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Motor Action
Michael Faraday showed that passing a current through a conductor freely suspended in a fixed magnetic field creates a force which ca
move through the field.
Conversely, if the conductor rather than the magnet is constrained then the magnet creating the field will move relative to the conductor
More generally, the force created by the current, now known as the Lorentz force, acts between the current conductor and the magnetic
creating the field.
The magnitude of the force acting on the conductor is given by:
F = BLI
Where F is the force on the conductor, L is the length of the conductor and I is the current flowing through the conductor

Generator Action
Faraday also showed that the converse is true - moving a conductor through a magnetic field, or moving the magnetic field relative to th
current to flow in the conductor.
The magnitude of the EMF generated in this way is given by:
E = BLv
Where E is the generator EMF (or back EMF in a motor) and v is the velocity of the conductor through the field

Alternative Motor Action (Interactive Fields)

Another form of motive power, which does not depend on the Lorentz force and the flow of an electrical current, can in principle be deri
attractive (or repulsive) magnetic force which is exerted on a magnet or on magnetically susceptible materials such as iron when they a
another magnet. The movement of a compass needle in the presence of a magnet is an example. In practice however at least one mag
must be an electromagnet in order to obtain the necessary control of the magnetic field to achieve sustained motion as well as practica

Brushless DC motors and reluctance motors depend on this phenomenon known as "reluctance torque" since no electric currents flow
motion is obtained by sequential pulsing of the stator poles to create a rotating magnetic field which drags along the moving magnet wi
In AC induction motors the rotating field is obtained by a different method and the basic motor action depends on the Lorentz force, how
motors have magnetic rotor elements which are pulled around in synchronism with the rotating field just as in a brushless DC motor.

