NAVIGATION

 1  –  FOUNDATION  CBT  

SOLAR  SYSTEM     EQUINOXES  &  SOLSTICE  

   
• Consists  of  8  planets,  the  sun,  asteroids  and   • Sun   crosses   plane   of   equinoctial   in   March  
comets.   (Spring   Eqxinox)   and  September  (Autumn  
• Earth  spins  anticlockwise  when  viewed   Equinox).  
from  NP.   • Hours  of  daylight  and  night  are  equal.  
• Earth  rotates  around  the  sun  in  an  elliptical    
orbit  with  the  distance  from  the  sun  varying   • Summer   Solstice   -­‐   Sun   reaches   it’s   most  
between  91  and  95  statue  miles.   northerly  at  23.5  N  in  June.  Tropic  of  cancer.  
  • Winter   Solstice   –   Sun   reaches   it’s   most  
• Aphelion  –  Earth  furthest  away  from  sun   • Ecliptic   –   Apparent   path   of   the   Sun   around   the   southerly   at   23.5   S   in   December.   Tropic   of  
(July)   earth.   Capricorn.  
• Perihelion  –  Earth  closest  to  the  sun  (Jan)   • Plane   of   Ecliptic   –   Imaginary   plane   containing   the    
Earth’s  orbit  around  the  sun.  
• Plane   of   Equinoctial   –   Plane   of   equator   extended  
into  space.  
• Obliquity   of   the   Ecliptic   –   An   angle   of   23.5   0C  
between  plane  of  ecliptic  and  plane  of  equinoctial.  
 

SHAPE  OF  THE  EARTH   SHAPE  OF  THE  EARTH  

   
• The  actual  shape  of  the  earth  is  an  oblate   𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
spheroid.   (𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟  𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠) − (𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟  𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠)
=  
• It  is  flattened  at  the  poles.  This  is  called  the   (𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟  𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠)
compressibility  of  the  earth.    
• Equatorial  Radius  =  3444  nm   • 1  minute  is  less  than  60  nm  at  equator  and  
• Polar  Radius  =  3433  nm   increasing  towards  the  poles.  
• The  polar  diameter  is  1/300  (0.3%)  less    
than  the  equatorial  diameter.  
o 23  nm  /  27  sm  /  43  km  
 NAVIGATION  1  –  FOUNDATION  CBT  

GREAT  CIRCLE   LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE   RHUMB  LINE  

     
• A   circle   of   the   surface   of   the   Earth,   whose   • Point  depicted  is  60  N,  0400  E  
0 • A   line   that   cuts   all   meridians   at   the   same  
centre   and   radius   are   those   of   the   earth   • Latitude  fist  then  longitude   angle.  
itself.   • Degrees  0  /  Minutes  ‘  /  Seconds  ‘’   • Has  constant  direction.  
• Shortest  distance  between  two  points.   • 60’  in  10   • Will  be  longer  than  the  great  circle.  
• 21,600’  in  a  circle  (360  x  60)   • A   rhumb   line   that   cuts   meridians   at   90  
  degrees   will   coincide   with   a   parallel   of  
SMALL  CIRCLE   latitude.  
 
• A   circle   on   the   surface   of   the   Earth,   whose  
centre   and   radius  are   not   those   of   the   Earth  
itself.  
• I.E/  Any  circle  that  isn’t  a  great  circle.  

MERIDIANS  
 
• Lines  joining  the  poles.   DIRECTION  DEFINITIONS  
• Every  meridian  has  its  own  anti-­‐meridian.    
• They  form  lines  of  longitude   • Bearing   –   Direction   of   a   point   /   object  
VECTOR  ANNOTATIONS  
• Greenwich  /  Prime  Meridian  =  0000  E  /  W   measured  to  /  from  another  point  /  object.    
• Max  angle  =  1800  E  /  W   • Heading  –  Direction   in  which  the  nose  of  an  
• -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>  Heading  
• Going  up  meridian  =  Face  north   aircraft  is  pointing.  
• -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>>  Track  
• Going  down  a  meridian  =  Face  south   • Relative   Bearing   –   Bearings   reference   to  
• -­‐-­‐-­‐>>>  Wind  
the  nose  of  an  aircraft.  

