Land use and transportation interrelation.

 Land is a convenient measure of space and land use provides a spatial framework for urban
development and activities
 The location of activities and their need for interaction creates the demand for
transportation
 the provision of transport facilities influences the location itself.
 Land uses, by virtue of their occupancy, are supposed to generate interaction needs and
these needs are directed to specific targets by specific transportation facilities.

Factors affecting transport land use relationship

 Urban land development

 Dominance of private vehicle ownership

 Context of land use and transportation decision making

 Different time contexts for response.

LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION
 The movement of people and goods in a city, referred as traffic flow
 the joint consequence of land activity and the capability of the transportation system to
handle this traffic flow exactly like that of principle of demand and supply.
 efficient balance between land use activity and transportation capability is primary concern
of urban planning
 to increase accessibility which further enhances value of land and land use.

Transportation Land use models

 THE DYNAMIC processes which determine the spatial distribution and intensity of land use
activities in urban regions have been of interest to planners and scientists for some time.
 However, only since the development of the computer and related techniques has it
become possible to develop simulation models which spatially represent these processes
and to predict changes in the metropolitan land use patterns.
 the theoretical underpinnings of the models:
o Model relationship to social science research
o Model relationship to planning the state-of-the-art of their development
 o Model utilization by various planning agencies

 The purpose of land use transport models is to assess the policy impacts in terms of the
implications of the future growth patterns on both land use and travel related issues

Land Transpor

Potential
Demand
Supply Population An d

Trip
Equilibrium Distribu tion

Modal Split

Demand Location
Trip Assignment

The two components of land use modelling:

1. Land use system

 location and development
 simulation the mechanisms that effect the spatial allocation of urban activities in the city
 economic concepts underpin land use transport models, serving as proxies for the complex
interactions and motivations driving urban location.
 Examples: bid rent, travel costs, inertia (stability of occupation of land), topography, climate,
planning, and size.

2. Transport system
 the transport system the traditional way of characterizing the transportation system in
urban simulation models is a four stage process
I. trip generation
II. trip distribution
III. modal split
IV. trip assignment

URBAN PLANNING AND URBAN MODEL LING

 The relations between prediction and the planning process as a whole.
 The decomposes planning into five types of activity:
1) determination of the goals to be pursued,
2) design, in which plans relevant to the desired goals are specified
3) prediction of the consequences of the plans produced in stage 2,
 4) decision, in which the predicted consequences of the various plans are evaluated against
the criteria specified in stage (1), and one plan is chosen as the best available
5) implementation of the chosen plan.
 On the basis of above 5 step planning process, three major classes of models relevant to
urban planning may be distinguished:
I. Descriptive Models,
a. replicate(s) the relevant features of an existing urban environment or of an already-
observed process or urban change.
b. Good descriptive models are of scientific value because they reveal much about the
structure of urban environments, reducing the apparent complexity of the observed
world to the coherent and vigorous language of mathematical relationships
II. Predictive Models,
a. A predictive model, like a descriptive model, is a statement of theory, and the
predictions which it yields may, under some circumstances, be used to test the
validity of its theoretical foundations.
b. The special practical importance of prediction is due to its position in the main
stream of the planning process. Indeed, the main force behind the development of
predictive models has been the desire to understand the consequences and
ramifications of planning proposals
c. The development of better prediction with respect to the outcomes of plans must be based
in the first instance in a sound understanding of the way in which the system being planned
functions and of the way in which it responds to differential environmental conditions and
policy inputs
d. Descriptive models as theoretical basis for predictive models: the urban geographers' gravity
model—did not find convincing interpretation until many years after their initial formulation.
III. And Optimizing Models.
a. An optimizing model can be regarded as a logically-complete specification of the
three central stages of the planning process: design, prediction and choice
b. Clearly the form of such a model will be determined by the goals to be optimized,
and on the real-world context of the predictive stage
c. . Certain mathematical procedures (e.g. dynamic programming and branch and
bound programming) can in principle be used as frameworks for planning models
under a very wide range of objective functions;
d. for planning problems of even moderate size and complexity, the computational
times involved are astronomical, and only a few narrowly-defined types of problems
are amenable(controlled) to definitive and efficient solution by optimizing models
categorisation of transportation landuse models on the basis of
timeline

