Lesotho Food Security Policy

Second draft

Maseru 21 March 2005

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 W HY A FOOD SECURITY POLICY FOR LESOTHO? ..............................................................................1
1.2 PRE-REQUISITES FOR SUCCESS ............................................................................................................3
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF THE FOOD SECURITY POLICY ....................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2: FOOD SECURITY IN LESOTHO, KEY FEATURES AND TRENDS.............. 6
2.1 DEFINING F OOD SECURITY .....................................................................................................................6
2.2 FOOD SECURITY IN LESOTHO – KEY FEATURES AND TRENDS .......................................................6
2.2.1 Individual level .................................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 Household and Zone Level ................................................................................ 8
2.2.3 National Level ..................................................................................................10
2.2.4 Summary .........................................................................................................11
2.3 FOOD SECURITY FIELDS OF ACTION ...................................................................................................13
2.4 PRIORITISING FOOD SECURITY POLICY MEASURES IN LESOTHO ................................................14
CHAPTER 3: STRATEGIC FIELDS OF ACTION FOR FOOD SECURITY ........................19
3.1 EMPLOYMENT PROMOTION TO ENSURE SUFFICIENT AND STABLE ACCESS TO FOOD ...............19
3.1.1 Promotion of Formal and Informal Employment Opportunities ............................19
3.1.2 Public Works Programmes: Cash-for-Work/ Food-for-Work ................................21
3.2 PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PRODUCTION ..............................................................23
3.2.1 Input supply .....................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Conservation farming .......................................................................................25
3.2.3 Block farming ...................................................................................................26
3.2.4 Homestead gardens .........................................................................................28
3.2.5 Irrigation...........................................................................................................28
3.2.6 Livestock..........................................................................................................30
3.2.7 Land conservation and rehabilitation .................................................................31
3.3 PROMOTION OF SUPPORT SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE .......................................................32
3.3.1 Extension .........................................................................................................32
3.3.2 Micro-Credit Schemes ......................................................................................34
3.3.3 Marketing, processing, trade ............................................................................37
3.3.4 Rural infrastructure ...........................................................................................39
3.4 LAND TENURE AND FOOD SECURITY ...................................................................................................40
3.5 PUBLIC TRANSFERS / SOCIAL SAFETY NETS ....................................................................................42
3.5.3 Transfer Based Entitlement Support ..................................................................42
3.5.2 Consumer subsidies .........................................................................................46
3.6 HIV/AIDS AND FOOD SECURITY .........................................................................................................47
3.6.1. Supporting consumption directly through food assistance .................................48
3.6.2. Boosting household access to food through increased food production and
economic productivity ......................................................................................49
3.6.3 Strengthening Community Level Safety Nets .....................................................50
3.7 COMPLEMENTARY S TRATEGIES TO ENSURE AVAILABILITY AND STABILITY OF FOOD
SUPPLIES AT NATIONAL LEVEL.....................................................................................................................51
3.7.1 Commercial food imports ..................................................................................51
3.7.2 Food aid deliveries – FOOD AID POLICY..........................................................52
3.7.3 Food stocks .....................................................................................................54
3.8 FOOD UTILISATION AND NUTRITION ....................................................................................................55
3.9 FOOD SECURITY INFORMATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................57

i
CHAPTER 4: INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................60
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................60
4.2 NATIONAL LEVEL.....................................................................................................................................60
4.2.1 Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee (IMSC). .....................................................61
4.2.2 The Stakeholder Technical Committee (STC). ...................................................62
4.2.3 The Role of MAFS and the Food Security Policy Unit (FSPU) ............................62
4.3 DISTRICT LEVEL ......................................................................................................................................63
4.4 SUB – DISTRICT LEVEL ..........................................................................................................................63
4.5 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS (CSOS) ..........................................................................................64
4.6 UN ORGANISATIONS AND DONORS ....................................................................................................64
4.7 NGOS .......................................................................................................................................................64
4.8 THE PRIVATE SECTOR ...........................................................................................................................65
CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION ..............................................................66
5.1 OBJECTIVES OF AN M & E SYSTEM FOR FOOD SECURITY ..............................................................66
5.2 M & E INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................................................66
5.3 SETTING-UP AN M & E SYSTEM FOR FOOD SECURITY ...................................................................66
ANNEX: REFERENCES...................................................................................................68