PARALLEL  OF  LATITUDE  

 
• Lie  in  an  east  /  west  direction.  
• Parallel  of  latitude  =  equator  =  000  N  
• Max  angle  =  900  N  /  S  
 NAVIGATION  2  –  DIRECTION  

TRUE  NORTH   TRUE,  MAG  AND  COMPASS  

   
• The   meridian   through   any   place   defines   • True  ±  Variation  =  Magnetic  ±  Deviation  =  Compass  
True  North  and  True  South  at  that  place.   • True  virgins  make  dull  company.  
• Hence   true   direction  can   be   measured   with   • Add  for  west  variation  /  deviation.  
reference  to  the  local  true  meridian.   • Subtract  for  east  variation  /  deviation.  
 
• HDG(C)   3450  |  Deviation   -­‐70  |  HDG(M)   338  |  
MAGNETIC  NORTH   Variation  +270  |  HDG(T)  0050  
 
• The   needle   in  a  magnetic  compass  will  align   RELATIVE  BEARING  
itself  with  the  horizontal   component  of  the    
Earth’s  magnetic  field  –  directive  force.   • Measured   from   nose   of   an   aircraft,  
• Maximum   strength   (of   horizontal   clockwise  to  the  object.  
component)   is   max   near   magnetic   equator   • Bearing  (M/T)  =  
and  reduces  to  zero  at  the  poles.   Relative  Bearing  +  Heading  (M/T)  
ISOGONALS  
• The   Earth’s   magnetic   poles   are   not  
 
antipodal.  
• Lines   joining   points   of   equal   magnetic  
• The   vertical   component   (dip)   increases  
variation.  
towards  the  poles.  
• A  zero  variation  line  is  agonic  
 
   
COMPASS  DEVIATION  
MAGNETIC  VARIATION    
  • Angular   difference   between   magnetic  
• The   angular   difference   between   the   north  and  compass  north.  
direction   of   True   North   and   Magnetic   • Compass   needle   is   subject   to   additional  
North.   magnetic   fields   created   by   electrical  
• West  is  best,  east  is  least.   circuits   and   pieces   of   metal   within   the  
o With   variation   west,   magnetic   is   bigger   aircraft.  
than  true.   • Easterly  deviation  expressed  as  +ve  
• Max  Variation  is  1800   • Westerly  deviation  expressed  as  –ve  
o When   directly   between   magnetic   and  
true  north.  
 NAVIGATION  4  –  DISTANCE  

NAUTICAL  MILE   CONVERSIONS   DISTANCE  FROM  CHANGE  IN  LONGITUDE  

     
• ICAO  1  nm  =  1.852  km   • 1  km  =  3280  ft   • The   distance   along   a   parallel   of   latitude   is  
  • 1  sm  =  5280  ft   called  departure.  
• The   length   of   a   great   circle   arc   on   the   • 1  nm  =  6080  ft   • Departure  =  d.long  x  cos  lat  
surface  of  the  earth,  subtending  an  angle   • Since   all   parallels   are   a   rhumb   line   (cut  
of  one  minute  at  the  centre  of  the  earth.   meridians   at   900),   the   departure   is   also  
  DISTANCE  FROM  CHANGE  IN  LATITUDE   referred  to  as  a  rhumb  line  distance.  
• 1’  =  1nm   (SAME  MERIDIAN)    
    • Distance   between   370   N   030   07’   E   and   370N  
• There   are   60’   in   10   so   the   circumference   of   • Distance  between  400  12’  N  050  00’  W        and   270  05’  E  
earth  is  360  x  60  =  21,600  nm   510  37’  N  050  00’  W   • ch.long  =  030  07’  +  270  05’  =  300  12’  
  • 510  37’  N  -­‐  400  12’  N  =  110  25’   • d.long  =  (30  x  60)  +  12  =  1812’  
• (11  x  60)  +  25  =  685  nm   • Departure  =  1812  x  cos(37)  =  1447  nm  