Intermediate Modern era

Early models
era models models

The positions of concerned models in the time lline:

Lowry Model: Intermediate Era Model:

 In the year 1964
 This was the golden era of developments in land use transport modeling.
 Although , a special group of models like ‘empiric model’ has been developed and
applied, the most wide group of models is lead by the work of I. S. Lowry

Wilson model: Intermediate Era Model:

 Between the year 1970-1974
 Model based on entropy maximization is a break through contribution in the urban spatial
allocation models.
 Wilson offered solutions to several problem areas by using the concept of entropy
maximization to generalize the problems

 The focus of the model includes

o different household income groups

o different wage levels by location of employment

Projective Land Use Model

 PLUM 919as another family of Lowry derivative models.
 Land Use Model (PLUM) is designed to yield projections of the zonal level
distribution of the population, employment and land use within an area based
upon the distributions of these characteristics in base year, coupled with a series
of simple and intitutively appealing allocation algorithm .
 There are different versions of PLUM .
  Allocation incorporates auto and transit mode separately and disaggregated local
serving categories are allocated by different processes.
 the allocation algorithms are derived from original Lowry model. This model can
distinct both basic and local-serving employment.
 The allocation function used in the model has two components,

a) The first component is the probability of making a trip for a given trip
purpose of particular length
b) The second component is the measure of attractiveness of the destination The total PLUM
model is divided into four phases: initial allocation, revised allocations of incremental
employment, reallocations and increments, projections The outputs of PLUM consist of
total housing units, residential population, total number of employment residents, and
total employment.

ITLUP (Integrated Transportation and Land Use Package):Modern

Era Models

 1980s has seen a very interesting development in the area of land use transport modelling.
 During the intermediate era, modelling of transport demand and supply has been enhanced
with a lot of innovative ideas.
 The land use / transport modelling also embraced them for better representation of demand
and supply scenario in relation to location.
 although the basic allocation mechanism emanated from Lowry model was largely used in
most models., very complex developments on location process was seen one of such model
is ITLUP
 ITLUP model contains both location and transportation models and has been the
subject of a long sequence of development and application projects since 1971.

Modelling in practice: lowry model

 The virtuosity (great skill) of the theorist lies in rigorous logical derivation of
interesting and empirically relevant propositions from the most parsimonious
(unwilling use of resources/limited resources) set of postulates.
 The model-builder, on the other hand, is concerned with the application of theories
to a concrete case, with the aim of generating empirically relevant output from
empirically-based input
 Model reflects its theoretical origins only in oblique and approximate ways.
Mechanisms that work, however mysteriously, get substituted for those whose virtue
 lies in theoretical elegance Some failures of modelling . can be traced to the fact that
the theories behind the models were never fully tested, and in some cases, have not
even been well formulated
 This conflict between theoretical elegance and practical exigency (urgent need)is
evident in the problem of verification.
 Theories of urban processes are almost always tested by statistical methods rather
than by direct experiment, and statistical tests of urban models are often run with the
data sets to which the models were fitted in the first place .
 Again, it must be emphasized that empirical validity is rarely the primary objective of
urban modelling.
 From the point of view of the planning practitioner, models must purport to reflect an
established theory and the hypothesis testing which might proceed consists of
hypotheses about the viability of plans rather than hypotheses about the realism of the
theory.

