Machine Tools and

Machining
SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. SHAHID FAROOQ
PREPARED BY: FAISAL MAQSOOD
ENROLLMENT NO: 2017-ME-527
Abrasive Machining Processes
Introduction

 Abrasive machining involves material removal by the action of hard,

abrasive particles.
 The use of abrasives to shape parts is probably the oldest material
removal process.

They are important because Introduction:

 They can be used on all types of materials ranging from soft metals
to hardened steels and hard nonmetallic materials such as ceramics
and silicon.
 Extremely fine surface finishes (0.025 µm).
 For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to extremely
close tolerances.
Types of Abrasive Machining
Processes
 Grinding
 Honing
 Lapping
 Super-finishing
 Polishing
 Buffing
 Abrasive water jet machining
 Ultrasonic machining
Difference between grinding and
milling
 The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more
numerous than the teeth on a milling cutter.
 Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
 The abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are randomly oriented.
 A grinding wheel is self-sharpening.
“Particles on becoming dull either fracture to create new
cutting edges or are pulled out of the surface of the wheel to expose
new grains”
 Surface Grinding

Vertical Surface Grinding Horizontal Surface Grinding

Surface Grinding

Horizontal Grinding Machine

Cylindrical Grinding

Two types of cylindrical grinding:

(a) external, and (b) internal
External Centerless Grinding
Grinding Wheel and Workpiece
Interaction
 Grit-workpiece (forming chip)
 Chip-bond
 Chip-workpiece
 Bond-workpiece

 Except the grit-workpiece interaction, which is expected t o

produce chip, the remaining three undesirably increase the total
grinding force and power requirement.
 Therefore, efforts should always be made to maximize gritworkpiece
interaction leading to chip formation and to minimize the rest for
best utilization of the available power.
Grinding Wheel Parameters

 Type of Abrasive material

 Grain size
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure
 Bonding material
Abrasive Materials

 General Properties
Hardness, wear resistance, toughness, friability
Effective grit geometry due to
material loading at tip

 Grit geometry may undergo substantial change due to mechanical or

chemical attrition leading to rounding or flattening of the sharp cutting
points.
 This happens when the work material has hard or abrasive constituent.
 A chip material adhered to the tip of the grit because of some chemical
affinity can also change the effective rake angle of the grit leading to high
grinding force, temperature and poor performance of the grinding wheel.
SiC and Ferrous Materials

 SiC abrasives are harder than friable Al₂Oᴣ but they are usually
inferior for grinding most ferrous materials.
 This is due to the dissociation of SiC to react with and adhere to iron
at elevated temperatures. (Affinity of silicon or carbon for the
workpiece ) .
 Therefore, SiC tends to work better than Al₂Oᴣ on some ferrous
metals with excess carbon.
 Superiority of SiC on some cast irons is due to the presence of small
amounts of SiC as a normal constituent in the iron, whic h would
have a more drastic effect on the wear of the softer Al₂Oᴣ
Grain Size

 Grain size is expressed in terms of a SIEVE NUMBER, Sn which

corresponds to the number of openings per linear inch.
 The diameter of an abrasive grain is given by
 The larger the size of grains, more will be material removal, but
surface finish will be worse.
Sieve No Type of Grain
10-24 Coarse
30-60 Medium
70-180 Fine
220-600 Very Fine
Grinding Wheel Structure

“Open” and “dense”

In what conditions these
structures be provided?
Wheel Grade

 Indicates the strength of the binding material.

 When the work material is hard, the grains wear out easily and the
sharpness of the cutting edges is quickly lost. This is known as WHEEL
GLAZING.
 To avoid this problem, a soft wheel should be used.
 A-H – Soft Wheel
 J-P – Medium Wheel
 Q-Z – Hard Wheel
Bonding Materials

 Must stand centrifugal forces and high temperatures

 Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel
 Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet allow worn
grains to be dislodged so new sharp grains are exposed
Bonding Materials

 Vitrified Bond (V) – Strong and Rigid, commonly used.