DISTANCE  FROM  CHANGE  IN  LATITUDE   GREAT  CIRCLE  PATHS  

(MERIDIAN  +  ANTI-­‐MERIDIAN)    
  • A   great   circle   path   will   always   bend  
• If  the  longitudes  add   up  to  1800  we  can  also   towards  the  nearer  pole.  
solve  a  change  in  latitude.   • A   distance   calculated   along   a   meridian   /  
• Distance  between  650  12’  N  050  00’  W        and   anti-­‐meridian   will   always   be   a   great   circle  
780  13’  N  1750  00’  E   distance.  
• 650  12’  N    to  NP  =  240  48’  
• 780  13’  N  to  NP  =  110  47’  
• Total  change  =  360  35’  =  2195  nm  

KILOMETER  
 
• 1/10   000   of   the   distance   from   the  
equator  to  the  poles.  
• Therefore,  circumference  of  earth  is  40,000  
km  
 NAVIGATION  3  –  FORM  OF  THE  EARTH  

ICAO  DATUM   ANTIPODAL   EQUATORIAL  TRACK  DIRECTION  

     
• USA   WGS   84   (World   Geodetic   System)   • Antipodal:   Opposite   ends   of   the   earth   • A   GC   crosses   the   equator   at   an   angle   equal  
datum  is  regognised  by  ICAO.   diameter.   to  the  latitude  of  its  vertices.  
• Antipodal  latitude  will  be   the  same   but  with   • Track  direction   is  measured  from  true  north  
opposite  sign.   and   can   be   calculated   by   adding   /  
GEOCENTRIC  VS  GEODETIC   • Antipodal  longitude  is  the  reciprocal  (±  180)   subtracting  the  angles.  
  with  opposite  sign.  
• Geocentric  latitude  is  measured  with  datum  
at  the  centre  of  the  earth.    
• Geodetic  /  geographic   latitude  is  measured   GREAT  CIRCLE  VERTEX  
by   taking  the   local   horizontal   and   dropping    
a  plumb  line  to  the  plane  of  the  equator.   • The  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  great  circles  
o Method  used  in  aviation  by  ICAO   most   northerly   and   southerly   points   and  
• Difference   between   measurements   varies   vertices.  
with  latitude.   • The  vertices  are  antipodal.  
o Equal  at  poles  and  equator   • At  these  points,  you  are  either  going  east  or  
o Greatest  at  45  N  /  S  with  11.6’   west.  
 
EQUATORIAL  CROSSING  POINTS  
 
• GC   will   cross   equator   at   two   antipodal  
points.  
• 900  ±  vertex  longitude  
 NAVIGATION  5  –  CRP  CONVERSIONS  

PA  +  SAT  +  CAS  -­‐-­‐>  TAS   TAT  +    TAS  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  SAT      

   
1. Set   pressure   altitude   and   SAT   in   airspeed   1. Find  temp  rise  from  the  blue  scale  
window.   2. Subtract  this  from  TAT  to  give  SAT  
2. Find  CAS  on  inner  scale  
3. Read  TAS  from  outer  scale  
4. If   TAS   >   300   apply   CC   (compressibility   PA  +  TAT  +  IAS  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  TAS  
correction)    
5. Find  CAS  on  inner  scale  again  and  read  off   *  SAT  is  required  to  do  this  question  *  
corrected  TAS    
1. Set  PA  and  TAT  in  airspeed  window  
2. Find  IAS  on  inner  scale  
MN  +  SAT  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  TAS  /  LSS   3. Read  approx.  TAS  from  outer  scale  
  4. Convert  TAT  to  SAT  
1. Set   SAT   against   mach   no   index   in   the    
airspeed  window.   5. Set  PA  and  SAT  in  airspeed  window.  
2. Find  mach  number  on  the  inner  scale   6. Set  IAS  on  inner  scale  
3. Read  TAS  from  outer  scale   7. Read  TAS  from  outer  scale  
4. LSS  can  be  found  by  finding  10  on  the  inner   8. Apply  CC  if  required  
scale  and  reading  the  LSS  from  the  outer.  