TAXONOMY AND TIME

 The scheme by which the urban system is to be decomposed into elements, and the treatment of
time, have critical bearing on the theoretical structure of any predictive model.
 Decomposition (or taxonomy) involves problems of aggregation and data availability.
 Example: normally the only available data (e.g. census data) is already in aggregate form,
and even in an ostensibly micro-formulation, one is driven to rather gross simplifications
(e.g. treating census tracts, income groups and major industry groupings as internally
homogeneous)
 High level aggregation can be seen in DRAM (the residential allocation portion of ITLUP)
 employees initially aggregated into n work-place zones are assigned to the n 2 work-to-
home trip routes, and then re-aggregated as members of households in the n residential
zones.
 In Wilson model: "Systems described on large aggregate scales often behave in a more
deterministic, less probabilistic way"
 , "time is treated as a discrete variable, and the model is expressed in terms of difference
equations" .
o example, in I PLUM the operative variables are changes in the magnitude of the
various input and output variables, with the changes taken as increments across
the (5-year) time period over which the model is calibrated

THE GRAVITY AND ENTROPY MODELS: theoretical

base
 The gravity model of spatial interaction and the entropy-maximizing form of LOWRY
model are of considerable theoretical interest.
 they are embodied in the most widely used models developed for research and planning,
the most recent of which is ITLUP..
Gravity Model
 The gravity and potential models of urban processes originated in a loose analogy
with Newtonian mechanics:
 "The traditional gravity model is based on the assumption that the interaction
between two masses varies directly with the product of the masses and inversely
with some measure of the spatial interaction or cost between the two masses
Tij = ( l ) where,

Tv = the number of trips originating in zone i and terminating in zone j

Wi, Wy. = measures of the masses of zone i and zone j
P = a constant of proportionality
F (Cij) = an inverse function of interaction cost between zone i and zone j and typically

(2) where
a measure of cost of travel from zone i to zone j
a parameter of the system under consideration
 the gravity model can be treated as a regression equation, whose parameters P and can be
estimated after taking the logarithms of both sides.
Tij = Oi origin (or production) constraint (3)

Tij = Dj destination (or attraction) constraint. (4)

To ensure that these constraints will be satisfied, we combine them with equation (l), obtaining
= AiBjOiDjf(qj) (5)
where

Ai = a scaling factor to ensure that the production constraint is satisfied

Bj = a scaling factor to ensure that the attraction constraint is satisfied and

(6)

(7)

 Alan Wilson [10] has shown that equation (5) can be obtained by an application of the
statistical concept of entropy (or uncertainty) without recourse to the Newtonian analogy

Entropy maximisation model

 The urban systems dependent on entropy maximisation principle
 Entropy maximisation principle draws origins from second law of thermodynamics.
o Second law of thermodynamics ,suggests in natural systems heat flows from hot to
cold systems , the reverse is not possible given by Clausius.

o For the reverse to happen ,energy is needed, unless the compressor is driven by
an external source, the refrigerator won’t be able to operate,Heat pump and
Refrigerator works on Clausius’s statement.
 o Entropy is degree of randomness or disorder.

In natural systems ,
ΔSuniv > 0

where ΔS univ is the

change in the entropy of
the universe.

Real time example : entropy maximisation

 For example, if X is the sum of two unbiased dice rolls, the low probability observation X = 2
implies 2 throws of 1, whereas X = 7 is more ambiguous, and has a higher corresponding
probability. In this sense, X = 2 gives more information about the individual dice values than
the high probability observation X = 7.
 We can call the most complete description of the system, which represents the results of
each individual roll, a microstate. In contrast, the aggregate description of the sum of die
values, X, represents a macrostate and may correspond to multiple microstates.
 In this most probable outcome is the macrostate X = 7, as it has the highest number of
microstates, i.e., six different ways of occurring, assuming unbiased dice where each
microstate has equal probability
 This is equivalent to choosing the macro state with the maximum entropy
 The principle of maximum entropy states that the probability distribution with the largest
entropy, subject to known constraints, gives the best representation of our current state of
knowledge of the system.
 As a universal measure, information statistical entropy is applicable at all scales, and
therefore it features more extensively in urban studies , in lowry model.

