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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
 Five essential requirements:
1.air 2.water 3. food 4. heat 5. light.
By:
 Contamination : health hazards to man/animals/plant
Arun Prasad Parajuli
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  Dealt in “Environmental Engineering”.
Engineering)
 Sanitary Engineering: branch of Public Health
Associate Professor/ Head Engineering: deals with collection, conveyance, treatment
Department of Civil Engineering, and disposal of waste produced
 Concerned with safe removal of wastewater and solid
Sagarmatha Engineering College, waste without causing any nuisance
Sanepa, Lalitpur
 Our Course majority towards wastewater and
introduction to solid waste.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

1.2 NECESSITY AND IMPORTANCE OF WASTE
WATER AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
• Wastewater and solid waste from the community everyday.
• Decomposes/produce bad smell/contaminate air, soil and
water (surface and underground).
• Favorable for breeding of mosquito/flies/bacteria so
spreading of diseases (Cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice
etc.)
• in-sanitary conditions /liable for environmental degradation.
• Proper, scientific and efficient wastewater and solid waste
management is important and necessary for safe collection,
conveyance, treatment and disposal of waste products.
3 presence) of organic matters.
1.3 DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS
A. Refuse:
 Rejected/left as worthless liquid, semi liquid and solid wastes.
 Classified as follows:
a. Garbage:
 dry refuse including organic and putrefying (rotten)
matters
 waste paper, decayed fruits and vegetables, grass, leaves,
street sweepings, sweeping from markets/public places.
b. Rubbish:
 dry and combustible from offices, residences etc
 building material wastes, broken furniture, paper etc.
c. Sullage:
 wastewater from bathroom, kitchen, wash basins and
other washing places
 doesn’t create bad smell because of absence (negligible
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

 Classified as:
d. Subsoil water: i. Storm Sewage:
 portion of ground water entering into the sewer through faulty  rainwater and it is not so harmful.
joints and leakages. ii. Sanitary Sewage:
 sewage derived from residential and industrial
e. Storm water: establishments.
 rain water of the locality. Domestic Sewage:
o Wasted from lavatory basins, urinals, water closets of
f. Night Soil: residential buildings, offices, theaters and other
 human and animal excreta. institutions a
o contains human excreta and urine hence foul in nature.
g. Sewage: Industrial sewage:
 liquid wastes (called wastewater nowadays) sullage, discharge o wastewater obtained from the industrial and
from toilet, urinals, groundwater, storm water, surface water, commercial establishments
industrial wastewater etc. o contain objectionable organic compounds which
 contain disease causing bacteria malodorous gas further needs heavy treatment.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

B. Sewer:
• underground conduit (generally closed and partial flowing) e. Branch or sub main sewer:
through which sewage is carried to the point of discharge or receives sewage from a no of lateral sewers and delivers it to
disposal. main sewer.
a. Separate sewer: f. Lateral sewer:
carrying domestic and industrial sewage. receives sewage from house through house sewer and delivers
b. Storm sewer: it to a branch or sub main sewer. It indicates the first stage of
sewage collection.
carrying storm water of the locality.
g. House sewer:
c. Combined sewer:
carries sewage from house and delivers it to a street or lateral
carrying domestic, industrial and storm sewage. sewer.
d. Main or trunk sewer: h. Outfall sewer:
receives sewage from a branch or sub mains and serves as an receives sewage from collection system and delivers it to a
outlet for a large area. point of final discharge or disposal point.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

C. Invert and crown:
The lowest and topmost portion of internal cross section of a a. Collection Works
sewer or drain or tunnel or aqueduct
• includes the house drainage works and networks of sewers
D. Sewerage: laid in the town to collect the wastewater from houses,
It includes the structures, device, equipment used for removal of
sewage. industrial and public places etc.
In other word: indicates the entire science of collection and carrying
of sewage through sewers by water carriage system.
• Solid waste and refuge are collected separately into individual
or public bins
1.4 MANAGEMENT METHODS
a. Collection
b. Conveyance • wastewater is collected through house drainage system and
c. Treatment
properly laid sewer networks.
d. Disposal
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

• Collection works should be carried out to:
c. Treatment Works
a. Transport waste quickly to treatment works without
causing harm to public health in affordable way for poor • Untreated wastewater and solid waste if disposed directly it
causes:
community.  Pollution of water bodies and water supply.
b. Avoid foul gases, disease causing bacteria and mosquito  Destruction of fish and other aquatic life.
 Contamination of bathing places.
breeding places.  Pollution in the atmosphere.
c. Make system self-cleaning and hydraulically tight.
• So before disposal, treatment is required so that its impacts
b. Conveyance Works are reduced.
• conveyed outside the city either by loading them into
trolleys, or trucks to treatment or disposal place. • Treatment works designed in such a way that the treated
water can be used for general purpose such as irrigation,
• Wastewater through sewer lines with the help of water to animal bathing etc.
the place where the proper treatment or disposal is done. 11 12