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  
SAT  vs  TAT    
  • SG  =  Mass  Fuel  /  Mass  Water  
• Static  Air  Temperature  (SAT)  is  the  actual   • Weight  (kg)  =  SG  x  Volume  (litres)  
temperature   of   free   air,   unaffected   by   the   • Weight  (lbs)  =  10  SG    x  Volume  (Imp  Gal)  
aircrafts  movement.  
• Total   Air   Temperature   (TAT)   is   the  
temperature   as   sensed   by   the   aircraft.   It   is   PA  +  SAT  (Pressure  Alt)-­‐-­‐-­‐>  True  Alt  
the  SAT  plus  any  warming  that  results  from    
friction  as  the  aircraft  travels  through  air.   1. Set  PA  +  SAT  in  altitude  window.  
  2. Find  PA  on  inner  scale  and  read  true  altitude  
• TAT  (IOAT)  =  SAT  (OAT  /  COAT)  +Heat   from  outer  scale.  
 
• IOAT  (Indicated  Outside  Air  Temperature).  
• COAT  (Corrected  outside  air  temperature)  
 NAVIGATION  6  –  TRIANGLE  OF  VELOCITIES  

     
TMG  FROM  HDG,  TAS  +  W/V   HDG  &  G/S  FROM  TAS,  TRK  AND  W/V  
   
• Set  TAS  on  grommet   • Set  grommet  on  TAS  
• Set  wind  direction  on  bezel   • Mark  W/V  (speed  via  wind  down)  
• Mark  wind  speed  down  from  grommet   • Set  TRK  on  bezel  
• Set  bezel  to  HDG   • Calculate  initial  drift  
• Read  drift  right  /  left  and  G/S   • Set   TRK   underneath   the   drift   on   the   outer  
scale  (rotating  towards  direction  of  drift)  
• Calculate  next  drift  
W/V  FROM  HDG,  TAS,  DRIFT  +  G/S   • Set   TRK   underneath   the   new   drift   value   on  
  the  outer  scale  
• Set  TAS  on  grommet   • Repeat  until  drift  remains  constant  
DRIFT  ANGLE  
• Set  HDG  on  bezel   • Read  HDG  from  bezel  
 
• Mark  drift  +  G/S   • G/S  is  located  under  the  gromett  
• Angle  between  heading  and  track.  
  • Rotate  mark  down  onto  0  drift  line  
• Read  off  wind  direction  and  speed  

DOUBLE  DRIFT  
 
• Set  grommet  on  TAS  
• Mark  first  HDG  and  drift  (as  a  line)  
• Mark  seconds  HDG  and  drift  (as  a  line)  
• Rotate  until  intersection  is  below  grommet  
COURSE  VS  TMG  
• Read  off  W/V  
 
• Course  =  Planned  track  over  the  ground.  
• TMG  =  Actual  track  over  the  ground.  
 
 NAVIGATION  6  –  TRIANGLE  OF  VELOCITIES  

HEADWIND  &  CROSSWIND  COMPONENT   MIN  AND  MAX  WIND  SPEEDS          

   
• QDM  =  QFU  =  Runway  Heading   • Grommet  on  top  of  grid  section  
• VOLMET  is  given  in  True.  ATC  +  ATIS  in  Mag   • Set  wind  direction  on  bezel  
  • Draw  a  line  down  the  0  drift  line  
• Put  grommet  up  upper  part  of  grid  scale   • Set  RWY  QDM  on  bezel  
• Set   wind   direction   on   bezel   and   set   speed   • Draw   a   horizontal   line   below   grommet   to  
via  wind  down  method.   mark  the  headwind  required  
• Rotate  bezel  to  QDM   • Draw   a   vertical   line   at   the   max   crosswind  
• Headwind   component   given   by   vertical   component  
distance  to  dot   • Set  wind  direction  on  bezel  again  
• Crosswind   component   given   by   horizontal   • Read  off  min  and  max  below  grommet.  
distance  to  dot  
• Must   specify   whether   x-­‐wind   component   is  
R-­‐L  /  L  –  R  
 