 Resinoid (B) – Provides shock absorption and elasticity. They are
strong enough.
 Silicate (S) – Provides softness (grains dislodge quickly)
 Shellac (E) – Used for making thin but strong wheels possessing some
elasticity.
 Rubber Bonds (R) – For making flexible wheels.
 Metallic Bond (M) – For diamond wheels only.
Grinding Wheel Specification
Grinding Chips

Fig: (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive

grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the
large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle
is 0.065mm in diameter. (b) Chip formation by an abrasive
grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the
grain and the small shear angle
Chip Formation
 Chips in this process are formed by the same mechanism of compression and
shear as other machining processes.
 As the grains or abrasives become dull, the cutting forces increase. The increase
in the cutting force causes the grains to plow and rub rather than cut. As the
plowing and rubbing increases, increases, the grains fracture fracture at the
cutting cutting edge to revile a new cutting edge.
Chip Formation

 The importance of the grit shape can be easily realized because it

determines the grit geometry e.g. rake and clearance angle.
 The grits do not have definite geometry and the grit rake angle may
vary from +45 to -60 or more.
 Grit with favorable geometry can produce chip in shear mode.
However, grits having large negative rake angle or rounded cutting
edge do not form chips but may rub or make a groove by plowing
leading to lateral flow of the workpiece material.
Effect of grinding velocity and rake
angle on force

 A negative rake angle always leads to higher cutting force.

 The difference is narrowed at a high grinding velocity and the
grinding force becomes virtually independent of the rake angle.
Various Stages of Grinding with Grit
Depth of Cut

 At a small grit penetration only sliding of the grit occurs against the workpiece.
In this zone, rise of force with increase of grit penetration is quite high.
 With further increase of the grit penetration, grit starts ploughing causing plastic
flow of the material also associated with high grinding force.
 With further increase of penetration, the grit start cutting and the rate of rise of
force with increase of grit depth of cut is much less than what can be seen in
the sliding and ploughing zone.
Variation of critical depth of cut
with grinding velocity

 Grinding is a combination of rubbing, ploughing and cutting (actual

chip formation) .
 A certain level of grit penetration into workpiece is required before
chip formation can start.
 Magnitude of critical grit depth of cut required to initiate cutting
becomes less with the increase of grinding velocity.
Determination of the Density of
Active Grains
 Backer, Marshall and Shaw method: the grinding wheel is rolled over
a glass plate covered with a layer of carbon black.
 Peklenik and Opitz method: employs a thermocouple located at
the surface of the workpiece. As each active grain passes, a
thermocouple junction is formed between the wire and the
workpiece and a pulse is obtained from the high temperature
developed that can be counted using an oscilloscope.
 Grisbrook method: the surface of the grinding wheel is viewed on a
projection microscope, and the number of cutting points passing a
line on the projection screen is counted as the wheel is rotated a
given amount.
Testing of Grinding Wheels

 Strength of a bond: pass a sintered metal carbide or diamond chisel

over the wheel surface in such a way that it tears a layer of grains
from the bond. The forces required to separate a layer of grains
from the bond are taken as a measure of the strength of the bond.
 Hardness:
1. Drill the wheel with a hard spade-type drill with a constant force.
The depth of penetration in a given time is a measure of wheel
hardness.
2. Use an air/abrasive jet to break the bond. The depth of
penetration of the jet erosion in a standard period of time is used
to determine equivalent wheel hardness.
3. Measure the resonant frequency of an isolated wheel after a sharp
blow with a rubber hammer and relate it to hardness.
Grinding Wheel Wear

 Grain fracture: a portion of the grain breaks off, but the rest of the
grain remains bonded in the wheel.
 Attritious wear: dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat spots
and rounded edges.
 Bond fracture: the individual grains are pulled out of the bonding
material.
Grinding Wheel Wear