Lowry model: Entropy maximisation

 A state of a system is defined as a description of travel behavior in the system, at a
given level of detail.
 Three major levels of description for a system of journey-to-work travel behavior can
be distinguished:
(a) Microstates, in which the travel behavior of every actor in the system is described. This level
can be represented as a three-dimensional matrix [xfj] where xfJ maker k resides in zone i and
works in zone j, 0 otherwise.
(b) At the mesostate level, the system is represented as a matrix [Tij] of interzonal work-trip

frequencies. A mesostate can be obtained by aggregation from a given microstate

(8)

(c) At the macrostate level the system is represented as a vector of residences [Oil and a vector
of places of employment [Di]. A macrostate can be obtained by aggregation from a given microstate:
as
before,

an
d
  In addition to the production and attraction constraints (equations 3 and 4), a cost constant
is specified:

(9)

where k, the total travel cost in the system.

 The necessity for this third constraint is evident if the two systems Sl and S2, which are
identical with respect to [Cij], [Oil and [Dj] are compared.
 If tripmakers in Sl tend to travel greater distances than trip makers in S2, then Kl > K 2
and the trip distributions [Tij]l and [Tij]2 will differ.
 The maximum entropy approach follows the direction of macrostate description to
mesostate
 In the figures since microstate is intrinsic to the macrostate or mesostate.

 The maximum number of mesostaes and macrostate is possible when there is maximum
number of microstates for one microstate there is one macrostate and for multiple
microstates there is multiple macrostates.
Macrostate I Macrostate 2

System macrostates.

mesostate 1 mesostate 2
5
System of mesostates

Microstate 1 microstate 2

System of microstate
 In other words, the most probable trip distribution is the trip matrix [Tij] which can occur in
the greatest number of ways W(C Tij]). It can be shown by combinatorial theory [13] that
T!

(10)
where

In conclusion,
 Wilson, through a series of works from the 1960s onwards, popularizes the application of.
Dividing the system into zones between which travel occurs, a matrix Tij can be constructed,
detailing all individual transport flows from zones i to j, describing the ‘state’ of the system.
 Wilson argues that a good estimate of Tij may be made by applying three constraints: fixing
the total number of workers living in a given origin zone i, fixing the total number of jobs in a
given destination zone j, and fixing the total ‘generalised cost’, or impedance, associated with
travel to work .
 By assuming that each microstate of Tij is equally probable, we, therefore, want to find the
Tij with the largest number of microstates W Tij giving rise to it.
 This may be achieved by maximising W Tij
 subject to the three imposed constraints, although Wilson chooses to equivalently maximize
log W, to allow for Stirling’s approximation to simplify the maths.
 This function is then maximized subject to the given constraints using a Lagrangian multiplier
approach, which reveals an exponential expression for the most probable Tij matrix.

(11)

where
 ß = a parameter of the system, whose magnitude reflects the magnitude of the total interaction cost K
[equation (9)]. If K is large, ß is small, and vice versa.

 Defining Wi as a measure of the benefits deriving from residential location in zone i, we

obtain a destinations-constrained model, work-trip distribution residential location
where

a parameter of the system, whose magnitude reflects the magnitude of total residential
location-dependent benefits in the system.
Second, given [Oi] but not [Dj], the destinations constraint [equation (4)] can be deleted.
 Defining Wj as a measure of benefits deriving from employment in zone j, an origins-
constrained model is obtained

A
nd θ a parameter of the system, whose magnitude reflects the magnitude of total location-
dependent employment benefits in the system

 The Lowry model and its immediate successors used aggregate production-constrained and
attraction-constrained versions of the gravity model.
 ITLUP and other recently developed Lowry type models embody extended versions
of the entropy maximizing formulations expressed in equations 14, 15, 17 and 18.

Lowry model: structure and framework

The Lowry Model (Lowry, 1964) incorporated within its structure both generation and
allocation of activities .The activities which the model defines are population, service
employment and these activities correspond to residential, service and industrial land
uses. Some of the salient features of Lowry model are

 It assumes an economic base mechanism where employment is divided into

basic and non -basic sectors. Basic employment is defined as that employment
which is associated with industries whose products are largely used outside
the region, where as the products of the service employment are consumed
within the region.

 It is assumed that the location of basic industry is independent of the location

of residential areas and service centers.

 Population is allocated in proportion to the population potential of each zone

and service employment in proportion to market potential of each zone.

