GENERAL EDUCATION

Area: ENGLISH
Focus: Writing in the Discipline
LET Competencies:

• Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in written discourse

Prepared by: Prof. Ma. Concepcion Y. Raymundo

Prof. Matthew M. Nepomuceno

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

This review material consists of the following:

I. Common Sentence Errors

A. Fragments
B. Misplaced/Dangling Modifiers
C. Comma Splice
D. Run-ons
E. Faulty Parallelism
F. Faulty Coordination

II. Errors in Mechanics

A. Punctuation
B. Capitalization

III. Achieving unity and coherence

A. Using Transitional Devices
1. Types
2. Uses
B. Outlining
1. Writing effective thesis statements
IV. Patterns of Paragraph Development/Writing genres

I. COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS

A. Fragments

• “A fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but is in fact only part
of a sentence.” (Hogue, 2003)
• Fragments are only “parts” of the sentence but they are not exactly the sentence
for the reason that the thought is not completely conveyed. While it is true that

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 good writing suggests brevity, it does not mean that shortening sentences without
considering its effects on the meaning is correct. This is where most fragments
occur.
• A possible cause for committing fragments is when “we speak when we write” that
is, when we scribble down something that we usually hear or say. In spoken
conversations, sentence fragments normally occur and most of the time, they are
acceptable since the most important objective of speaking is to get a message
across as briefly yet as accurately as possible.

“Hey George, wanna watch a movie tonight?”

“I can’t. Too much work in the office.”

In the sample conversation above, notice that George’s reply to the question is
constructed incompletely. However, the message got across and the sender was
able to understand it. But try to read the italicized part independently and you will
notice that you cannot extract any idea from it.

Two Basic causes of fragments:

1. When there are no verbs
2. When a subordinating conjunction is placed before an independent clause

Five types of fragments:

1. Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause is often mistaken as a complete sentence, since it “looks” like a

sentence in terms of its construction. However, it should be remembered that a
dependent clause cannot stand on its own and it requires an independent clause in order
to complete its thought. In the example below, you will notice that ideas can be extracted
from the second “sentence.” This confirms that not all “ long sentences” or long strings of
words are sentences.

Buying groceries for the whole month saves time and energy. Because you do not
need to go to the market from time to time.

One way of correcting this type of fragment is to remove the period in between the two
“sentences” and replace the capitalized subordinating conjunction with a small one.

Buying grocery supplies for the whole month saves time and energy because you do
not need to go to the market from time to time.

2. Participial Phrases

Participial phrases usually start with an –ing or –ed word, which functions as a noun or
subject of the sentence. In some cases, when a group of words begin with participial

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phrases the tendency is for the writer to think that it is already a sentence. However, in
the sample sentence below, you will notice that the second “sentence” does not possess
a complete thought because of the participial phrase.

Oliver jumps every New Year season. Believing that he will become taller.

There are various means in order to correct this type of fragment. One is to interchange
the position of the clauses, placing the dependent before the independent clause and
separating them using comma.

Believing that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year season.

Another is by adding a subordinating conjunction before the dependent clause.

Because he believes that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year
Season.

Finally, this fragment may also be corrected by removing the participial phrase in the
second “sentence”

Oliver jumps every New Year Season. He believes he will become taller.

3. Infinitive Phrase fragments

Infinitive phrases begin with the infinitive marker to + the base form of the verb. Similar to
participial phrases, infinitives can also function as nouns in a sentence, and they can also
be a part of a group of words that appears as a sentence.

Jacob went to his grandmother’s house last week. To check if she is recovering from
the accident.

Try to read the second “sentence” and you will notice that it does not convey a complete
thought. This fragment can be corrected by removing the period and making the
capitalized infinitive

Jacob went to his grandmother’s house last week to check if she is recovering from
the accident.

Another way is by interchanging the position of the infinitive phrase with that of the
independent clause, and dividing them using a comma.

To check is she is recovering from the accident, Jacob went to his grandmother’s house
last week.

Lastly, this fragment may also be corrected by adding a subject and a verb (e.g. “He” and
“wants”) to the second “sentence” with the infinitive phrase.

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Jacob went to his grandmother’s house last week. He wants to check if she is recovering
from the accident.

4. Afterthought Fragments

Afterthoughts are additional or extension ideas that writers express in order to expand the
previous idea that he/she has discussed. Afterthoughts usually begin with transitions like:
for example, for instance, like, such as, including, and except. In the sample sentence
below, notice that the second “sentence” where an afterthought is present does not
express a complete idea.

Freckles can do a lot of tricks. Such as flushing the toilet, throwing the trash in a
garbage bin, and walking on two legs.

This type of fragment may be corrected by combining the two sentences into one. This
can be done by removing the period and replacing it with a comma, then by changing the
capitalized letter into a small one.

Freckles can do a lot of tricks, such as flushing the toilet, throwing the trash in a
garbage bin, and walking on two legs.

Another possible way to correct this is by interchanging the afterthought statement with
independent clause. In this case, the transition should be removed. Moreover, the
independent clause will have to be rearranged to construct the sentence clearly. Study
the corrected version below.