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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL
d. Disposal Works
 dispose the waste
 papers, plastics, metals etc. can be recycled or reused.
 Treated wastewater effluent is safe to use in agriculture,
industrial cooling and ground water recharge.
 Wastewater after treatment may be disposed safely in
rivers or streams or other natural watercourses.
 In hilly areas, where the conditions permit, treatment
may be avoided and disposed directly to the larger
water courses
 Disposal should be such that it mayn't cause harm to
Public Health.
 Solid waste may be disposed-off by sanitary landfill or
incineration etc.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
• To dispose on the land after treatment so that it may not
affect the subsoil.
• To dispose sewage scientifically to protect the public and
community health from bad smell, foul gases, mosquito,
bacteria etc. that reduces the dander of spreading of
diseases like typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea etc.
1.6 SANITATION SYSTEM
1. Conservancy system 2. Water carriage system
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Chapter 1 Introduction
• Human excreta or night soil is collected in privies or latrines
and removed by human agency and buried in the trenches
• after 2 – 3 years it is used as manure.
• Sullage and storm waters are carried separately in closed or
open drains to the disposal point (water courses, land for
farming).
Merits
• Cheap initially due to conservancy latrine and open drain for
storm water.
• Quantity reaching to the treatment plant is low.
• No silting problem in open drain.
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• To dispose human excreta in a safe place before the start of
decomposition, to protect in-sanitary conditions to the locality.
• To take out all wastewater from the locality immediately after
use so that mosquito, flies, bacteria etc. mayn't breed in it.
• To dispose sewage on natural water bodies after treatment so
that the receiving water and land may not get polluted.
• To utilize the fertilizing value of sewage for growing crops.
• To treat and dispose-off the resulting effluent in un-sewered
areas in individual houses in septic tank and other suitable
means.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Conservancy System
• very old system /called dry system and even used nowadays
in underdeveloped areas.
• wastes are collected, conveyed and disposed separately by
different methods.
• Garbage or dry refuge is collected in the baskets, pans then
dust bins placed along the roads and conveyed by trucks,
carts and disposed-off to the disposal point.
• Non-combustible garbage such as sand, dust etc. are used in
sanitary landfill
• combustible portions such as leaves, waste paper are burnt
and the decaying matters such as fruits, vegetable wastes are
first dried then burnt to make the manure.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Demerits
• Unhygienic and chances of spreading of diseases.
• Difficult to construct drains in the crowded area.
• More land is required for burring human excreta.
• Latrines are to be provided away from the building hence
building can't be designed as one compact unit.
• Possibility of pollution of underground water.
• Aesthetic appearance of the city can't be improved.
• Decomposition of sewage causes in-sanitary conditions and
danger to public health.
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2. Water Carriage System
• human agency to convey night soil should not be used and it
is found that water is the cheapest substance to collect and
convey the sewage, which is called water carriage system.
• In this system water and night soil (sewage) is mixed (99.9
% water and 0.1 % solid matters) and then conveyed
through properly designed sewerage systems then disposed-
off.
• All these matters remain in suspension and does not change
the specific gravity of water hence all the hydraulic formula
is used to design the sewerage system.
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Merits
• Hygienic because no use of human agency.
• No nuisance in streets and towns due to closed sewers.
• Less and underground space is used for sewer.
• Self-cleaning velocity can be easily obtained.
• Building and latrine can be designed in one unit.
• Less land is required for disposal work.
• Usual water supply is sufficient and no additional water is
required.
• Sewage after treatment can be used for various purposes.
• Labor is not required.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Demerits 1. Combined System: both sanitary and storm sewage
• High initial and maintenance cost.
Merits
• Large quantity of sewage is to be treated during monsoon. • No problem of flush because self-cleaning velocity is
available due to more quantity of sewage.

• Rainwater dilutes the sewage so treatment process is easy

and economical.

1.7 TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) • No chances of choking due to larger size and availability of
SYSTEM rainwater.

1. Combined system • House plumbing is easy and economical because only one
2. Separate System set of pipe is required.
3. Partially separate system
• In congested area it is easy to lay one large sewer.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Demerits
2. Separate System:
• High initial cost due to more depth of laying because of
two separate sewers to carry sanitary and storm sewage
large size of sewer.

• Not suitable for areas having very less rainfall because self-
Merits
cleansing velocity can't be achieved in the dry period but
may get problem of silting. • Treatment is economical due to less quantity of sewage
• Cheaper because storm sewage can be conveyed through open
• Uneconomical for such huge quantity if pumping is
required. drains and sanitary sewage only through closed drains.
• Cheaper if pumping is required.
• Rainwater is unnecessarily polluted and overflow may
occur during heavy rain which causes harm to the public • No fear of pollution created by overflow during heavy rain.
health.

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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

3. Partially separate System:

Demerits
• Due to small quantity of sewage, self-cleansing velocity mayn't
 If a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sanitary
be available in all periods hence flushing system may be
sewage-carrying sewer and remaining storm sewage into
required.
another sewer, the system is called partially separate system.
• Risk of entry of storm sewage, which may cause overflow and
 In this system, storm water from roof, pavement and yards
heavy load on treatment.
are allowed together with sewer and remaining storm water
• Maintenance cost high due to two sets of sewers and lying in
is drained off from other drain.
congested area is difficult.
 It is suitable in areas of rainfall throughout the year and
• Uneasy in house plumbing two sets of pipes for storm and
when the self-cleansing velocity is not available due to
sanitary sewage separately.
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smaller quantity of sewage. 26

Chapter 1 Introduction
COMPARISION BETWEEN SEPARATE AND COMBINED SYSTEM
Separate system Combined system
1. Less quantity / cheap. 1. High quantity costlier.
2. Suitable for more rainfall intensity 2. Suitable for area having less
area. rainfall intensity.
3. Pumping cost is low due to less 3. Pumping cost is high due to large
quantity. quantity.