 (1): the grains are initially sharp, and wear is accelerated due to
grain fracture.
 (2): characterized by attritious wear, with some grain and bond
fracture.
 (3): the grains become dull and the amount of ploughing and
rubbing increases relative to cutting.
Slotter Machine
Slotter Machine

Slotter Machine Definition:

 A machine tool uses for removing unwanted material chips from the
work piece to make splines, grooves and more.
 This is a reciprocating type of Machine tool. (The Reciprocating type
of Machine tools are Shaper, Planner and Slotter Machine).
 It is known mostly for machining internal surfaces.
 The tool we use in this is Single Point cutting Tool which is made up of
High-Speed Steel.
 This machine is also known as vertical shaper machine.
Slotter Machine
Schematic Diagram of Slotter
Machine:
Working Principle of Slotter
Machine:
 The working of the Slotter machine is similar to the shaper
machine do but the main difference between them is the Shaper
machine works horizontally whereas Slotter machines work vertically.
Slotter Machine Mechanism:

 Hydraulic Drive (Greater speed Flexibility, Smoother operation,

Stroke length can be adjusted )
 Variable Speed Motor Drive (In this Multi-speed arrangement)
Hydraulic Drive:

 A speed motor drives a hydraulic pump that delivers oil at a

constant pressure to the line.
 A regulating valve admits oil under pressure to each end on the
piston alternately.
 At the same time allowing oil from the opposite end of the piston to
return to the reservoir.
 The piston is pushed by the oil and being connected to ram by
piston rod, pushes the ram carrying the tool.
 The admission of oil to each end of the piston, alternately, is accomplished with
the help of trip dogs and pilot valves.
 As the ram moves and complete its stroke (Forward and Return) a trip dog will
trip the pilot valve which operates the regulating valve.
 The regulating valve will admit the oil to the other side of the piston and the
motion of the ram will get reversed.
 The length of the ram stroke will depend upon the position of trip dogs. The
length of the ram stroke can be changed by unclamping and moving the trip
dogs to the desired position.
Variable Speed Motor Drive:

 In this type of slotter, speed is obtained by different gears present in

the gearbox and the shaft rotates with the help of an electrical
motor.
 Basically it is used in modern large slotting machines.
Slotter Machine Parts:

A slotter machine consists of these following parts:

 Base.
 Column.
 Saddle.
 Crosslide.
 Rotating table.
 Ram and tool head assembly.
 Ram drive mechanism.
 Feed mechanism.
Slotter Machine Parts:
Base or Bed

 The base is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and the
entire load of the machine.
 The top of the bed is accurately finished to provide guideways on
which the saddle is mounted.
 The guideways are perpendicular to the column face.
Column

 The column is the vertical member which is cast integrally with the
base and houses driving mechanism of the ram and feeding
mechanism.
 The front vertical face of the column is accurately finished for
providing ways in which the ram reciprocates.
Saddle

 The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved

toward or away from the column either power or manual control to
supply longitudinal feed to the work.
 The top face of the saddle is accurately finished to provide
guideways for the cross-slide. These guideways are perpendicular to
the guideways on the base.
Cross-slide

 The cross-slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle and

maybe moved parallel to the face of the column.
 The movement of the slide may be controlled either by hand or
power to supply crossfeed.
Rotary Table

 It can rotate on cross-slide to provide circular feeding of the work.

 It can hold the work by clamping, using fixtures, fixing vice, etc.
 It has the arrangement of rotary feeding either by hand or by
power.