Flushing the toilet, throwing the trash in a garbage bin, and walking on two legs are
the tricks that freckles can do.

5. Appositives

“An appositive or appositive phrase” [Hogue, 2003]. We use appositives to add more
details about the noun or the subject of the sentence. Appositive phrases tend to be
extended especially when the writer wants to provide a detailed description of the subject.
This is most probably the reason why strings of words that include appositives are
mistaken to be a sentence. In the sample text below, you will notice that the second
“sentence”, which gives more information about the first one, does not actually have a
complete thought. As a reader, you will be left hanging in understanding the text.

Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night. A very thin silver-colored
camera phone with 20 GB capacity and a 4-megapixel lens.

One way to correct this is by combining the two sentences, following the tips discussed
above.

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Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night, a very thin silver-colored
camera phone with 20 GB capacity and a 4-megapixel lens.

It can also be corrected by adding a subject and a verb (e.g. “it” and “is”) in the second
“sentence”.

Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night. It is a very thin silver-colored
camera phone with 20 GB capacity, a 4-megapixel camera.

B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice

• “A run-on sentence [sometime called run-together or fused sentences] results

when one attempts to correct a comma splice by merely removing the comma
between the two coordinate clauses.” [Tiempo & Tiempo, 1980]
• A run-on sentence is a combination of two sentences without a punctuation to
divide the ideas presented in them, In the example below, notice that there are two
sentences that are merged as one, resulting in a run-on sentence.

Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers he will be the captain
of the ship next month.

Three ways to correct run-on sentences:

1. Place semi-colon in between the two sentences

Jim’s father passed: he board exam for merchant marine officers; he will be the captain
of the ship next month.

2. Add a transitional marker: a subordinating conjunction, or a coordinating

conjunction (it depends upon the nature of the sentence) between the two
sentences

Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers, and he will be the
captain of the ship next month.

3. Divide the sentence into two.

Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers. He will be the captain
of the ship next month.

• A comma splice is committed when a writer uses a comma without the proper
connective. This, according to Tiempo and Tiempo, “destroys the unity of the
sentence”. (Tiempo & Tiempo, 1980) The sample sentence below looks almost
the same with the sample run-on sentence. The only difference is the fact that the
sentence uses a comma to divide the two independent clauses.

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The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage, Eric stood quietly.

Five ways to correct a comma splice:

1. Place a proper coordinating conjunction after the comma to connect the two
sentences.

The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage, but Erick
stood quietly.

2. Use a semi-colon in between the two clauses in place of the comma and the
coordinating conjunction. However, this depends on the degree of separation
necessary in the sentence.

The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage; Eric stood
quietly.

3. Use a semicolon followed by the proper transitional device. A common error is

when we place a comma before transitional device.

Wrong: The crowd cheered loudly when Isti emerged from the backstage,
however, Eric stood quietly.
Correct: The crowd cheered loudly when Isti emerged from the backstage;
however. Eric stood quietly.

4. Subordinate the lesser clause to the main clause.

Wrong: The crowd cheered loudly, Eric stood quietly.

Correct: When the crowd cheered loudly, Eric stood quietly.

5. Separate them into two sentences, especially when the two sentences are not too
closely related.

The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage. Eric stood
quietly.

C. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

• A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause (a dependent clause

whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed) misplaced beside a
word that it does not intend to modify, it is said to “dangle” or hang loosely, without
any clear relationship with the sentence that it belongs to.
• Dangling modifiers pose a problem regarding the meaning that a sentence projects
versus the meaning that it intends to express. In the sample sentence below, the
idea that the sentence projects because of the dangling modifier.
At five years old , Marcus taught his son the basics of playing the drums.

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The phrase At five years old is misplaced beside the subject Marcus since this phrase
refers to the son. In effect, the sentence presents a wrong message to its reader, even
posing a ridiculous meaning.

Common Types of Dangling/Misplaced Modifiers & Ways to Correct them

1. Dangling Participial Phrase

Wrong: Having practiced their musical piece, Lina told the band to take their
dinner.
Correct: Having practiced their musical piece, the band was told to take their dinner.

2. Dangling Infinitive Phrases

Wrong: To read with speed and comfort, the light must be sufficient but not glaring.
(No subject)
Correct: To read with speed and comfort, one must be in place with sufficient but not
glaring light.

3. Dangling Gerund Phrases

Wrong: Hanging on the wall, the Chief Engineer fixed his cover-all.
Correct: Hanging on the wall, the cover-all was fixed by the Chief Engineer.

D. Faculty Parallelism

• “A stylistic arrangement in which similar syntactic patterns repeat, thus allowing

reader or listener to rely on the grammatical repetition to echo the logical similarity
of the thought and thus improving the clarity and efficiency of the passage.”
[http://www.bartleby.com]
• In extending sentences, one should remember that there should be a parallel
structure in the sentence-elements: a noun should go with nouns, adjectives with
adjectives and so on and so forth. Moreover, for more complex forms, such as
gerund phrases, participial phrases, adverbial phrases, adjectival phrases and
others, the same rule applies. Observe the various ambiguous statements
exemplified and corrected below and you will notice how important parallelism is
from the smallest word combination to the long phrases and clauses.