Reluctance Torque
Torque is created due to the reaction between magnetic fields. Consider a small bar magnet in the field of another larger magn
between the poles of a horse shoe magnet or one of the pole pairs of an electric motor. (See reluctance motor
Torque from MMF aligned with the poles of the large magnet its field will be in line with the external field. This is an equilibrium position and the b
any force to move it. However if the bar is misaligned with the poles, either rotated or displaced, it will experience a force pullin
F BLI
the external field. In the case of a lateral displacement, the force diminishes as the distance increases, but in the case of a rot
Free Report increase reaching a maximum when the bar is at right angles to the external field. In other words the torque on the magnet is
Buying Batteries in fields are orthogonal and zero when the field are aligned.
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Salient Poles
Motors which depend on reluctance torque normally have "salient poles" - poles which stick out. This is to concentrat
angular sectors to maximise and focus the alignment force between the fields.
Electropaedia
Pages Torque from Rotating Fields
Alphabetical Index In motors which depend on rotating fields, such as induction motors, brushless DC and reluctance motors, the instantaneous
About Us depends on its angular position with respect to the angular position of the flux wave. Though the flux wave tries to pull the roto
AC Batteries flux, there will always be inertia and losses holding the rotor back.
AC Motors Slip
Alkaline Batteries The friction, windage and other losses cause the rotor of an induction motor to turn at a slower speed than the rotatin
Alternative Energy angular displacement between the rotating flux wave and the rotating field associated with the rotor poles. The differe
Storage Methods of the flux wave and the speed of the rotor is called the "slip" and the motor torque is proportional to the slip.
Torque Angle
Apollo Moon Shot
Even in synchronous motors in which the rotor turns at the same speed as the flux wave, because of the losses note
Authentication and
will never reach complete alignment with the peaks in the flux wave, and there will still be a displacement between th
Identification
the rotating field. Otherwise there would be no torque. This displacement is called the "torque angle". The motor torq
Battery Applications
torque angle is zero and is at its maximum when the torque angle is 90 degrees. If the torque angle exceeds 90 degr
Battery Comparison of synchronism and stop.
Chart (PDF)
Battery Life (and Electrical Machines
Death) The majority of electrical machines (motors and generators) sold today are still based on the Lorentz force and their principle of operati
Battery Management by the example below in which a single turn coil carrying electrical current rotates in a magnetic field between the two poles of a magne
Systems (BMS)
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Battery Storage For multiple turn coils, the effective current is NI (Ampere Turns) where N is the number of turns in the coil.
Battery Testing If the coil is supplied with a current the machine acts as a motor. If the coil is rotated mechanically, current is induced in the coil and the
generator.
Battery Types
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In rotating machines the rotating element is called the rotor or armature and the fixed element is called the stator.
Benefits of Custom
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Boolean Logic and In practice, both the motor and the generator effects take place at the same time.
Digital Circuits Passing the current through a conductor in the magnetic field causes the conductor to move through the field but once the conductor st
Brushless DC and generator creating a current through the conductor in the opposite direction to the applied current. Thus the motion of the conductor cre
Reluctance Motors which opposes the applied EMF.
Buying Batteries in Conversely moving the conductor through the field causes a current to flow through the conductor which in turn creates a force on the c
China (PDF) applied force.
Carbon Footprints
(Humour) The actual current which flows in the conductor is given by:
Cell Balancing I = (V - E)
Cell Chemistries R
Cell Construction Where V is the applied voltage, E is the back EMF and R is the resistance of the conductor (the armature of the motor)..
Charger Specification
The EMF Equation
Checklist
From the above, the back EMF in an electric motor is equal to the applied voltage less the volt drop across the armature.
Chargers and
E = V - RI
Charging
This is known as the "Motor EMF Equation".
Charger Quotation The volt drop across the amature RI is sometimes called the Net Voltage
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Common Battery The Power Equation
Case Sizes (PDF) Multiplying the voltage by the armature current to get the power gives the following relationship:
Communications P = EI = VI - I2R
Buses It shows that the mechanical power delivered by the motor is equal to the back EMF times the armature current OR the electrical powe
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less the I2R losses in the windings. (Disregarding frictional losses).
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This is known as the "Motor Power Equation".
Computer
Architecture Operating Equilibrium Under Load
Contact Sponsors The "Action and Reaction" effects outlined above provide an important automatic self regulating feedback mechanism in both DC and A
Contact Us changes to the applied load. As the load on the motor is increased it tends to slow down, reducing the back EMF. This in turn allows mo
Contacts generating more torque to accommodate the increased load until a point of balance or equilibrium is reached. Thus the motor will set its
Conversion Table speed for the torque demanded. See also Power Handling below.
DC Motors
Direct Energy Magnetic Fields
Conversion (AMTEC) The motor's magnetic field is provided by the stator and in the above example the stator is a permanent magnet however in the majority