4. Cheaper because storm water can
be conveyed in open drain and only
sanitary sewer is closed and under
grounded.
5. Less degree of sanitation is achieved
as storm water is directly disposed
without treatment.
6. Difficult to lay in narrow streets.
7. House plumbing and municipal
sewer laying is uneasy due to two
set of pipe
THANK YOU
4. Expensive because both storm
water and sanitary sewage is
conveyed through one large closed
and under grounded.
5. High degree of sanitation can be
achieved.
6. Suitable in narrow streets.
7. House plumbing and municipal
sewer laying is easy due to one set
of pipe.
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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

CHAPTER 2 QUANTITY OF WASTEWATER 2.1 INTRODUCTION
known before overestimate (uneconomical and Underestimate
designing any lack of self- cleansing velocity) (overflow)
sewerage system
Waste water
(liquid waste of the community)

By: a. Sanitary Sewage or dry b. Storm Sewage or wet

weather flow (DWF) weather flow (WWF)
Arun Prasad Parajuli
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering)
flow flow of only includes additional Source: includes
Associate Professor/ Head through sanitary wastewater from flow precipitati runoff
Department of Civil Engineering, sewers sewage in residences, through the on reaching
normally the industries and sewers (quantity to the
Sagarmatha Engineering College, available absence of ground water during rainy >> sewers or
during non- storm infiltrating into season sanitary drains
Sanepa, Lalitpur rainfall water in the leaked joints sewage)
1 period dry period of sewer 2

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.2 SOURCES OF SANITARY SEWAGE 2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SANITARY SEWAGE
Municipal supply .The amount Higher the w/s rate, Higher
of water after certain losses
water from wells,
on consumption becomes the
lakes, canals etc. source of sanitary sewage.
Public water supply Rate of water supply from local and private authority
Residential/Industrial/
Higher the population, Higher Commercial
SOURCES OF
Infiltration of ground FACTORS
Private supply/sources SANITARY water
Population AFFECTING
SEWAGE
SANITARY
Type of area
SEWAGE
through leaked joints
water supply by the Unauthorized connection and any other way.
local authority
(schools, colleges,
business center, unauthorized entrance of Additions/ Subtractions
hotels cinema halls rainwater as well as
etc.) unauthorized connection  Infiltration of GW/Unauthorized Rainwater/Unauthorized connection of
wastewater
 Wastage from pipe/evaporation/cloth, road washing/garden irrigation,
3 consumption in drinking and industries 4

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.4 DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE 2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING STORM WATER

• Characteristics/slope/shape/area of the catchment.

 Design quantity of sanitary sewage (Qsa) = Pf × DWF • Imperviousness in the catchment.
Where, peak factor (Pf) = 2 – 4 (3 in general) and
• Obstructions by trees/fields/gardens etc.
 Dry weather flow (DWF) = Population × 70 to 90% of • Initial wetness of catchment.
water supply rate
• Intensity/duration of rainfall.
• Atmospheric pressure/wind/humidity.
Qsa = (0.7 to 0.9) × (2 to 4) × P × q w/s • Number/size of depressions, water pockets and ditches
• Time required for the flow to reach the sewer.
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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.6 DETERMINATION OF STORM WATER OR WWF RATIONAL METHOD

CiA
Q St  (m3/s),
• Runoff = [Total rainfall – losses due to evaporation, 360
where,
absorption, transpiration, percolation etc.]
Qst = Quantity of storm sewage (WWF) in m3/s
• Difficult to find out the losses due to evaporation, C = Coefficient of runoff

absorption, transpiration, percolation etc. i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr

• So we use:
(a) Empirical formulae method (not needed) and
(b) Rational method (concerned with this because
catchment less than 500 ha)
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1 ha =10000 m2
A = Area of the Catchment in ha
Limitations of Rational Method
• Useful for small catchments (< 500 ha)
• exact value of ‘C’ can’t be taken so misleading for >500 ha
• not consider the slope and wetness of soil.

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

a. Catchment Area (A):
• From map showing streets, houses, playgrounds sewers etc.
• For different type of surface, area is determined separately
because coefficient of runoff differs for each area.

b. Coefficient of runoff or imperviousness factor or

impermeability (C):
• Runoff reaching sewers = Total rainfall - losses in E, ET, T,
percolation etc.
• Runoff depends upon porosity, ground cover materials etc.
• C = ratio of runoff to rainfall.
• C taken from table for different surfaces
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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

c. Intensity of rainfall (i):

• Amount of rain fall per unit time (cm/hr or mm/hr).
• Determined by:
• Rain gauge data
• Empirical formula based on long field experiences
• (British Ministry of Health Formula)

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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.7 TIME AREA GRAPH

Maximum flow occurs at ‘t = Tc’

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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