Wrong: The cadet’s dream is to become a ship captain, to buy his own car, and
establishing a business of his own.
Correct: The cadet’s dream is to become a ship captain, to buy his own car, and to
establish of his own.

The above example is a usual example of faulty parallelism. The first two phrases (“to
become” and “to buy”) are infinitive phrases while the last phrase (“establishing a
business”) is a gerundial phrase. The following discussions will further provide you with
situations where parallelism is often forgotten.

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E. Faulty Coordination

• Faulty coordination occurs when two or more Ideas are not equal value, and when
these ideas are connected by a coordinating conjunction.

Correcting Faulty Coordination

Subordinate one of the independent clauses (using subordinating conjunctions or

by making one of the clauses an appositive)

Ambiguous: The captain kept on sailing and the weather was fine.
Better: The captain kept on sailing because the weather was fine.

Ambiguous: Soren Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher who pioneered

existentialism, believes that each person has to individually make the choices that
make up his or her existence.

II. ERRORS IN MECHANICS

A. Capitalization

Capital letters are used to emphasize a certain word in a sentence. When reading,
we often see words that are capitalized as more important than the rest of the
words. It is therefore important to know which word should be capitalized to make
your sentences clearer.

The following rules will help you assess and decide whether the word should be
capitalized or not.

1. Capitalize the first person singular pronoun “I”.

My cousin and I went to Cebu last month.

NOTE: The pronouns “He, Thy, Thou, Thine, His” and other pronouns referring to
God are also capitalized.

Jesus loves us the He died on the cross to pay for our sins.

2. Capitalized the first word of:

a. Every sentence
Every person has the power to decide for his own life.

b. A quoted sentence
The teacher said, “Pick up the pieces of paper.”

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 NOTE: Do not capitalize the continuation of a quotation.

“Pick up the pieces of paper,” the teacher said, “ and arrange your chairs.”

c. An outline
7.1 Orientation
7.1.1 Course Orientation
7.1.2 Diagnostic Reading and Writing

3. Capitalize titles that precede names. However, they should not be capitalized if
they are not accompanied by names.

Correct: I saw Dr. Padilla this morning.

Wrong: I saw the doctor this morning.

NOTE: In some literary pieces, titles are capitalized when they are used as the
character’s pseudonym.

The Teacher called Bishop Aringarosa this morning and ordered for the plan to be
carried out immediately.

NOTE: Capitalized the little when only one person holds the title.

The Dalai Lama and the Pope met at the United Nations forum for peace.

NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of academic degrees except if it is affixed after
a person’s name, e.g., Master of Arts degree

Kurt Thomas, Master of Arts or Kurt Thomas, MA

4. Capitalize the first letter of the title of a composition and all the important
words in it except for prepositions, conjunctions and articles. However, if
these conjunctions and prepositions consist of more than four letters (e.g. among,
between, because, etc.), they should be capitalized as well.

Grapes of Wrath
Living Among the Wolves

5. Capitalize nationalities, languages, ethnic groups, and races.

Filipinos French
Quetzalcoatl Chicano
6. Capitalized name of God, religions and their followers, holy books, and holy
days.

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 God, Allah, Buddha
Easter, Ramadan
Bible, Koran, Rig Veda
Muslim, Christian, Buddhist

7. Capitalized specific places and geographic areas.

The Middle East Gulf of Mexico

Pearl Harbor Nagasaki

8. Capitalize specific structures such as buildings, bridges, roads, dams,

monuments, and parks.

Malacanan Palace Golden Bridge

Skyway Suez Canal
Luneta Park Bonifacio Monument

9. Capitalized specific times, like days of the week, months of the year and
holidays.

Friday May
Independence Day Mother’s Day

NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons. (winter, spring, summer,
fall)

10. Capitalize historical events, periods, and documents.

Spanish Civil War People Power

Tokugawa Era The Philippine Constitution

11. Capitalize names of organizations, companies, schools, sports teams, etc.

The European Union The New York Knicks Harvard University

NOTE: Do not capitalize these entities (university, corporation, college,

avenue, etc.) unless they are preceded by a proper noun. However, as the
language continues to evolve, it is possible that these entities are used as
proper names of business establishments. In this case, they should be
capitalized.

12. Capitalize titles of school courses.

D11- Ships, Ship Routines and Construction

Introduction to Mass Communiucation

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 NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of subjects or fields except languages
and names of nationalities, religions and ethnic groups.

calculus Mandarin
trigonometry Asian cuisine

13. Capitalize trademark names.

Pepsi Nokia
Toyota Sony

14. Capitalize names of ships, airplanes, and trains.

MV Asuka F-14 Tomcat

Shinkansen

15. Capitalize salutations and complimentary endings close in letters.

Dear Mr. Chavez, Sincerely yours,

16. Most proper adjectives-those that are formed from proper nouns-are capitalized.

Shakespearean play Pythagorean Theorem

NOTE: Adjectives and nouns which were once proper names but are
presently regarded as common nouns and adjectives are not to be
capitalized.

herculean task quixotic person

NOTE: Some proper adjectives are capitalized, while some are not. Consult
a dictionary (printed or online) to verify whether it should be capitalized or
not.

