

Not washing food

Not using latrine Flies on food

Not washing hands Not washing hands Not washing hands

Figure 2.2 Transmission of diseases due to inadequate sanitation.

18 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Diseases Transmission Route

Viral Diseases: Transmission is faecal-oral

Worm Infection with

20 Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater Treatment and Disposal

Skin, Eye and other

2.4 Benefits of Improving Access to Sanitation

2.5 Hygienic Latrine