THANK YOU

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 3 CHARACTERISTICS AND
• Sewage consists of residential, public and industrial
EXAMINATION OF SEWAGE
mixtures of wastewater
• Contain organic and inorganic materials in dissolved
or suspended, or colloidal form
• Contain various microorganisms useful and harmful to
By: human life.
Arun Prasad Parajuli
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering)
• before designing any sewage treatment system to work
Associate Professor/ Head efficiently we analysis of characteristics of sewage is
Department of Civil Engineering,
needed.
Sagarmatha Engineering College,
Sanepa, Lalitpur 1 2

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE b. Odour:

1. Physical 2. Chemical and 3.Biological • Fresh sewage is of soapy or oily
• Stale sewage has offensive odour due to H2S, CH4 etc.
1. Physical characteristics: • Test by threshold odor test and measured in terms of TON as
(a) Colour (b) Odour (c) Temperature described in water supply engineering

(d) Turbidity (e) Solids c. Temperature:

a.Colour:
• Due to suspended and other matters.
• Fresh has a soap solution colour (i.e. grey-brown type) but
septic has dark grey then black colour
• Colour of industrial sewage varies
• Test by color test in terms of platinum cobalt scale as
described in water supply engineering
• slightly higher temperature than the water
• Test by thermometer and measured in terms of °C as
described in water supply engineering
d. Turbidity:
• very turbid than water due to the presence of high suspended
and organic matters.
• Test by turbidity meter and measured in terms of silica scale
as described in water supply engineering
3 4

e. Solids:
• contains >99.9% of water and 0.1% of solids.

• Classified as:
a. suspended solids: cannot be passed through filter paper
(non filterable solids) (i) settleable and (ii) non-settleable.
b. Dissolved solids: passes through filter papers (filterable
solids.

• Classified in other way as:

(a) volatile: organic (escape out when heated to 550±50C for
30 minutes)
(i) nitrogenous: urea, proteins, amines and amino acids
(ii) non nitrogenous: consists of carbohydrates, soaps
(b) fixed solids: inorganic (sand, debris, gravel etc)

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2. Chemical characteristics:

• Sewage contains complex compounds from urine, faeces,

inorganic chemicals etc.
• Chemical characteristics affects the selection and operation
of various treatment component
• pH; Nitrogen content; chloride content; fat, grease and oil
content; sulphide, sulphates and H2S; dissolved oxygen (DO);
chemical oxygen demand (COD); biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) etc.

• We are concerned with

(a) pH (b) dissolved oxygen (DO);
(c) chemical oxygen demand (COD);
(d) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

7 8

a. pH:
• Fresh sewage is alkaline and pH is between 7.3 and 7.5. c. BOD:
• With respect to time due to the production of acids by Amount of oxygen required for the bacteria to oxidize the
bacterial action and become acidic. organic matter present in the sewage.
• After oxidation again becomes alkaline.
• Very lesser and very higher pH indicates industrial sewage.
• Test by pH meter and measured in terms of pH value as
described in water supply engineering
d. COD:
Amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic
b. DO: matters.
• amount of oxygen dissolved in wastewater.
• Presence indicates fresh sewage or oxidation after
treatment.
• 4 ppm of DO in stream for fish.
9 10

3.3 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE

3. Biological characteristics: • process of collection of true representative sample to
determine characteristics
• Domestic sewage consists of microorganism • characteristics changes continuously with respect to time
• presence is 22 – 25 millions numbers in a liter of sewage • So 24 hours sample (100 to 150 cc) collection is done at one-
• may be pathogenic, indicator organisms etc. hour interval
• The main source of pathogenic microorganism is excreta
from sick people • sample is classified as:
• The microorganism can be classified as:
(a) Aquatic plants (b) Aquatic animals a.Grab sample:
(c) Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus.  manually collected sample taken at particular time and
• Aquatic Plants consists of waterweeds algae etc. location.
• Aquatic animals consist of fish, snails, amphibians, insects,  Suitable for testing pH, residual chlorine and dissolved
earth worms, hydra etc. These are responsible for disease. oxygen.
• various types of bacteria and virus, dealt in water supply
engineering. b. Composite sample:
• decomposition of sewage is possible due to these bacteria. Grab samples are mixed as per the weightage of sewage flow
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is called composite sample.

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3.4 COD AND BOD

Preservatives and storage:
1. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
• amount of oxygen required for oxidation of organic matter, chemical,
carbonaceous matter and other reducing agents using potassium
• Suitable preservatives (chloroform, sulpheric acid, formaldehyde dichromate.
• BOD test requires minimum of 5 days but COD test is quick and simple.
etc) to prevent change in quality • Correlation with BOD and COD is found from both test.
• BOD is significant and computed from COD.
• for determination of alkalinity, acidity: No sulpheric acid is used
• for organic matters and grease: No chloroform used. 2. Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD)
• amount of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of the
• for BOD: no preservatives are used. organic matter by aerobic bacteria.
• Significant in sewage analysis
• samples kept in a cool place to prevent bacterial activity • larger concentration, greater BOD and organic strength of sewage is
more
• Each sample should have label with information as under: • Oxidation occurs in two stages (figure 3.2).
1. Source 2.Date 3.Time • First stage in 7 to 10 days or more and carbonaceous oxidized and second
4. Preservatives used 5. Collector's identity stage in longer period and nitrogenous matter is stabilized.
• BOD tests at 20C for a period of 5 days is sufficient to satisfy 70 – 80%
6.Temperature 7. Atmospheric pressure
of total BOD which measures biodegradable organics.
13 14