17. Some abbreviations are capitalized while others are not. In general, abbreviations
are capitalized when they stand for the first letter of a word.

UN—United Nations

NOTE: However, there are exceptions to this rule, like most Latin
abbreviations. In order to be sure, it is best to consult a dictionary(printed or
online) to verify whether it should be capitalized or not.

i.e. –id est mph—miles per hour

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B. Punctuation

Punctuations are small “symbols or characters” that are placed in strategic

parts of the sentence in order to make the idea that the writer wishes to
convey clearer. There are various kinds of punctuations that are used in the
English language and these punctuations carry out specific functions in the
discourse. Hence, a writer must know what punctuation should be used in a
specific situation when writing, because a wrong punctuation may pose a
possible misinformation of the meaning of the text.
1. End Punctuation

➢ Uses of the period ( . )

1. Use a period at the end of a declarative (statement) and an imperative

sentence (command).

Lalaine is pretty and sweet.

Pick up your shoes.

2. Use Period as a decimal point in numbers.

3.14 P3.50

3. Use a period after an abbreviated personal title and after some

abbreviations that are written in small letters or end with a small letter.

Mr. Ph.D. Capt.

Co. Inc. Prof.
i.e. e.g. ibid.
a.m. / p.m. or A.M. /P.M.

NOTE: British English does not use periods in these abbreviations.

4. If the sentence ends with a quotation, enclose the period inside the
quotation marks.

The commander said hastily, “Get up and pack up your things.”

➢ Uses of the question mark ( ? )

1. Use the question mark after direct questions, tag questions, and polite
requests.

What’s your name?

You love me, don’t you?
Could you help me fix this table?

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 NOTE: Do not use the question mark after indirect questions. An
indirect question is reported by another person.

Wrong: Raiden wants to know if you are an engineer?

Correct: Raiden wants to know if you are an engineer.

2. Use a question mark in a series of questions even if they are not complete
sentences.

I sometimes ask myself. Why on earth am I here for? What’s my

purpose? How will I attain it?

3. If the information in a certain statement is not certain, a question mark,

enclosed in parenthesis, is placed after the doubtful detail.

In 1885 (?) Walt Whitman published a collection of poems entitled

Leaves of Grass.

➢ Uses of the exclamation point ( ! )

1. The exclamation point is almost never used in business or academic writing

since it expresses strong emotion. The exclamation point may be used
more effectively in other forms of writing, especially in literary pieces
because it conveys the feeling of the writer and the characters that are
involved in the text.

Ouch! Fire!

NOTE: Do not overuse exclamation points when writing. Too many

exclamation points lessen the emotions set within the text. For
example, the story’s climax will be less thrilling if every sentence
preceding the climactic part uses an exclamation point instead of a
period.

2. If the sentence ends with a quoted exclamatory sentence, enclose the

exclamation point within the quotation marks. However, if only the final
word is quoted, the exclamation point should be placed outside the
quotation marks.

Everybody panicked inside the cinema, when someone shouted,

“There is a bomb inside this, movie house!”

It’s unfair because Martin did his best just to be branded as a

“cheater”!
➢ Comma ( , )

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 Commas seem to be “just” a slight mark that we use as a pause
marker especially in long sentences. However, this punctuation mark
plays a very important role in making clear ideas when writing. It
avoids confusion on the part of the reader and it avoids ideas from
“overflowing” in sentences. Compare the difference in the meaning
of the two sentences below:

Vote, Vivian! (The speaker tells Vivian to vote)

Vote Vivian! (The speaker tells other people to vote Vivian)

The following provides you with the guidelines in using commas that
one should take into consideration when writing.

1. Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that join independent

clauses in a compound sentence.

Jason loves writing essays, and he loves to read voluminous novels

as well.

Artist possess a higher level of intelligence, but they are often

regarded as insane and deviants.

NOTE: Commas are used to separate parts of sentences, and they

are never used to separate sentences. Hence, it is wrong to put
comma in between a sentence which has only one independent
clause.

Wrong: Jared’s car is sleek, and new.

This sentence has only one independent clause and a comma is not
necessary to separate the adjectives “sleek” and “new”.

Correct: Jared’s car is sleek and new.

Or
Correct: Jared’s car is sleek, and it is new.

2. Put a comma after introducers. Introducers may be words, phrases or

dependent clauses that introduce the first independent clause in a
sentence.

Word introducer: Primarily, the captain decided to dock at the port of

Miami, but the situation there led them to go on with their journey.

Phrase introducer: For example, “automobile” in British English is

“car” in American English.