Discovery of the the magnetic field is provided electromagnetically by coils wound around the stator poles. The stator windings are also called the field w
Elements said to be "field energised".
The rotor is normally wound on an iron core to improve the efficiency of the machine's magnetic circuit.
Electric Machines
Magnetic Circuits
Electric Vehicle
In the case of electrical machines, the magnetic circuit is the path of the magnetic flux through the stator body, across the air g
Charging
back through the air gap into the stator. The length l of this path is known as the mean magnetic path length
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Magnetic circuits are designed to produce the maximum flux possible and to concentrate it in the air gap between the rotor an
Electrical Energy which the coils move. The flux Φ is measured in Webers
Electricity Demand The flux density B is measured in Teslas and is defined as the magnetic flux Φ per unit area A. Thus B = Φ/A
Electricity from flux passes.
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Engine
Energy Efficiency
Energy from Coal? From the equations above it can be seen that the torque generated by the electric motor or the EMF created by the generator
(Humour) to the magnetic flux density B in the region surrounding the moving electrical conductors and for efficient machines,
MagnetoMotive Force (MMF)
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The magnetic flux arising in a magnetic circuit is proportional to the magnetomotive force (MMF) creating it. For an electromag
Energy Conversion
effective current in the magnetising coil measured in Ampere turns NI and, as above, this is the actual current
and Heat Engines
Thus MMF = NI = Φ X R where R is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The reluctance is the inherent resistance of the ma
Engineering Harmony circuit to the setting up of the magnetic flux through it. (For iron the reluctance is very low. For air it is very high)
(Humour) This equation for the flux in magnetic circuits is analogous to Ohm's law for the current in electric circuits in which:
Enigma’s Cryptic EMF = I X R where R is the resistance of the electric circuit.
Secrets Because the reluctance of the air gap between the stator and the rotor is very high, the air gap should be as small as possible
Feedback Form turns needed to create the desired flux density.
Flow Batteries Magnetic Force (H) also called the Magnetic Field Strength
Free Report Request The magnetic field strength H is the MMF per unit length in a magnetic circuit. Thus:
H=NI
Frequently Asked
l
Questions - FAQ
The magnetomotive force is the cause of the magnetic field, the magnetic force is the effect.
Fuel Cell Comparison Flux Density (B) and Magnetic Permeability (µ)
Chart For uniform fields, the flux density associated with the magnetic force is proportional to the field strength and is given by:
Fuel Cells B=µ0µrH
Gas Turbine Power
where
Generators
µ0 is the known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space.
Generators
µr is the relative permeability of the magnetic material.
Geothermal Power
Generation Unfortunately, the relationship becomes non-linear as the flux density increases and the magnetic material becomes saturated
by increases in the magnetic field decreases and levels off and the relaitive permeability µr tends towards 0.
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Homebrew Battery From the above it can be seen that increasing the MMF (Ampere turns) in a magnetic circuit increases the flux through the cir
How to Specify the flux density which can be created in magnetic materials such as iron when the material is said to be saturated. Above this
Batteries MMF is needed to create less and less flux. In other words the reluctance increases sharply when the material saturates.
Hybrid Power For maximum efficiency, electric machines are usually designed to work just below the onset of saturation.
Generation Plants Magnetic Poles
Hydroelectric Power Electric machines can have multiple pole pairs. Multiple pole machines usually provide more efficient magnetic circuits and sm
Generation characteristics.
Hydrogen Power
Instructions for Using Commutation
Batteries The connection to the moving coil in the basic machine shown above is made via carbon brushes bearing on a pair of slip rings, one co
Lead Acid Batteries the coil.
Leclanché Cells If the machine is used as a generator, the direction of the current generated will reverse every half cycle as the arm of the coil passes t
succession. If a unidirectional current is required, the slip rings are split and interconnected such that, each half cycle, the current is tak
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the coil. This simple switching mechanism is called a commutator.
Liquid Metal Batteries
Similarly when the machine is used as a DC motor, the commutator switches the DC supply voltage to alternate arms of the coil each h
Lithium Battery achieve unidirectional rotation.
Shipping Regulations
Lithium Cell Failures Thus in all wound rotor DC machines, both motors and generators, the current in the rotor windings is AC and it is the commutator whic
Lithium Primary corresponding DC input or output. There are however some notable exceptions. The world's first motors and generators invented by Fa
Batteries homopolar machines in which unidirectional current flowed in the conductors. Faraday's motor was a laboratory curiosity with no practic
Lithium Secondary called "Faraday Disk" dynamo was able to generate useful current.
Batteries
Low Power Batteries For over 100 years, mechanical commutation was the only practical way of switching the direction of the current flow however since the
Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic high power semiconductors has made electronic commutation possible.
(MHD) Electricity In AC machines the complexities of commutation can be avoided since current can be induced in the rotor windings by transformer acti
Generation windings, obviating the need for direct connections between the supply line and the rotating windings. See Induction Motors
Motor Controls