• If   tailwind   present   (dot   is   above   grid   scale  
after  setting  QDM),  move  slide  until  dot  is  on  
the  first  horizontal  line.  
• Drift   read   as   normal   but   tailwind  
component  is  under  the  grommet.  
 NAVIGATION  7  –  EARTH  CONVERGENCY  

GC  VS  RUMB  LINE  PATHS   CHANGE  IN  DIRECTION  OF  GC            

   
• GC  paths  are  concave  to  the  equator.   • Earth   convergency   determines   the  
• RL  paths  are  concave  to  the  poles.   change   in   direction   of   the   great   circle  
  with  a  change  in  longitude.  
 

FINDING  RHUMB  LINE  TRACK  

 
RL  =  GC  ±  CA  
EARTH  CONVERGENCY    
  • Changes  can  be  summarised  with  DIID:  
• Angle   of   inclination   between   two    
meridians.    
• 00  at  the  equator  
• Max  at  poles  where  it’s  equal  to  Ch  Long  
 
(E)  CV  =  Ch  Long  x  sin  (mean  lat)  

CONVERSION  ANGLE  
 
• Angular   difference   in   direction   between  
a  GC  and  RL.  
 
CA  =  ½  (E)  CV  
   
• Between  C  and  B,  the  earth  convergency  is:   • The   direction   of   the   GC   at   the   mean  
  meridian   between  two   points   is   the   same  as  
90  x  sin  (45)  =  640   the  rhumb  line  track  joining  them.  
 NAVIGATION  8  –  CHARTS  

ORTHOMORPHISM   SCALE  FACTOR   EXPANDING  SCALE  

     
• An   essential   requirement   for   any   navigation   𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡  𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 • The   scale   expands   as   you   move   away   from   the  
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒  𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟  (𝑆𝐹) =    
chart  is  that  it  is  orthomorphic.   𝑅𝐸  𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 equator.  
• Orthomorphic   means   the   chart   is   conformal      
and  bearings  are  correct.   • Correct  if  scale  factor  =  1   𝑆! = 𝑆!"  ×  𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡  𝜆  
• This  is  achieved  when:   • Constant  if  0.99  ≤  SF  <  1.01    
o Meridians  /  parallels  are  perpendicular     1 1 1
• If  the  scale  is  not  constant,  the  local  latitude  can   =    ×    
o Scale   at   any   point   is   the   same   in   all   𝐷! 𝐷!" cos 𝜆
directions   be  used  to  measure  distances.    
𝐷! = 𝐷!"  × cos 𝜆  
 
REDUCED  EARTH   MERCATOR  CHART   Where  D  is  the  denominator  of  the  scale  and  lamda  
  the  latitude.  
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝑜𝑛  𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝐸  𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =      
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝑜𝑛  𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ CONSTRUCTION   • An  expanding  scale  means  the  denominator  is  
  getting  smaller.    
• Based  on  a  cylindrical  projection    
REDUCED  EARTH  TO  CHART   It   is   mathematically   calculated   so   is   a   non-­‐
• 1
 
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡  𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  (𝐶𝐷)
perspective  projection.  
Meridians   are   drawn   as   straight   and   parallel  
𝑆 =        
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡  𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =    
• 𝐷
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ  𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  (𝐸𝐷) lines.  
• It  is  not  possible  to  project  the  poles.              