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 Dependent clause: Since Michael left to work abroad, her girlfriend
has become melancholic.

3. Put a comma around a modifier that provides “extra-information”. An extra-

information is a modifier that the writer wishes to add within his “train of
thought”; we may also call this as a “spur-of-the-moment” modifier. It is
dubbed as extra-information since it is not needed to identify the object that
it modifies.

Necessary modifier: A person who can write both hands is an

ambidextrous person.

In this sentence, the modifier “who can write on both hands” is

necessary to tell something about ambidextrous person is.

Extra-information modifier: Albert, who can write on both hands, is

an ambidextrous person.

In this sentence, the clause “who can write on both hands” is not
needed to discuss what ambidextrous is, since it does not tell
anything about it. If you remove this clause, the sentence still makes
sense. Moreover, extra-information may be found in the sentence
initially, medially, and finally. Hence, in this type of modifier, a
comma should be used.

Initial: Crawling silently, the soldiers entered the enemy’s camp.

Medial: Gina, a sweet and smart lady, achieved the highest award in
their batch.
Final: The judges stopped in front of the booth of Michelle and
Hazel, who were selling hand-woven blankets.

4. Use comma to separate transitional signals from the independent clause

that it belongs. These transitional markers can be found in the initial,
medial, and final positions.

Initial: Moreover, the labor leaders asked for an increase in the daily
wage of laborers.
Medial: In Middle Eastern countries, for instance, women are
required to serve the groom’s family.
Final: Captains and engineers experienced hardships on their way to
success, of course.

5. Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
The team captain said, “Focus on your tasks and we will win this
match.”

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 NOTE: As a rule, commas are always placed to the left of a
quotation mark. Observe the example below and the one above.

“Focus on your task and we will win this match,” the team captain
said.

NOTE: Do not use commas with indirect quotations.

Wrong: The team captain said, that we should focus on our tasks to
win the match.
Correct: The team captain said that we should focus on our tasks to
win the match.

6. Use the comma to separate items in a series. These items may be words,
phrases, or clauses.

Words: Today, there are lot of means for communicating such as

telephones, e-mails, and cellphones.
Phrases: Every Friday night I go home early, wash my clothes, study
my lessons, and sleep really late.
Clauses: Her boyfriend always wants to know where she is going
with, and what time she will be home.

NOTE: Do not use a comma if there are only two items. Moreover,
to create a clearer presentation of items in a series, it would be best
to include a comma before the conjunction and.

7. Aside from its function in sentences, commas also function in various

elements in the English language, they are listed below:

a. Names
dela Cruz, Juan

b. Titles
Venancio L. Mendiola, Ph. D.
Fernando Poe, Jr.
Danny P. Rosal, MM

c. Names of Place and addresses

San Agustin Church is located at Gen. Luna cor. Sta.
Potenciana Streets, Intramuros, Manila, Philippines.
d. Dates
Kramer was born on November 23, 1989, at exactly 3:09 am.

NOTE: Commas are deleted if the day is not included (July 1956)
and if the date is written using the British English style (24 December 2009).

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 e. Numbers
Today’s jackpot price in the lottery costs $1,238,098.

f. Nouns of direct address

Please keep quiet, Jimmy.
Daddy, please come home early tonight.

g. Yes, no, and, mild interjections (oh and well)

Yes, we are allowed to take 9 units every semester.
Well, what we could do is to pray for their safety.

h. Tag questions
You love me, don’t you?
I passed the test, didn’t I?

i. Salutations and complimentary clause

Dear Charo,
Sincerely yours,

➢ Semicolon

It is used to separate independent clauses when the relationship

between them is clear even without connecting word. This type of
sentence is possible only if the two independent clauses are closely
related in meaning.

My older sister is working in the office; my younger sister is still in

elementary school.

There are two instances in writing where a semi-colon should be

used. One is when you use a transition signal in between
independent clauses to make a compound sentence, and the other is
when separating a series which contains commas in it. In the first
function, a semicolon should be used before the transitional signal
and a comma after it.

Seafarers receive high salaries and just compensation; in fact, there

are many aspiring seafarers in the Philippines.

On the other hand, the second function of the semicolon is to make a

clearer separation between items in a series, especially those that
have been separated by a comma.

Should we go to Palawan, where there are beautiful underwater

caves and clean rivers; to Boracay, where there are beautiful white

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 sand beaches,; or to Sagada where there are clean mountains for
hiking?

➢ Colon

1. A colon is placed at the end of an independent clause and is followed by the

items in a series. These items should not be capitalized unless they are
proper nouns.

Please bring the following tomorrow: pentel pens, cartolina, and

crayons

You are required to rad the following novels: War and Peace, The
Red and the Black, Tale of Genji, and Ulysses.

2. A colon may also be used before an appositive-a noun or noun phrase that
describes another noun or phrase-and before a direct quoptation.

Marcus has one great love in his life: music.

Freddie’s last words were: “take care of my family.”

NOTE: Do not use a colon after a preposition or a verb, unless the

words “the following” are affixed after the verb.