3.5 TESTS OF SEWAGE

L0 – Yt = Lt

1. Physical test 2. Chemical tests 3. Biological tests

1. Physical test:
Yt
Lt and

(a) Temperature: by thermometer [ordinary/digital] inC

Lt

Time ‘t’ (days)

(b) Colour: by Tintometer as described in Water Supply Engineering
Figure 3.3 First stage BOD
Figure 3.2 Stages of oxidation of organic (in platinum cobalt scale, mg/l)
matters (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
curve
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
Expressions for BOD (c) Odour: by Threshold Odour Number as described in Water
Let,
Supply Engineering.
t = Time (days)
Lt = Amount of first stage BOD remaining or oxygen equivalent of organic
matters left after ‘t’ days (in mg/l)
L0 = Amount of first stage BOD remaining or oxygen equivalent of organic matters (d) Turbidity: by Turbidity rod or Jackson's Turbidity Meter as
present in sewage at beginning or at ‘t = 0’ in mg/l
described in Water Supply Engineering.
Yt = Amount of first stage BOD exerted or oxygen equivalent of organic matters
oxidized after ‘t’ days in mg/l 15 16

3. Biological tests: A. pH test:

• By Colorimetric or electrometric method.
• Biological/bacteriological test of sewage is not carried out • Digital pH meter is common.
• Presence of bacteria has no effect on choice of treatment method
but essential for efficient working of treatment units B. Solids test:
a. Determination of total solids (TS):
• Absence indicates presence of industrial waste harmful to bacteria.
i. Take crucible of weight 'W1' and put 'V' volume of well
• Bacteriological test: to determine the degree of pollution of water mixed sewage sample and evaporate to dryness in oven at
bodies like streams and rivers etc. 103 – 105°C for 24 hours.
ii. Cool the crucible and take weight as 'W2'.
2. Chemical tests:
• Total solid, pH test, tests for oxygen consumed; DO; oxygen iii. Then,
demand (BOD, COD); Chloride test; nitrogen test; fats and
oil test; tests for surfactants; pesticides and agriculture b. Determination of total volatile (TVS) and fixed (TFS) solids:
chemicals test etc. i. Ignite the residue obtained above at 500±50°C for 2 hours
in a muffle furnace then cool the crucible and take weight
• We are concerned with the following tests only. 'W3'.
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d. Determination of settlable solids (SES) and non settlable

ii. Then, solids (NSS):
and TFS = TS – TVS (in mg/l)
i. Total solids may be settlable and
non settlable. The SES is also
c. Determination of Total suspended or non-filterable solids called sludge and determined by
(TSS) and dissolved or filterable solids (TDS): the use of the Imhoff cone as
i. Find TS as described in 'a'. shown in figure 3.4. SES is
ii. Filter certain sample through Whatman filter paper no 44 or important in designing of Figure 3.4 Imhoff cone
sedimentation tank. (Source: Punmia and Jain 2003)
standard asbestos filter and take 'V' volume of filtered
effluent and put it into dry crucible of wt. 'W1' and ii. Determine total solids as described in 'a'
evaporate to dryness in an oven of 103 – 105° C. iii. Fill the 1-liter cone with sewage and allow it for 2 hrs for
iii. Take wt. of crucible with dry residue as 'W2'. settlement. The amount of SES can be directly read in ml/l
iv. Pour the liquid and evaporate settlable part to calculate
iv. Then, SES in mg/l.
iv. NSS = TS – SES (in mg/l).
and TSS = TS – TDS (in mg/l)
19 20

C. Dissolved oxygen test:

D. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test:
• Winker's method modified by Alsterberg which is an
• Take known volume of sewage sample diluted with distilled
oxidation–reduction process.
water.
• sewage is collected in special reagent bottle
• Add known quantities of standard potassium dichromate
• Add 1 ml of maganous sulphates, 1 ml alkaline potassium
solution and concentrated sulpheric acid and boil the mixture
iodide and 2 ml concentrated sulpheric acid in different
with catalyst as silver sulphates for 2 hours
stages
• Cool it and calculate the amount of potassium dichromate
• Titrate with N/40 sodium thiosulphate using starch as
remaining by titration with standard ferrous ammonium
indicator
sulphates solution
• till the colour change
• Determine COD by calculating oxygen used in oxidizing the
• DO is determined on the basis that 1 mg of N/40 sodium
sewage from potassium dichromate.
thiosulphate requires 1 mg/l of DO.
21 22

E. Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) test:

(a) Dilution method and (b) Direct method
• Dilute known volume of sample (Vs) to a total volume (Vd)
(a) Direct method:
• Take suitable quantity of sample of sewage in BOD bottle with this dilution water in BOD bottle and measure initial DO
and measure initial DO (DOi) (DOi).
• Keep it in incubator at standard temperature of 20°C for
standard time of 5 days • Incubate it in incubator at 20°C for 5 days
• Again measure final DO (DOf) after 5 days. • Again measure final DO (DOf) after 5 days.
• Oxygen consumed in 5 days gives the BOD directly.
Mathematically, BOD5,20 = DOi – DOf • Oxygen consumed in 5 days gives the BOD of sample
indirectly by, BOD5,20 = (DOi – DOf) × Df
(b) Dilution method:
• Common when there is little or no DO in the sample or where, Df = Dilution factor = Vd / Vs
sample has putrefied sewage.
• Take specially prepared and aerated dilution water to
saturation.
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F. Necessity of nitrogen, chlorine and chlorine demand test:
• Determination of chloride is necessary to indicate sewage
strength. Very high may indicates infiltration of saline water
into sewer.
• Nitrogen content indicates the presence of organic matters
and helps for selection of proper biological units.
3.6 DECOMPOSITION OF SEWAGE
• Fresh sewage contains organic matters and DO (2–5 mg/l)
• OM decomposes by chemically, biologically and called bio-
chemical decomposition.
• OM decomposable by bacterial action are called
biodegradable and the decomposition is biological
decomposition.
• Nitrogenous and carbonaceous matters is food for bacteria,
which spilt up in CO2, NH3, CH4.

• Classified as:
• Chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine used up in (a) Aerobic decomposition
oxidizing unstable organic matters and in killing bacteria. (b) Anaerobic decomposition
(c) Facultative decomposition
Chlorine demand gives a rough measure of strength of
sewage.
25 26

(a) Aerobic decomposition:

• Fresh sewage is decomposed by the aerobic bacteria in the
(c) Facultative decomposition:
presence of free oxygen (DO) in called aerobic decomposition.
• organic matter broken and oxidized to stable and non-
objectionable products as CO2, nitrates, sulphates etc.
• Sewage can also be decomposed by the facultative
• Occurs in aeration tanks, trickling filters, contact beds,
oxidation ponds etc. bacteria either in the presence or absence of free oxygen
(b) Anaerobic decomposition (Putrefaction): is called facultative decomposition.
• Organic matters are acted by anaerobic bacteria in absence of
• Produces similar products as in aerobic process if free
free oxygen and light. This reaction is called hydrolysis.
• Aerobic bacteria survive by extracting and consuming bounded oxygen is available and produces similar products as in
molecular oxygen present in the oxygen radicals of organic
anaerobic process if absence of free oxygen.
compounds such as nitrites, nitrates, sulphates etc.
• Organic matter broken into solids, liquids and gases such as • May occurs in trickling filters, contact beds, oxidation
CH4, H2, CO2, N2, NH3, H2S, alcohols etc and produces bad
ponds etc.
odour, toxic end products and sewage becomes septic.
• Occurs in septic tank, Imhoff tanks, sludge digestion tanks etc.
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THANK YOU

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF SEWER
 Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters
 Design similar to water supply pipes but
 Design to ensure self cleansing velocity to overcome
By: silting problems
Arun Prasad Parajuli  Design for open channel flow so laid in continuous
downward gradient
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  Determine Q (Sanitary and Storm) as in chap 2
Engineering)  Population forecast (as described in water supply) for
Head/Associate Professor design year

Department of Civil Engineering, 4.2 SHAPES OF SEWER

Sagarmatha Engineering College,  Closed- Normally called sewer/Circular is common,
Sanepa, Lalitpur  Open- Normally called drain/ non circular is common
A. Circular Sewer
1
B. Non Circular Sewer 2

Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

A. Circular sewer: Common

Merits:
a. Least perimeter and maximum hydraulic mean depth/
hydraulically efficient / gives higher discharge.
b. No corners/ less chance of deposition of OM
c. Easy to construct, transport and handle
d. Stable in laying and useful in separate sewers.

Demerits:
Not useful in combine system because self-cleansing velocity
cannot be maintained at DWF conditions.
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

B. Non-circular sewer:
• Open sewer: used for draining storm water/ may be lined (b) Egg shaped section:

with PCC, Cement soil, clay, brick, stone. • closed sewer / depth is one and half times of width.

• Closed Sewer: semi elliptical, Horse shoe, basket handle, • has smaller radius at bottom and larger at top

rectangular and egg shaped • mostly constructed with RCC.

Merits:
(a) Rectangular section:
• Closed or open • hydraulically efficient than circular.
• Constructed by concrete at the bottom/ side walls with stone or • maintains self-cleansing velocity even in DWF
brick masonry/ plastered / may have separate cover. Or • equally suitable for separate system because
constructed with RCC which may be precast or cast-insitu.
Demerits:
• Merit: It has more stability and ease in construction.
Difficult in construction / less stable hence requires good
• Demerit: It is not preferred in a sewer line because it is not so
hydraulically efficient. masonry backing.
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.4 SEWER DESIGN CRITERIA
Sewer section should be selected in such a way that it  Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters
 Design similar to water supply pipes
should:  Open channel flow

a. Develop self-cleansing velocity in minimum or dry weather
flow (DWF).
b. Have sufficient free board during maximum discharge.
c. Easy in cleaning and maintenance.
d. Structurally safe and stable
7 8
1. Determine Q as in chap 2
2. Select System (separate or combined or partially separate).
3. Select shape and Type of sewer
(Closed/open/rectangular/circular etc)
4. Size range (min 15 cm
15, 20, 25, 30 ………60 etc. Max = 3 m
5. Sewer gradient: Min 1: 100 and Max 1:20
6. Designed for 1/2 to 2/3 full at peak or maximum discharge
7. Ensure:
a. Self-cleansing or non-silting or minimum velocity
b. Non-scouring or limiting or maximum velocity of flow

Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

A. SELF CLEANSING VELOCITY
• 0.6 – 0.9 m/s for separate system and 0.75 m/s for
combined system
• Shield Formula:

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

A. LIMITING VELOCITY 4.5 HYDRAULIC FORMULA

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.6 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULAR
SEWERS

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.7 PARTIAL FLOW DIAGRAM
To overcome tedious nature in calculating, a graph called partial flow diagram is used.