 The model ensures that populations located in any zones dose not violate a
maximum density or holding capacity constraint is placed on each category of
service employment.

 Lowry model relates population and employment at one particular time

horizon.
 The Lowry model conceives of the major spatial features of an urban area in
terms of three broad sectors of activity i.e.
1) basic employment sector ,examples: such as steel mills, wholesale trade, and
federal government offices.
2) the population serving employment , example: retail trade, education,
entertainment, professional services.
3) the household sector or Residential land use

Exogenous Allocation of Basic Employment

Endogenous Allocation of Population

Endogenous Allocation of Population Serving

Employment

Check Constraints on Population and Serving

Employment
  spatial distribution of basic employment is allocated exogenously to the model.
 Operation of the model commences with a pregiven spatial distribution of basic employment.

(la) A destinations-constrained version of the gravity model is applied to the distribution of basic
employment [Dj], allocating the basic employees to their places of residence [Oil.
(1b) By treating the resident basic employees as heads of households, the model calculates the
distribution of residential population dependent upon basic industry. This calculation assumes a
simple proportional relationship between resident employees and resident population.
(2a) By me'ans of an origins-constrained version of the gravity model, the distribution of the
customer population [Oi] estimated in the previous step is allocated to a spatial distribution of
demand for non-basic services
(2b) The work-place distribution of service employees serving the customers allocated in (2a) is
estimated, assuming a proportional relationship between number of customers and number of service
employees.
(3a) The service employees forecast in (2b) above are allocated to residential zones via a
destinations-constrained gravity model, as in (la) above.
(3b) The resident service employees are converted to new resident population, as in (l b) above.

(4) Steps (2) and (3) are reiterated until the increment of service employment allocated in step (2b)
becomes negligible.

 Superimposed on this basic structure are three constraints:

I. A minimum size constraint on service employment allocated to each zone. This constraint is
different for each service sector, and corresponds with the threshold size of service
establishments in central place theory.
II. An available-space constraint on retail development: retail employment is allocated only to
zones in which there is vacant land available for development.
III. A maximum-density constraint on residential population in each zone. This constraint can be
varied to correspond with different density ordinances in different zones.

 A building-density and land-utilization accounting procedure provides the

information required to enforce the second and third constraints.
 When any one of the three constraints applies, the service employment or residential
population which would have been allocated to the zone in question is allocated
elsewhere.
 The model as presented , actually programmed has no time dimension. . Its iteration
sequences are simply convenient substitutes for an analytical solution; they generate an
instant metropolis

ITLUP: initial stage of model development PLUM

 The most significant feature of PLUM is its treatment of spatial interaction.
 Instead of the accessibility potential equations used in earlier models, PLUM estimates the
trip matrix [Tij] before aggregating to origins or destinations.
  The accessibility measure used in the estimation of [Tij] incorporates travel cost [Cij] and two
parameters, in a form which anticipates in some respects the Tanner function used in DRAM
and EMPAL
 . The matrix of zone-to-zone travel costs [Cij] is obtained as the matrix of travel-time in the
base-year transportation network, rather than direct airline dist'ances. This is a major step
towards the interactive treatment of transportation and travel cost embodied in ITLUP
 A late version of PLUM, called I PLUM, had a discrete-dynamic formulation:
 "The basic employment inputs are in the form of changes from the base year to the projection
year and all the projected allocations are in terms of changes from the base year"
 I PLUM was the land-use model used in early versions of ITLUP, but the incremental
formulation has since been abandoned.
 To most American planners and funding agencies these models were a major disappointment.
 In all three cases, calibration was done mainly by trial and error, and only one model
(PLUM) was used directly to make forecasts in a planning context;
 special attention to the calibration problems and the formulation of the travel-cost function
f(Cij). This played a critical part in the development and refinement of ITLUP

NEED OF IT LUP
 In 1970 s Urban highways were built to meet existing travel demand, without consideration
of the new residential development—hence additional traffic they would foster.
 highway construction was the accepted method of reducing traffic congestion
 the result was a vicious circle which exacerbated the process of suburban sprawl with little or
no improvement in intra-metropolitan travel amenities
 Land use planners, had no reliable means of predicting the effects of zoning controls upon
travel patterns.
 The Integrated Transportation and Land Use Package (ITLUP) is one of the modelling
systems that has been designed to provide the types of information which will be necessary to
remedy the above situation.
 IT LUP developed at the University of Pennsylvania under the direction
of Dr S. H. Putman proven a sensitive instrument for investigating many
kinds of planning proposals.