Wrong: After this trip, we are going to: Brazil, China, and London.
Correct: After this trip, we are going to Brazil, China, and London.
Wrong: The criteria for judging are: originality, relevance to the topic,
and artistry.
Correct: The criteria for judging are the following: originality,
relevance to the topic, and artistry.

The criteria for judging are originality, relevance to the topic, and
artistry.

3. Colons could be used before a subtitle, to give time and after business letter
salutations.

2001: A Space Odyssey is one fiction film that one should watch.
Meet me at the parking lot at 2:45 PM today.
Dear Mr. Perez:
➢ Apostrophe

Apostrophes are commonly neglected in expressing possessions.

Like the comma, an apostrophe is just slight mark, but it plays a very
important role to make the meaning of the sentence clearer. It has

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 three main uses: to make noun and indefinite pronoun possessives,
to make contractions, and to make a few special plurals.

Possessions with nouns

the captain’s cabin
seniors’ committee
editor-in-chief’s table
chairman of the board’s request
Bonnie and Clyde’s loot

Possession with pronouns

somebody’s ballpen
someone’s car

Contractions and years

Are not = aren’t
She would = she’d
Cannot = can’t
Edmond is a member of Batch ’06
Jazz music first became popular in the ‘20s.
In special plurals
There are four s’s and four I’s in the word Mississippi.

NOTE: Do not be confused in using the apostrophe. Never

interchanged the use of It’s to Its. It’s is a contradiction of It is, while
Its is a possessive adjective. Moreover, do not confused with the
contraction of a noun + is and the possessive form (Jack’s <Jack is>
going to Manila) (Jack’s parents will visit him.). Be sure that you are
using the correct one when writing to avoid confusion in meaning.

2.6 Quotation marks

Quotation marks are always used in pairs. Its main function is to

present a direct quotation. A direct quotation is someone’s exact words
or report. However, there are other uses of quotation marks. They are
used to emphasize the titles of newspaper and magazine articles, short
stories, poems, books, songs, movies, and television programs among
others. Furthermore, they are usually used to emphasize an unusual
word—especially those with ironic or sarcastic meanings—or foreign
words.

“Submit your report tomorrow,” the professor told the class.

Conrado de Quiros’ article “Enchanted Kingdom” criticized the

government’s ability to carry out its objectives.

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 In the movie “The Last Samurai”, Tom Cruise presented a very colorful
and patriotic Japanese culture.

His “palace” is made of junk plywood and zinc sheets.

The child’s “masterpiece” was treasured by her parents.

The Filipino spirit of “bayanihan” does not have any equivalent in the
western societies.

Note: Punctuations should be enclosed inside the quotation marks, as

in the example below.

Father asked, “Where are you going?”

“Where are you going?” Father asked.

If an interrogative sentence has an intervening phrase or clause, which

is enclosed in a quotation mark, the question mark should be placed
outside the quotation marks. On the other hand, if the interrogative
sentence is the quoted part itself, the punctuation should be inside the
quotation mark.

Did you participate in the “donate blood, save life campaign”?

The principal asked us, “Did you participate in the donate blood, sve life
campaign?”

2.7 Parentheses

Similar to the quotation marks, parentheses also go in pairs.

Parentheses have two uses, one is to enclose an information that is not
essential, yet may be helpful to your reader, such as a second thought
and the other is to enclose numbers and letters that label items in a list.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is considered as the father of

Existentialism.
Parentheses (singular: parentheses) have two uses.

The decision was based on the (1) eligibility of the candidate, (2)
achievements in the academic field, and (3) ability to lead the
university.

Each member of the group has the privilege to choose from a (a) car
loan or (b) housing loan.

2.8 Brackets and Ellipses

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 Brackets appear as a modification of the parentheses. There are
various forms of brackets that are available, namely: the box or square
brackets [ ]; the curly brackets { }; and the angle brackets < >. Although
all of them are brackets, they function differently.
The square bracket is used to enclose an explanation cr additional
information inserted by a person or editor quoting a text. These
explanations are done to clarify the message that the original text—
from which the writer discusses—presents.

“I appreciate it [the award] but I refuse to accept it”, this was what the
son of the murdered writer wrote in an open letter to the local
government.

The ambassador stressed that “children [sic] should be educated.”

Here, the Latin abbreviation sic (which literally means “stand as it is”)
shows that the writer did not change anything—including the error—
from the ambassador’s statement.

Moreover, square brackets are used to enclose stage directions in a

play. Although these directions are often in words, phrases, or
fragments, the initial letter is capitalized and a period is used to
terminate the enclosed words.

Fidel: My God! What have I done?! I must get out of here [Runs out of
stage.]
[Enter policeman.]

2.9 Dashes and Hyphens

The dash and the hyphen—though both of them are short lines—are
often interchanged.
Moreover, most people are not even acquainted with their difference.
In this regard, it should be remembered that a hyphen (which is longer
than the word dash) is shorter in measure. Some would call it the “n-
dash” or “en-dash” because it has the same width with the letter “n”.
On the other hand, the dash is the longer one, which is also called the
“m-dash” “em-dash” because of its measure as well.