ii
 Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronyms

AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act MAFS Ministry of Agriculture and Food
AIDS Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syn- Security
drome MCA Millennium Challenge Account
APCBP Agricultural Policy Capacity Build- MDG Millennium Development Goals
ing Programme MFED Ministry of Finance and Economic
ASS Agricultural Sector Strategy Development
BOS Bureau of Statistics MFLR Ministry of Forestry and Land Rec-
CBL Central Bank of Lesotho lamation
CBO Community Based Organisation MGYAS Ministry of Gender, Youth Affairs
CFSAM Crop & Food Supply Assessment and Sports
Mission MHSW Ministry of Health & Social Welfare
CFW Cash-for-Work MLG Ministry of Local Government
CSO Civil Society Organization MoW Ministry of Works
DAO District Agricultural Officer MP Member of Parliament
DDMT District Disaster Management MT Metric tonnes
Team MTICM Ministry of Trade, Industry, Coop-
DFID Department for International Devel- eratives and Marketing
opment NEWU National Early Warning Unit
DFSCC District Food Security Coordinating NGO Non-government organization
Committee NNSS National Nutrition Surveillance Sys-
DMA Disaster Management Authority tem
DPPA Department of Planning & Policy NVAC National Vulnerability Assessment
Analysis Committee
EU European Union OVC Orphans and vulnerable children
EMOP Emergency Operations PLWA People living with AIDS
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization PMU Poverty Monitoring Unit
FFW Food-for-Work PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy
FHH Female Headed Household PS Permanent Secretary
FIVAC Food Insecurity and Vulnerability SACU Southern African Customs Union
Assessment Committee SADC Southern African Development
FNCO Food and Nutrition Coordinating Community
Office SCN Standing Committee on Nutrition
FSPU Food Security Policy Unit STC Stakeholder Technical Committee
GDP Gross Domestic Product UES Unified Extension System
GNP Gross National Product UN United Nations
GoL Government of Lesotho UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on
GTZ German Agency for Technical Co- HIV/AIDS
operation UNDP United Nations Development Pro-
HH Household gramme
HIV Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus UNICEF United Nations Children‘s Fund
IMSC Inter-Ministerial Steering Commit- VAC Vulnerability Assessment Commit-
tee tee
Kcal Kilo Calories VDC Village Development Council
LHWP Lesotho Highlands Water Project WFP World Food Programme
LPRC Land Policy Review Commission WHO World Health Organization
LVAC Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment
Committee
KG Kilograms

iii
 Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION
This policy document is divided into five chapters.. Chapter One sets out the background to
the policy as well as critical principles which inform the design of the policy. Chapter Two
describes the food security situation in Lesotho, and also sets out key criteria for prioritising
policy measures to improve the situation. In Chapter Three, the key policy actions are spelt
out together with strategic actions for achieving these and relevant stakeholders. Chapter
Four sets out the institutional framework for implementation of the policy, focussing on prin-
ciples and criteria for institutional set-up as well as more specific actions. Finally, Chapter
Five describes monitoring and evaluation of the policy. Together, these chapters provide a
framework for achievement of f improved food security in Lesotho.

1.1 WHY A FOOD SECURITY POLICY FOR LESOTHO?

The importance of attaining food security in Lesotho is evident from the consistently high pri-
ority given to it in several national and international plans and statements. Table 1 (next page)
illustrates this clearly. This policy is the culmination of a process which was initiated by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. The high priority accorded to the issue was a key
factor behind the development of the policy. In addition, there are three other reasons why a
food security policy is urgently needed in Lesotho.

First: There are a number of initiatives which relate to food insecurity, yet there is no over-
arching policy framework within which these can be tied together, duplications reduced, gaps
filled and synergies maximised. Key initiatives include, ―live‖ government policy initiatives, the
most pertinent of which are the Vision 2020, the Poverty Reduction Strategy, the Agricultural
Sector Strategy, the White Paper on Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (get ref.) and the
new agricultural subsidies policy ―Subsidies in the Agricultural Sector‖. In addition, there are
other statements of policy and strategy which exist, but which have been largely forgotten.
The most important of these are the Food Aid Policy (2000) and the National Plan of Action
for Nutrition (1997).

Second: Amongst key stakeholders (government, the international community, civil society)
there are a number of interpretations of what the concept of food security actually means,
both in the abstract and as it relates to Lesotho. This results in a lack of consensus on prob-
lem diagnosis and the prioritisation of options for improvement. A food security policy is
needed which sets out the critical elements and ambit of the concept, through a process
which is inclusive and ensures that all the differing views are expressed and addressed. In
this way common understandings can be reached and wide ownership achieved.

Third: The food security context for Basotho has changed markedly over the last decade and
this demands a fresh approach to address food security issues in the country. It seems clear
that increasingly, Basotho are ―living on the edge‖, living in other words perilously close to a
situation of chronic and increasingly irreversible food insecurity, poverty and deprivation. In-
deed, for many if not most of the roughly 60% of the population already below the poverty
line (a percentage that has increased not fallen over the last decade), the primary question is
not how to improve food security but how to prevent further erosion of existing food security
status.

That such a situation has come about is a huge challenge to the development models and
agricultural and food policies followed in recent years. Whilst economic growth in the country

1
was high in the years preceding 1998, this had limited or no impact upon poverty at the
household level, and currently Lesotho has one of the highest levels of income inequality in
sub-Saharan Africa.