Structure of ITLUP
 Land use is modeled in a Lowry-type duo of gravity models
 a Disaggregated Residential Allocation Model (DRAM), and an Employment Allocation Model
(EM PAL).
 models were based originally on IPLUM , but they have since been substantially
modified in light of Wilson's entropy theory.
 To simulate the interactions which connect land use processes with transportation
processes, the models are run in succession:
o the outputs from the land use models are input to the transportation models,
o the consequent transportation forecasts are then input to the land use models.
1) (1a) Given the base-year travel-cost matrix [Cij] and the base-year spatial distributions of
employment and residential population, EMPAL estimates the forecast-year distribution of
employment, disaggregated by industrial sector.
1. (l b) DRAM estimates the forecast-year distribution of residential
population corresponding with the distribution of employment
 forecast in EMPAL. The forecast-year travel matrix c Tij] implicit in
this step is extracted for input to the network package.

2) ) The forecast-year travel matrix [Tij] is converted from person-trips to vehicle trips , and
loaded onto the forecast-year transportation network. This step models the effects of traffic
congestion upon traffic patterns, and produces forecasts of traffic volume and congested
impedance for every link in the network.
3) Travel-cost and traffic-volume appear as variables in the land-use models and in the network
models.
4) interface between the land-use package and the netowrk package, certain conversions are
necessary, due to changes in the definition of the variables.
i. These changes in definition are a consequence of the distinction between the
quasi network of zone centroids (in the land use models), and the actual
transportation network (in the network models).
ii. the link-impedences of the transportation network are converted to inter-
zonal travel costs [Cij], and the inter-zonal travel matrix [Tij] is converted to
network traffic volumes in the network models.

5) The time-interval for which EMP AL has been calibrated (typically 5 years) determines the
time period between base year and forecast year over which IT LUP is to be run.
6) EMPAL requires exogenous forecasts of total regional employment in the various industrial
sectors
7) DRAM requires exogenous forecasts of total regional population in the various household
income groups and an exogenous future-year transportation network (i.e. the existing network is
modified by any transportation policy proposals to be tested).
8) , the forecasting procedure o can be repeated over successive time periods. The land use
forecasts produced for the first forecast date (t + l) become base year inputs for the second
forecast period (t + 2), etc
a. Reiteration of ITLUP in this manner produces cumulative endogenous changes in all
location-specific variables, and in the matrix of inter-zonal travel costs.
b. Associated with DRAM and EMPAL there is an accounting system which updates
the various attractiveness factors (e.g. land utilization and building density) in
accordance with the forecast changes in residential and employment location
c. Upon completion of the network simulation stage, the congested network
impedences are converted to inter-zonal travel costs [ct.jJ for input to EM PAL
9) Allocation of households of different types then depends upon this attractiveness and
the access cost to employment to different types .In current version of ITLUP new
locaters , include a separate model LANCON to calculate land consumption using a
simultaneous multiple regression formulation. Trip generation and distribution are
also calculated in DRAM simultaneously with household location.
10) MSPLIT for modal split calculation. The trip matrices produced in DRAM are split
into trip matrices for each mode in MSPLIT using multinomial logit formulation for
the modal split calculation.
11) NETWK for trip assignment. The trips are then assigned to a capacity constrained
highway network in NETWK.
DRAM and EMPAL
 that in contrast to the classical Lowry model framework, EMPAL and DRAM are
functionally separable.
 They are calibrated separately and can be run separately.
 CALIB, the gradient-search calibration procedure designed for DRAM, and subsequently
applied also to EMPAL, has been one of the most significant outcomes of the work on IT
LUP
 a very convenient arrangement, and involves abandonment of the iterative computational
schemes used in earlier models
 the idea that the "system being modelled ,at any given moment is not in, but tending towards,
an equilibrium, the resulting solution is more accurate forecast of the future year.
 EMPAL uses a single equation structure to forecast all sectors of employment, with no
primary distinction between basic and non-basic industry