Hyphens are usually used to indicate ranges of connections between

two things, such as the examples below:

• 4-8 years old

• June-July 1946
• pp. 169-175

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 • Detroit Pistons beat l.A. Lakers 100-101
• Sino-Japanese war
• Father-son camping
• The Liberal party won the senatorial slate 13-0

On the other hand, the dash or the “m-dash” usually functions as a

substitute for the parentheses or commas. Dashes are more informal
than commas and they are not usually seen in formal writing.
Moreover, the dash also presents an additional idea that the writer
wishes to include in between the train of thought in the sentence. This
idea is not grammatically subordinate to the main sentence.
The dash is useful in three situations: for emphasis, around appositives
containing commas, and before dramatic shifts.

For emphasis

Everyone in the university—deans, professors, staff, and students—

was disappointed with the decision of the board of regents.

Before dramatic containing commas

He walked elegantly down the street, sat down in an antique bench at

the park—and put a bullet through his head.

III. ACHIEVING UNITY AND COHERENCE

• Unity and coherence are two of the most basic criteria that writers should
observe.
• Unity deals with the “oneness” of ideas, i.e. the overall presentation of
the written output should show relevant ideas.
• Coherence, which comes from the Latin word “cohere” of “to stick
together” deals with the way ideas are interconnected.
• Thus, written outputs should not just have a single unifying idea; these
ideas should be presented in relation to each other, i.e., transfer of
discussion from one idea/sentence/paragraph to another should be
smooth.
• One of the ways to maintain unity and coherence is through the use of
transitional or cohesive devices; these are words that function as
“bridges” among ideas, examples, and/or illustrations.

Table of Transitional/Cohesive Devices

Function Transitional/Cohesive Devices

To show addition again, also, and then, besides, equally
important, finally, first, further, furthermore,
in addition, in the first place, last, likewise,

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To compare
To give examples or intensity
To summarize, repeat, or conclude
To indicate place
To indicate time
To indicate cause and effect
moreover, next, or, still, then, too
although, and yet, at the same time, but,
conversely, despite, even so, even though,
for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of,
nevertheless, nonetheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the
other hand, otherwise, regardless, still,
though, yet
after all, as an illustration, certainly, even ,
for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, it
is true that, namely, of course, specifically,
that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the
truth, truly
all in all, all together, as a result, as had
been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in
conclusion, in other words, in particular, in
short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the
whole, that is, therefore, to put it
differently, to summarize
above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere,
farther on, here, near, nearby, on the other
side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the
left
After a while, afterward, as long as, as
soon as, at length, at that time, before,
currently, earlier, eventually, first (second,
third, etc.), finally, formerly, immediately, in
the meantime, in the past (future), lately,
later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly,
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, until
now, when, while
accordingly, as a result, because,
consequently, for this purpose, hence,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore,
thereupon, thus, to this end, with this
object

• Another way to maintain unity and coherence is by preparing an outline. An outline

is the overall plan of an essay that you will write in the Academic Writing Class. It
serves as the blueprint of your essay, which means that it presents a detailed
picture of your paper. It may also be regarded as the pipeline that makes an ideas
flow clearly from one to another—just like a water pipeline that “guides” the flow of
water

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• There are two types of outline: the sentence outline which consist of complete
sentences that would expound the ideas that will be presented in the written
output; and the topic outline which presents keywords or phrases.
• An outline should include a thesis statement, which is the overview of the entire
essay. This may be regarded as the synopsis of the essay. However, take note
that this is a thesis statement NOT statements.

SAMPLE OUTLINE
Thesis Statement: Abortion, an act of forcibly ejecting a fetus out of the mother’s womb,
should be legalized because this helps solve the problems of population, allows women to
solve unwanted pregnancy, and prevents the birth of children with abnormalities or health
problems—which could bring long-term problems to the child and to the mother.

I. Introduction (This portion is very important because it catches the interest of the
reader)
A. Grab attention (possible options are)
1. Questions
2. Anecdotes
3. Line from movie/song/poem etc

B. State thesis or the reason for writing this or importance of your essay
II. Body
A. Build points (idea 1)
1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims

B. Build points (idea 2)

1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims

C. Build point ideas (idea 3)

1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims
III. Conclusion
A. (Option 1) Reemphasize main idea
B. (Option 2) Answer the question in introduction
C. (Option 3) Connect with the story/anecdote in introduction
D. (Option 4) Continue line of song/poem/movie etc.

IV. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT/WRITING GENRES

• There are various Writing Genres or Patterns of Paragraph Development,
and each pattern or genre has specific function. Often, these genres are
merged with each other to make the written output more effective. For
example, in writing an Argumentative essay, the writer may include a cause-
effect essay to show his arguments. (e.g. “We should legalize abortion

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 because presently, the Philippine population is 90-million. This situation
sinks us into poverty. Naturally, more people means more responsibility…if
we don’t legalize it now, our country will more likely be over populated and
tremendously poor.”)
• Each genre uses a particular transitional device presented above.