Figure 4.8 Partial flow diagram for circular sewer

21 (Source: Modi, 2001) 22

Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.8 CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
B. Second method:
1. Setting out of centerline of the sewer:
• Two vertical posts called uprights driven
• laid from the tail end
into the ground equal distance from CL peg.
• Positions of manholes are transferred to the ground from L- sections and topo maps
• The centerline marked on the ground by driving pegs at 7.5 m or 15m interval. • A horizontal wooden board called sight rail
• Following two methods are generally adopted. is fixed between these uprights at a
convenient height
A. First method: • These are placed at the suitable interval
• a offset line parallel to the CL is
marked on the ground at (2 to 3 m) such as 30m and CL is marked on the sight
or (half trench width + 0.6 m) rails
from centerline as shown in figure
4.9. • A cord is drawn between the consecutive
Figure 4.10 Fixation of sight rail
sight rails for taking level of the invert of (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
• Useful to avoid inconvenience to
traffic Figure 4.9 Setting out of sewer
the sewer line.
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

2. Alignment and gradient of sewers:

• Sewers are laid at correct alignment and gradient with the help of
boning rods or travelers and sight rails or sometimes with levels.
• Modified levels of inverts are obtained by adding suitable vertical
length to the invert level marked on the L-section
• Then these modified levels are marked on the sight rails by fixing
nails or marks or by adjusting the top of the sight rails.
• The imaginary line parallel to the sewer is obtained on the ground. Isometric view

• The boning rod or traveler of same height is traveled on the cord to

Figure 4.11 Maintaining gradient in sewer construction
obtain required gradient. (Refer figure 4.11) (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

3. Excavation, timbering and dewatering
of trenches:
• Minimum depth above sewer is to be
0.9 m and width of 0.6 m.
• If depth increases to 1.5 to 2.0 m,
timbering of trenches is necessary.
• At joints the width of the trench
should be higher for ease in joining.
• If water table is high, dewatering with
pumping or under gravity flow is
done.
Figure 4.12 Timbering of trenches
(Source: Punmia and Jain)
27
4. Laying and jointing of sewers:
• Check bottom gradient with the help of set of sight rails, travelers (boning
rods) and plumb bob.
• Adjust levels by excavation or earth filling if necessary.
• Lay pipes so that sockets end faces at up gradient.
• Join properly and fill with cement mortar, bitumen etc. as per the type of
joints.
5. Testing of sewer:
Sewers are tested for water tightness of joint.
(a) Water test:
• Plug the upper and lower end. Lower end is plugged with a provision of
funnel and upper end has a provision of air outlet with stop cock.
• Pass water through the funnel and all air is released through upper end
then close the stop cock.
• After thirty minutes, note the water level and calculate loss of water.
• The loss should not be greater than 2 liters per cm diameter of pipe per
KM length.
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

(b) Air test:
• If there lack water and pipe is too big, air testing is preferred
• plug the sewer at the both ends.
• Provide air pressure equivalent to 100 mm of water using hand
pump from one end
• Accept if the pressure is maintained at 75 mm of water.

6. Back filling:
• Do immediately after the successful testing. If beddings are provided,
do it only after the sufficient setting time.
• Backfilling soil should be free from pebbles, large lumps, stones etc.
Backfill in every 15 cm layers with watering for 60 cm above the crown
• After one week of weathering, complete back filling 15 cm above the
ground surface.
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

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Chapter 4. Design of sewers

THANK YOU

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CHAPTER 5 SEWER APPURTENANCES 5.1. Introduction to sewer appurtenances

• Structure/Appliances constructed at a
suitable locations of a sewerage system is
called Sewer Appurtenances

By: • For efficient operation and maintenance

Arun Prasad Parajuli
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering)
Associate Professor/ Head
Department of Civil Engineering,
Sagarmatha Engineering College,
Sanepa, Lalitpur
1 2

5.2. Manhole:
• A masonry or RCC chamber constructed along the sewer to provide Location of manhole:
access for inspection, testing, cleaning and removal of obstructions
• Directly over the centerline of sewer
• May be circular, • Every bend, junctions, and every change of gradient,
rectangular or square in direction, size and at other convenient locations.
shape and has a suitable
cover (generally of CI)
Spacing of manhole:
Objective of providing manhole: • depends upon size of sewer, bends and junctions and gradient
a. To provide manual access for etc.
inspection, cleaning, testing
• normal spacing with respect to diameter
b. To allow joining, changing in
directions or level or both Diameter (m) ≤ 0.3 >0.3 – 0.6 >0.6 – 0.9 >0.9 – 1.2 >1.2 – 1.5 >1.5