(20)

Where,

= sector k employment in zone j at time t + I (forecast year)

= sector k employment in zone j at time t (base year)

N=population residing in zone i at time t
Wj , X j =measures of the attractiveness of zone j for industrial location

Wj = E Kj ,t , in the the current formulation, representing agglomeration and scale economies

land area of zone
f a function of travel cost, and
a k b k , d k , = parameters to be estimated for each industrial sector k.
 The first part of equation (20) is an origins-constrained entropy-maximizing formulation.
It can be interpreted as the market-sensitive portion of EMP AL, reflecting the effects of
the spatial distributions of labor supply and customers upon industrial location.
K
 In the second part of the equation, the E j ,t can be interpreted as a measure of locational
inertia due to capital already invested in sector k in zone j.

DRAM
 The allocation equation in DRAM is an extended destinations-constrained entropy
maximizing model.
 The disaggregated (trips) form is:
k

(21)
Where,
the number of work-trips from residences in zone i to places of employment in zone j, made
by members of income group k the number of members of income group k employed in
zone j

Yi, Zi = measures of the residential attractiveness of zone i

the percentage of total households in zone i which are of income group g. This is a measure
of socio-economic attractiveness, incomegroup discrimination, housing cost, etc.
— the area of available developable land in zone i. This is a measure of potential for
new residential development
— the percentage of developable land in zone i which has been developed. This is a
measure of existing infrastructure
— residential density in zone i. This is a measure of housing type
f a function of travel cost
c k , bk , d k = parameters to be estimated,For each income group, n values of must be
estimated, where n is the number of income groups. Typically n=4

The travel-cost function in DRAM and EMP AL

c αij

 DRAM and EMPAL embody a travel-cost function, f(Cij), which may be interpreted as a

measure of the probability of a trip of length .

 Scaled to equation (20) sand (21) .In both models, f(Cij) is the Tanner function, f(c,j)
Where,
C ij =a measure of the cost of travel (e.g. distance) from zone i to zone j,
α and ß parameters to be estimated. These parameters are subscripted by employment
sector (in EM PAL), or by income group (in DRAM).
Where (as is normally the case) α and ß are both positive, this function may be interpreted as the
product of an 'opportunities' factor with a 'deterrence' factor:
may be regarded as a measure of increasing opportunities for trip satisfaction provided by
increasing travel distance, and
 e− βcij=may be regarded as a measure of the deterrent effect of increasing distance upon
propensity to travel

The transportation models package:ITLUP

 The transportation models package assigns interzonal travel demand [Tij] to the load nodes
of the transportation network, loads the internodal travel demand onto the network itself, and
finally calculates a matrix of interzonal travel costs [Cij]

 The loading of travel demand onto the network is done by a method called the incremental
tree-by-tree trip assignment technique
 The first increment is assigned to shortest paths through the initially empty network, one trip-
origin-node-based 'tree' at a time,same second and third.
 Increasing levels of traffic congestion due to the assigned traffic are modeled as successive
changes in the link-impedance matrix which describes the network.
 done by a method called the incremental tree-by-tree trip assignment technique

 This involves the assignment of traffic to shortest (i.e. least-cost) paths through the network,
in several increments. Typically the loading is done in three increments, the successive
increments being 40, 40 and 20% of internodal travel demand.
 Tests indicate that this method is the most efficient trip-assignment procedure available

Housing
Retail

Policy Areas Taxation

(transport
Landuse addressed related)
by ITLUP

Employment transport

Application :ITLUP
 ITLUP had been calibrated for over 40 regions across the world and had at least 12 active
applications in the United States