Descriptive Essay

• The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its

point.
• When writing a descriptive essay, writers should have a broad fund of
modifiers, i.e., adjectives. Moreover, writers should be specific in using
adjectives and other words that would describe the topic, i.e., beautiful may
be different from pretty, cute, gorgeous, etc.
• Figures of speech may also be used but these shouldn’t be clichés like
“Boracay is the apple of my eye.”

Sample Descriptive Paragraph

Ice is the same name given to any one of the 14 known solid phrases of water. In
non-scientific contexts, it is a crystalline solid, which can appear transparent or an
opaque bluish-white color depending on the presence of impurities such as air.

Process Essay
• A process essay may either be “How to do” or “How something works”
• In a “How to do” essay the objective of the writer is to tell the reader how a
certain product is produced. Most often, this type of essay uses the first
person point of view because it “demonstrates” how something is does to
the reader. (e.g. How to apply for the Fulbright Scholarship Grant)
• A “How something works” essay shows or explains how a certain process or
method works. (e.g. Process of digestion)

Sample “How something works” Paragraph

Many people are very curious on how a caterpillar can transform into a very
beautiful butterfly. Each evolution has its own scientific explanation. First, it will start
and will create a cocoon for its protection for the third process and for it to take place.
Third, after the evolution/transformation of the caterpillar inside the cocoon is finally
completed, the caterpillar will break out of the cocoon and spread its wings and is
already considered a butterfly.

Comparison-Contrast
• A comparison-contrast essay presents the relationship between two items;
this may be in the form of similarities and differences.

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 • This essay may include descriptions so as to clearly express the degree of
similarity of difference between the two topics.
• This essay may help readers in choosing, i.e., between two schools, brand
of cellphone, place for vacation, etc.
• This essay may be organized by using either the “point-by-point
organization” or the “block organization”
• In the “point-by-point organization” similarities or differences are the primary
concern.

Point-by-Point or Alternating Arrangement

I. Introduction in which you state your purpose

II. First differences
A. Topic 1
B. Topic 2
III. Second differences
A. Topic 2
B. Topic 2
IV. Third differences
A. Topic 1
B. Topic 2
V. Conclusion

• In the “block organization”, the focus is on the two topics.

Block Arrangement

I. Introduction in which you state your purpose

II. Topic 1
A. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
III. Topic 2
A. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity\Difference or Factor 1
IV. Conclusion

Sample Cause-Effect Paragraph

The tropical rainforest of West Africa, Brazil, Latin America and Southeast Asia
are some of the important environmental regions of the world because they hold millions
of unique plants, animals and people. However, they are being destroyed rapidly for
agriculture, mining and logging. This essay will examine the causes of this destruction
and outline its effects on our lives.
One of the main causes of this is logging for timber. Millions of hectares of trees

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are cut down every year, often illegally. The most valuable wood is taken and not
replaced, and landless people move in along the new logging roads.

Arguments

• An argumentative essay presents premises and conclusions regarding an issue. It

presents the writer’s stand-whether he\she agrees or not. However, it should be
noted that an argumentative essay is different from an opinion simply because an
argumentative essay shows evidence and support details, while most opinions are
based on beliefs and personal ideologies.
• Premises are reasons that support conclusions, while a conclusion is the key
assertion, or claim.
• In the sample statement: “Because the poor spend proportionately more of their
income on gambling than higher income groups and because gambling sends a
‘something for nothing’ message that erodes the work ethic, government should
take steps to contain and curtail the spreading of gambling.” The underlined part
are the premises, while the italicized part is the conclusion.

Sample Argumentative Paragraph

Because of the pressing issues regarding global economic recession, it is high

time that the government support programs that would boost the country’s economy.
We should set aside moral issues and start thinking of ways to curb to growing
problems in finance. One way to deal with this is by legalizing prostitution.
We all know that this is the oldest profession and legalizing this will allow more
revenues. How? Well, basically, legalizing prostitution is tantamount to taxation. Each
prostitute will be taxed. Hence, a portion of their profits will contribute to the needs of
the nation.

PART IV – BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES

Cooper, S. & Patton, R. (2001). Writing Logically, Thinking Critically, New york:
Longman
Forlini, Gary et al. 1990. Prentice Hall Grammar and Composition. Prentice Hall, Inc. :
New Jersey
Hogue, A. (2003). The Essentials of English. New York: Pearson Education Inc.
Langan, John. 1997 English skills with Readings Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Master, P. (2004). English grammar and technical writing. Manila: Regional Printing
Center of the U,S. Department of state.
Mills, G. H. & Walter J.A. (1978). Technical writing. 4th ed . New York: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston
Tiempo, E. & Tiempo E. (1980). College Writing and Reading. Quezon City: Rex
Printing Co.
Wingersky, J. et. Al. (1995). Writing Paragraphs and Essays: Integrating Reading,
Writing, and Grammar Skills. California: Wadsworth.

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