FORMS  OF  REPRESENTING  SCALE  

  STRAIGHT  LINE  =  RHUMB  LINE  
• Representative  Fraction    
• Plain  Statement   • A  straight  line   drawn   on  a   Mercator  is  a   rhumb  
• Graduated  Scale   line.  
• GC   bends   towards   the   nearer   pole   (concave   to  
the  equator)  

CHART  CONVERGENCY  
 
• The  chart  has  a  constant  convergency  of  zero.  
• (C)  CV  =  (E)  CV  at  the  equator  only.  
 NAVIGATION  8  –  CHARTS  

CHART  USE   RL  TRACK  APPECIATION   LAMBERT  CHART  

   
• Used  for  nautical  charts  and  for  met  charts.   • A  rhumb  line  track  is  drawn  between  30  S  100  E  
• Can   also   be   used   as   aviation   charts   in   the   and  40  S  110  E.  What  is  the  track  direction?   SIMPLE  CONIC  
tropics  between  8N  –  8S   • Answer:  More  than  1350T    
    • Scale   of   the   cone   is   only   correct   along   the  
• At   8N   /   8S   if   you   assume   the   scale   is   1/100   at     parallel  of  o rigin.  
the  EQ,  it  will  be  1/99.  
• Elsewhere,   the   scale   expands   to   an   extent   that  
• Since   the   change   in   scale   is   ≥   0.99   it   can   be   makes  it  of  little  practical  use  in  navigation.  
considered  constant  over  these  latitudes.  
• A   straight   line   can   be   considered   as   both   a   RL  
and   GC   between   these   latitudes   for   practical  
purposes.  
             
DISTORTION   MERCATOR  TYPES  
   
• Due   to   the   expanding   scale,   places   of   equal   • Normal  /  Direct  
physical   area   on   Earth   will   appear   bigger   • Transverse  
towards  the  poles.     o Scale  expands  in  E/W  direction  instead.  
o Useful   for   mapping   areas   of   a   large   N-­‐S   LAMBERTS  MODIFICATION  
extent  but  limited  E/W  (UK  &  Chile)    
• Oblique   • By  either  increasing  the  size  of  the  relative  earth  
o Projects  an  area  either  side  of  a  great  circle   OR   reducing   the   apex   angle,   two   standard  
which   is   neither   the   equator   /   meridian   /   parallels  (SP)  are  produced.  
anti-­‐meridian.   • The   parallel   or   origin   (PO)   is   midway   between  
  the  two  SPs.  

AB  BA  
 
• Given   the   scale   at   one   latitude,   the   scale   at  
another  can  also  be  found.  
 
𝑫𝑨  cos  B  =  𝑫𝑩  cos  A  
 NAVIGATION  8  –  CHARTS  

RULE  OF  SIXTHS   CHART  CONVERGENCE  (CC)   POLAR  STEREOGRAPHIC  

   
• The  scale  is  now  constant  at  b oth  SPs.   (C)  CV  =  Ch  Long  x  sin  (PO)                  
• The   scale   contracts   towards   the   PO   and   is   a     METHOD  OF  PROJECTION  
minimum  at  the  PO.   • Since   PO   is   constant,   it   can   be   seen   that   chart    
• By   following   the   rule   of   sixths,   there   is   a   convergency  does  not  vary.   • Flat  sheet  of  paper  placed  tangential  to  the  pole  
constant  scale  within  a  latitude  spread  of  24 0   • It  is  equal  to  earth  convergency  at  the  PO.   • Light  source  placed  at  the  opposite  pole  

STRAIGHT  LINE  =  GREAT  CIRCLE  

 
• Great  circles  are  slightly  concave  to  the  P O    
• For  practical  purposes  they  can  be  considered  as  
straight  lines.  
• The  only  time  the  GC  is  an  exact  straight  line  is  a  
meridian.  
 
• A  RL  is  concave  to  the  pole  of  projection.  
CONSTANT  OF  THE  CONE  (n)  
SCALE  
 
LONGITUDE  CALCULATION    
• AKA  Convergence  Factor  OR  “n”  
  • Expands  at  the  secant2  of  ½  co-­‐lat  
 