MSDS - Typical Because the commutator is essentially a mechanical switch, rapidly making and breaking a high current circuit, the switch is prone to s
Material Safety Data generation of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) which can disrupt the working of other electronic circuits in the vicinity.
Sheet (PDF) In very large motors the propensity for sparking can be reduced by the addition of "interpoles" or "commutating poles", narrow auxiliary
between the main stator poles. These are connected in series with the rotor windings and produce an MMF equal and opposite to the r
New Cell Designs &
effective flux between the main poles is zero. Commutation is designed to occur the instant when the current passes through zero betw
Chemistries
positive half cycles and this takes place when the rotor is midway between the main poles. By neutralising the flux in this region the pos
Nickel Cadmium
reduced.
(NiCad) Batteries
Nickel Hydrogen Evolution
Batteries The earliest electrical machines depended on permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field, however the best magnetic materials a
Nickel Iron (NiFe) only capable of providing very weak fields limiting potential machine applications to laboratory demonstrations. It was eventually realise
Batteries magnetic fields could be generated by using electromagnets powered by the applied or generated line voltage. This allowed the constru
Nickel Metal Hydride powerful machines enabling the development of practical applications. Advances in magnetic materials have now created much more p
(NiMH) Batteries magnets enabling their use in practical machines, simplifying machine construction by eliminating one set of windings. At the same time
Nickel Zinc Batteries encoders, tachogenerators, thermal cut outs, brakes and fans are being built into the machines See also Controllers
Nuclear Power -
The Practice Motor Characteristics
Some general points
Nuclear Power - Torque
The Theory Generally speaking the torque produced by a motor is proportional to the current it consumes and also proportional to the flux in the air
Other Galvanic Cell T = K1I B
Chemistries Speed
Page Quality Rating DC Motors
Particle Physics - In DC motors the rotational speed is proportional to the applied voltage and the normal method of speed control is by varying
The Standard Model N = K2 V
Piston Engined Power B
Generators The speed is however also inversely proportional to the flux in the air gap. This means that the speed increases as the flux pro
Primary Batteries decreases. Theoretically the speed could go to infinity if the current in the field coil is removed, though the motor would most l
Privacy Promise this happens. In practice a limited increase in speed can be obtained by reducing the field current in a controlled way. But note
Recycling equation above that reducing the field current also reduces the torque. This method of speed control is called "
Redox Batteries AC Motors
In AC motors the speed is proportional to the frequency of the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the number of mag
Reference Books
N = K3   f 
Reserve Batteries
P
Rocket Science
Torque - Speed Characteristic
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DC motors produce their maximum torque at zero speed or when they are stalled (when they consume maximum current) and the torqu
Secondary Batteries speed increases, reaching zero when the reverse voltage generated by the rotating coils in the magnetic field (the back EMF) is equal t
Semiconductor With AC motors the starting torque at zero speed may be about 70% to 90% of its maximum, rising to a peak as the speed increases th
Primer as the motor approaches synchronous speed. See note about synchronous motors .
Shocking Batteries (The torque - speed characteristics of electric motors are in contrast to an internal combustion engines whose torque is very low at low
Silver Oxide / Silver below 800 rpm, but increasing with speed up to a peak at about 80% of its maximum speed falling off only slightly as it reaches maximu
Zinc Batteries Starting
Site Map More Pages Some motor designs are not self starting in their basic configuration but they normally incorporate design adaptations to enable self sta
Here be unaware of the problem.
Site Search Engine Power Handling
Small Scale Electricity The motor output power is directly proportional to its speed.
Generation The output power P in Watts is given by:
Software P = ωT
Configurable Battery Where ω is the speed in radians per second and T is the torque in Newton metres
OR
Solar Batteries
P = 2π NT = NT
Solar Power
60 9.55
Generation
Where N is the speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)
Special Purpose NOTE: This relationship shows that for a given power, the speed reduces as the load or torque increases and vice versa. This is in som
Motors what occurs in a mechanical gear box and is in line with the Operating Equilibrium mentioned above.
Sponsors Maximum Power
State of Charge The maximum power which a motor can handle is determined by its maximum permissible temperature. Power handling capacity can b
(SOC) Determination materials capable of withstanding higher temperatures, particularly for the insulation on the windings, or by providing forced cooling wh
State of Health (SOH) temperature for a given current consumption.
Determination Corner Power
Steam Turbine Power Corner power is an alternative way of specifying motor performance which some people find useful for comparing machines.
Generators
Stirling Engine Power
Generator
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Thermal Batteries
Thermal Management
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Timekeepers
Timeline of Quantum
Theory
It is simply the product of the maximum torque the motor can deliver and the maximum speed it can attain. Since the maximum torque
Timeline of
the same time as the maximum speed, the actual delivered machine power will always be less than the corner power.
Technology
In DC motors the commutation limit is set by the ability of the commutator segments and brushes to handle high voltages (speed limit)
Traction Batteries
limit).
Typical Cylindrical Note also that at high voltages and currents forced cooling may be required.