On some machines, the table may be graduated in degrees for

indexing.
Ram and Toolhead Assembly

 Ram slides on the guideways mounted on the front vertical face of

the column.
 Ram provides a slot for changing the position of the stroke.
 Ram carries the tool, which is mounted at the bottom – end of the
tool head.
Ram Drive Mechanism

 It provides the circular motion of the motor to the reciprocating

motion of the ram in a vertical plane.
 It also provides the arrangement of slower speed during the cutting
or forward stroke and greater speed during the return stroke to
reduce the idle time.
Feed Drive Mechanism

 It provides the arrangement of longitudinal and cross–a feed of the

table either by power or manual.
 It also provides the arrangement of circular or rotary feeding of the
table on a vertical axis.
 Intermittent feeding of the table is supplied at the beginning of
each cutting or forward stroke of the ram.
Kinematic System of Slotter
Machine:
Types of Slotter Machine:

The slotter machine can be classified into two types:

 Puncher Slotter Machine
 Precision Slotter Machine
Puncher Slotter Machine:

 This is a heavy and rigid type of machine.

 This machine designed for the removal of a large amount of metal
from forged or cast material.
 The length of the puncher slotter is large it may be as long as 1800 to
2000 mm.
Precision Slotter Machine:

 It is a simple and lighter machine. It is operated at high speeds and

the machine is mainly designed to take light cuts for accurate
surface finish.
 The machine can handle a number of identical works on a
production basis by using special jigs. These machines are fitted with
a whit worth quick return mechanism.
Slotter Machine Operations:

It is used for various operations like:

 Internal and external Flat surface Machining.
 The internal recess of circular, semi-circular, concave and convex
surfaces.
 Internal and External Circular surfaces Machining.
 Blind Holes Internal machining.
 For shaping internal and external forms or profiles.
 The machine operates vertical, Horizontal and at Some angle too (Inclined
Surfaces).
 Irregular surface machining.
 Machining operation of Dies and Punches.
 The operation like slots, grooves, splines, and keyways for both internal and
external surfaces.
 Internal and external gear teeth machining.
Machining Operations of a Slotter
Machine
Slotter Machine Specification:

The specifications of a Slotter Machine is depended on the several factors

some of these are:
 Power Input
 Type of drive
 Maximum table drive
 The maximum length of ram stroke
 Number of speed
 Number of feed
 Table feed
 Floor space required
 The diameter of the Work Table in MM
 kW of motor
Slotter Machine Application:

These are the applications of a Slotter Machine:

 It is used for cutting Slots, Spline and Keyways, both internal and
external.
 It is also used for the Machining of internal and external gears.
 Internal machining of blind holes.
 It is used for light cuts.
Advantages of Slotter Machine:

The advantages of Slotter Machines are:

 This is a light machine.
 The tool uses here is a single-point cutting tool.
 Low-cost machine.
 Low Maintenance.
 Accurate surface finish.
 Machine efficiency is more.
Disadvantages of Slotter Machine:

The disadvantages of Slotter Machines are:

 Rigid in construction.
 Skilled worker requires to operate.
Differences between the Shaper
Machine, Planner Machine, and Slotter
Machine:
SHAPER PLANER SLOTTER
The tool reciprocates in a Job reciprocates in a Tool reciprocates in
horizontal axis and job horizontal axis and tool verticle axis and job feeds
feeds in intermittent feeds in intermittent in intermittent translatory
translatory motion. translatory motion. motion.

Low machining accuracy. High machining Low machining accuracy.

accuracy.

Power is very less. Power consumption is Same as a shaper, The

High. rate of power
consumption is low.

Lighter in construction and Heavier in construction Lighter in construction but

less rigid. and more rigid. more rigid than verticle
shaper.

Intended for small Jobs This is intended for large This is intended for small
Jobs. Jobs.
SHAPER PLANER SLOTTER

It Requires Less Floor Space. It Requires Large Floor Whereas It Requires Less
Space. Floor Space.

In Shaper, The tool is moving The tool is Stationary and Same as shaper, The
and work is Stationary. work is moving. tool is moving and work
is Stationary.

Usually, only one tool is used Multiple tooling permits Only one tool is used for
on a shaper. machining of more than machining.
one surface at a time.

It can machine only one It can machine three Same as a shaper.

surface at a time. surfaces at a time.

Cost of the machine less. Cost of the machine is Cost of the machine is
high. little less than shaper.
Thank You