Constant  of  the  cone  =  0.75   • At  80N/S  =  1%  
n  =  sin  (PO)   •
Straight  line  is  drawn  from  A  (40  N  050  W )  to  B.     • At  70  N/S  =  3%  
  •
• n  of  ¾  m eans  that  when  the  when  the  projection   • The  initial  track  is  043  T  and  at  B  it  is  055  T  
cone   is   expanded   and   laid   flat,   75%   of   it   maps   • Find  the  longitude  of  B  
the   reduced   earth   (developed   sector).   25   %   is   USES  
missing.      
  • Used  to  map  the  areas  from  about  70  N/S  to  90  
• The   formula   is   normally   used   to   find   the   PO   N/S    
given  n  
o With  n  of  0.75  the  PO  is  at  48035’  
 NAVIGATION  8  –  CHARTS  

THE  GRATICULE   DIRECTION  PROBLEMS                    

   
• Parallels  of  latitude  appear  as  concentric  circles,  
concave  to  the  nearest  pole.  
 
• Rhumb   lines   (parallel   of   latitude)   are   therefore  
concave  to  the  nearest  pole.  
• Above   780,   great   circles   are   represented   as  
straight  lines.  

CHART  CONVERGENCE  
 
(C)  CV  =  Ch  Long  
 
• Meridians   are   straight   lines   therefore   chart  
convergence  is  constant.  
• Equal  to  EC  at  the  pole  of  projection.  
 NAVIGATION  10  -­‐  GRID  

WHY  GRID?   CONVERGENCE  CALCULATIONS                      

   
• Close  the  True  Pole  /  Magnetic  Pole,  track  varies   Grid  Track  =  True  Track  ±  CH  Long  From  Datum  
too  frequently  to  be  used  for  navigation.    
• By   referencing   Grid   North,   a   constant   track  can    
be  followed.  

CONVERGENCE  
 
• Convergence   is   the   difference   between   grid  
north  and  true  north.  

GRIVATION  
 
• Difference   between   grid   north   and   magnetic  
north.  
• Isogrivs  connect  place  of  equal  grivation.  
 
Grivation  =  Grid  Convergence  +  Variation  

GRID  DATUM  
 
• The   grid   datum   is   where   grid   north   and   true  
north  are  equal.  
• Convergency  is  zero  at  the  grid  datum.  
 NAVIGATION  10  –  PILOT  NAVIGATION  TECHNQIUES  

1  IN  6 0  RULE                             TRACK  CORRECTION   SPEED  FACTOR  

     
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝑂𝑓𝑓 • Off   course   by   2   nm   after   15   nm.   What   is   the   𝑇𝐴𝑆
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘  𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =    ×  60    
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝐺𝑜𝑛𝑒 required  alteration  to  regain  track  at  B?   60
 
Track  Error  =  (2/15)  *  60  =  80  
RATE  OF  DESCENT   Correction  Angle  =  (2/30)  *  60  =  40   WCA  
 
   
𝑅𝑂𝐷 = 𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒  𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒  ×  𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒  ×  100   Alteration  =  8  =  4  =  120  Right   • Wind  Correction  Angle  
    • The   correction   that   needs   to   be   applied   to   the  
𝑅𝑂𝐷  (3!  𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) = 5  ×  𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑  𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑   track   to   obtain   the   required   heading   (to   fly   the  
intended  track)  
 
HEIGHT  ON  GLIDESLOPE  
 
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒  𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒  ×  𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒  ×  100  

GRADIENT  !  GLIDESLOPE  ANGLE   DOUBLE  TRACK  ERROR  

   
• 5%  Gradient  =  30  Glideslope   • To   regain   course   in   the   same   distance   taken   to  
get  off  course,  simply  double  to  track  error.  
MAX  DRIFT  &  WCA  
 
NAM  VS  NGM   𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑥  𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 =    
  𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑  𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
• NAM  =  Nautical  Air  Mile    
• NGM  =  Nautical  Ground  Mile   • By  applying   the  clock   code  to   the  max  drift,   the  
• Distance  /  Speed  is  time  which  will  be  the  same   WCA  can  be  obtained.  
in   each   case.   Therefore,   they   can   be   equated   as  
follows:  
 
𝑁𝐴𝑀 𝑁𝐺𝑀
=  
𝑇𝐴𝑆 𝐺/𝑆