c. To lay sewer in convenient Spacing (m) 45 75 90 120 250 300

length (a) Circular manhole (b) Rectangular manhole

d. To achieve the ventilation of Figure 5.1 Manholes

sewers (Source: Modi, 2001)
3 4

Construction of manhole:
1. Top cover and frame:
• Frame depth = 20 – 25 cm, width = 10 cm, opening > 50 cm.
• Weight of cover with frame = 90 – 270 kg.
2. Access shaft:
• provides an access to the working chamber.
• 0.6m×0.75m (rectangular)/0.6 to 0.75m dia. (circular)
3. Working chamber:
• lower portion of manhole, provides working space
• minimum 0.9m×1.2m (rectangular)/1.2 m dia. (circular)
4. Bottom or invert or Benching:
semi-circular/U-shape concrete bed (150–300mm tk)/slope 1:6 to center
5. Side walls: minimum thickness 22.5 cm (1 brick thick). t = 10 + 4d,
t is thickness of the wall in cm and d is depth of manhole in m. (a) Circular manhole (b) Rectangular manhole

6. Steps or Ladder:
Figure 5.1 Manholes
CI/steel steps placed 30 cm apart vertically for up and down to access.
5 (Source: Modi, 2001) 6

1

Classification of manhole:
a. Shallow manhole:
• Depth = 0.75 – 0.9 m
• constructed at the start of branch sewer with light CI
cover
b. Normal or medium manhole:
• depth about 1.5 m
• square (1m ×1m) or rectangular (0.8m × 1.2m)
c. Deep manhole:
• depth > 1.5 m
• larger at bottom and reduced at top.
5.4. Lampholes:
• It is a small opening provided on
sewers for the insertion of lamp to
inspect sewer for the detection of
obstruction useful, if there is a
slight curve and change in
gradient and have limited space to
provide manhole
• consists of a vertical shaft of 20 –
30 cm diameter connected to the
sewer with a tee and the top
opening is covered by CI or RCC
cover flush with the road level.
5.6. Catch Basin or Pits:
• RCC or masonry chamber
constructed below the street inlets
to prevent the flow of girt, sand
or debris
• depth of 600 to 750 mm
• may be square, rectangular or
square of dimension 600 – 900
mm.
• outlet pipe is fixed about 60 cm
above the bottom with trap to
prevent from out coming of
odour.
• Catch pits needs regular cleaning.
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5.3. Drop Manhole:
• Special manhole to connect branch sewer from a high-level (0.5 to
0.6 m) to low-level main sewer.
• Purpose of drop
manhole is to avoid
splashing of
sewage as well as
for smooth fall of
sewage.
• May be inclined
drop type or
vertical drop type
(common) (a) With ramp or inclined drop pipe (b) With vertical pipe
Figure 5.2 Drop manhole (Source: Modi, 2001)
7 8
5.5. Street Inlets:
• constructed to intercept the storm water and
surface wash along the street to convey it into
the sewer by means of pipes of 25 – 30 cm
diameter
• provided at road junctions and at 100 – 130 m
spacing
Figure 5.6 Gutter inlet
• three types (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
Figure 5.3 Lamp-hole
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
Figure 5.7 Catch pit with
combined inlets
(Source: Birdie and Birdie,
2001)
Figure 5.4 Street inlets Figure 5.5 Curb inlet
9 (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) 10
5.7. Flushing Tanks:
Required to clean the sewer from possible clogging due to lack
of self cleansing velocity.
a flushing chamber or tank is used to store the water to flush
sewers called flushing tank.
constructed at the head of the sewer.
may be manually operated or automatic.
Figure 5.7 Catch pit with inlets In manual, water is stored to certain level and opened when
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
desired
Automatic type is common to flush for regular intervals
normally twice or thrice in a day.
It consists of a masonry /concrete chamber provided with a
inlet, an overflow and one outlet with U-tube and bell to sewer.
11 12
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Figure 5.8 Flushing tank
(Source: Modi, 2001)
Figure 5.9 Grease and oil trap
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
Figure 5.11 Inverted siphon (Source: Modi, 2001)
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5.8. Sand, Grease and Oil Trap:
• Sewage from hotels, restaurants, kitchen, automobile
workshop, garage and industries contains grease, sand oil
and fats
• Stick to the sewers and captures suspended solids and
causes obstruction in flow may cause explosion
•
• Make sewage treatment complicated
• So grease and oil trap or combined sand, grease and oil trap
is constructed.
13 14
5.9. Inverted Siphon (Depressed Sewer):
• At depressions such as to cross roads, canals etc
sewer is depressed below called depressed sewers or
inverted siphon
• Consists of an inlet and outlet chamber with cover
and three pipes of different sizes laid in parallel to
each other.
Figure 5.10 Sand, grease and oil trap
(Source: Modi, 2001)
• At minimum flow central pipe of smaller diameter
is used and for more flow overflows to the other two
15 16
5.10. Sewer Outlet:
Figure 5.12 Sewer outlet
17 (Source: Hussain, 1998) 18
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5.11. Ventilating Shaft:

• Decomposition of OM produces explosive
and poisonous foul gases causes harm to
health and reduces life of sewers.

THANK YOU
• Provided to escape gases
• Provided at every 80m – 300 meters
• In open areas hole in the lid of MH acts as
ventilation.
• In crowded areas air tight RCC or CI
pipe (15 – 30 cm diameter with a cowl) is
provided as ventilating shaft
• Height > the tallest building in the locality
Figure 5.13 Ventilating
shaft
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)

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