Cells (PDF) Cooling
Typical High Power The power handling capacity of an electrical machine is limited by the maximum allowable temperature of its windings.
Cells (PDF) Higher power motors require higher magnetic fields and the current necessary to provide the higher flux density increases linearly with
Typical Prismatic sectional area of the copper cable necessary to carry the current however increases as the square of the cuurent.
Cells (PDF) Power handling can be increased by using insulation which can withstand higher temperatures or by providing forced cooling to remove
Uninterruptible Power windings. Forced cooling is not normally required for fractional horsepower machines but larger integral horsepower motors usually inc
Supplies (UPS) fan to force air through the machine. Forced air cooling can be effective in machines up to 50 megawatts but larger machines with mult
V2G Energy Transfer as used in the electricity generating industry, must resort to liquid cooling with the coolant being circulated through hollow conductors. T
Water Activated water but for the largest machines hydrogen is used because of its low weight and high thermal capacity.
Batteries Gearing
Why Batteries Fail For a given torque, the motor power is proportional to the speed. Low speed motors will thus deliver very low power. Applications requir
Wind Power speeds will require very high currents and impractically large motors. Such applications are better served by higher speed motors with
Generation reduce the speed and increase the torque.
Size
Wireless Wonders
The size of a motor is determined by the torque it has to deliver. For similar motors with similar cooling systems the motor torque is pro
Zebra Batteries
the rotor and hence the overall motor volume.
Zinc Air Batteries Efficiency
As noted above, for a given torque, the motor power is proportional to the speed whereas the electrical and windage losses tend to be
relatively slowly. Thus the motor efficiency increases with speed.
 Send this page Efficiency is also dependent on the size of the motor since resistive losses tend to be proportionately much higher in smaller devices th
to a friend which can be designed with more efficient magnetic circuits.
Woodbank does not Cogging
monitor or record Cogging is the jerky, non uniform angular velocity of a machine rotor particularly apparent at low speeds in motors with a small number
these emails because the rotor tends to speed up as it approaches the stator poles and to slow down as it leaves the poles. It is also noticeable whe
the frequency of the supply waveform is too low. The problem can be reduced by using skewed rotor windings as well as increasing the
motor.
Do You Agree?
Losses
Is The Information
Losses reduce the efficiency of the machine and usually result in unwanted heat.
Correct?
Copper losses
Can We Make It
Better? These are the I2R heat losses resulting from the current flowing in the windings. The copper losses are variable, depending on
Rate This Page the load on the machine. The iron and other losses tend to be relatively constant.
Stator winding resistance
Rotor winding resistance
Iron Losses
More Sponsors These are losses which occur in the magnetic circuit.
Saturation
This is the wasteful use of energy associated with using materials at flux densities above the saturation
Hysteresis loss
This is the energy needed to magnetise and demagnetise the iron in the magnetic circuit each machine cycle. Since
fixed, they will increase in line with the frequency. See more information about hysteresis. Special low hysteresis stee
to reduce these losses.
Eddy current loss
These losses are due to the unwanted, circulating currents which are induced in the iron of the machine's magnetic c
windings. They are minimised by using laminated iron in the magnetic circuits instead of solid iron. The insulating oxi
laminations inhibits eddy current flow between laminations.
Flux Leakage
In practical magnetic circuits it is not always possible to concentrate all of the magnetic flux where it is needed for optimum ma
maximum energy interchange between the rotor and the stator. Consequently some of the applied energy is lost.
Windage / Friction
These are the mechanical losses resulting from the drag on the movement of the rotor.
Power Factor
An induction motor appears to the power line as a large inductor and consequently the line current lags behind the applied vol
of the motor will then be VAcosΦ where V is the applied voltage, A is the current which flows and Φ is the phase angle by wh
voltage.
CosΦ is known as the power factor. When Φ = 0 the current is in phase with the voltage, cosΦ = 1 and there is no power loss
lags the voltage by 90°, cosΦ = 0 and there will be no effective power delivered to the load. The factor (1 - cos
machine must consume from the source in order to deliver its nominal power.

Generators
As noted above, because of the reaction of the system to an applied force, all rotating machines are simultaneously acting as both motors and g
electromagnetic forces are in play in both cases and the same equations represent the behaviour of the machines in both applications.

Note
The voltage generated in any DC generator is inherently alternating and only becomes DC after it has been rectified by the commutato

Although rotating machines generate alternating current, it is not necessarily purely sinusoidal. The wave shape depends on the size o
between them, the distribution of the windings and the level of flux in the air gap. The output waveform at the generator terminals is like
distorted in all but the most complex of machines.

As with motors there are many different applications of the above principles. See some practical examples in the section on Generators

See Descriptions and Applications of some of the most common of the many types of electrical machines and drives available today
DC Motors
AC Motors
Brushless DC and AC Motors
Special Purpose Motors
Motor Controllers
Generators
Traction Batteries
Das ultimative City eBike Electric Drives - AC Motors - FOC Vector Engine Method
Description and Applications

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