Since 2001 – 02 Lesotho has experienced levels of acute food insecurity not seen since
1990-92. What is different is that whilst Basotho were, in general, able to ―bounce back‖ from
the 1990-92 bad years (and the subsequent bad year of 1994 -95), resilience a decade or
more later is much reduced and vulnerability to chronic livelihood failure increased. Rather
than being seen as a food crisis, the current situation is better thought of as a ―tipping point‖
i.e. a situation in which it has become clear that underlying poverty, vulnerability and food
insecurity have reached unacceptable levels, necessitating a re-think of development and
food security strategies.

Table 1: Food Security in Global, Regional and National Policies and Strategies

Global Strategy National Goals National Pro- National Sector Regional Sector
gramme Strategy Strategy
Millennium De- Vision 2020 Poverty Reduc- Agricultural NEPAD/CAADP
velopment tion Strategy Sector Strategy Pillars for priori-
Goals (PRS) Lesotho ty investment
Goal 1: A Stable Democ- 1. Employment 1. Food security 1. Land and wa-
Eradicate poverty racy creation and in- ter management
and hunger come generation
Goal 2: Achieve A United Nation 2. Food security 2. Poverty reduc- 2. Rural infra-
universal primary tion structure and im-
education proved market
access
Goal 3: Promote A Nation at 3. Deepening 3. Sustainable 3. Increasing food
gender equality Peace with Itself democracy, go- environment security and re-
and empower and its Neigh- vernance, safety management and ducing hunger
women bours and security conservation
Goal 4: Reduce A Healthy and 4. Infrastructure 4. Improve effi- 4. Agricultural
child mortality Well developed development ciency (adopt a research technol-
Human Re- productivity cul- ogy dissemina-
source Base ture) tion and adoption
Goal 5: Improve A Strong Econ- 5. Promoting 5. Improved in- 5. Integration of
maternal health omy and Pros- access to quality come distribution forestry, fisheries
perous Nation and essential and livestock
health care and
social welfare
services
Goal 6: Combat A Well Managed 6.Improving quali- 6. Increase share
HIV and AIDS, Environment ty of and access of agriculture in
malaria and other to education GDP
diseases
Goal 7: Ensure A Well Estab- 7. HIV/AIDS pan- Additional cross
environmental lished Technolo- demic cutting issues:
sustainability gy - HIV/AIDS
Goal 8: Develop Challenge: 8. Environmental - Inter-institutional
a global partner- Improving und conservation coordination
ship for develop- sustaining food 9. Improvement
ment security for sus- of public service
tainable pros- delivery
perity Cross cutting
priority: HIV/AIDS
pandemic

2
1.2 PRE-REQUISITES FOR SUCCESS

Stakeholders in Lesotho are tired of policies which are drafted but never finalised, and if fina-
lised never implemented. What can be done to ensure that this policy does not meet the
same fate?

Above anything else, this policy requires political will and commitment to be implemented.
It requires this at all levels,. Commitment to work cross-sectorally and cross-ministerially is
critical for the success of this policy. This is because, unlike Agriculture or Health, Food Se-
curity does not fall neatly into sectoral boundaries.

The policy also requires the support of development partners: donors, UN agencies,
NGOs and the private sector, and the involvement and mobilisation of local communities.
This means that robust mechanisms for collaboration and coordination will need to be estab-
lished and applied, in order to ensure that all are ―pulling in the same direction‖.

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF THE FOOD SECURITY POLICY

This policy is founded on a number of core principles. Underpinning the principles is the
changing policy context for food security in Lesotho, as illustrated in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: The changing policy context for food security in Lesotho

OLD POLICY CONTEXT NEW POLICY CONTEXT

An overall approach of directive An overall policy context of enabl-

central planning ing people, communities, busi-
nesses – not ―crowding out‖
personal responsibility or private
enterprise

Priority policy objectives are food

Focus on increasing aggregate security for all, poverty alleviation
agricultural production towards and sustainable resource man-
self-sufficiency. agement

Achieving policy objectives

Achieving this production objective
through direct Intervention so as to
plan and manage the volume and
range of agricultural production
through: decentralisation; private
sector promotion and liberalising
market controls whilst recognising
market failure and chronic vulne-
rability and therefore the need to
target services to vulnerable
groups.

Adapted from Risner (2003: 11)

3
The principles of the food security policy may be listed as follows:
1. Food Security is cross-sectoral and multi-leveled. It involves stakeholders from various
fields, from household to national level. Food security is NOT the same as food production
and it is NOT the same as self sufficiency either at the national level or the household lev-
el.. Food security is NOT just an agricultural issue and does NOT just involve the Ministry
of Agriculture and Food Security. In order to address food security properly various other
Ministries will need to be involved. Thus, tackling food security goes BEYOND THE CUR-
RENT MANDATE of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security.
2. The Policy will build on existing policies, programmes and institutional structures and will
be framed within current national and international targets and goals. Figure 2 shows the
relationship between the policy and other policies and goals.

Figure 2: Relationship between the food security policy and other policies, strategies
and programmes using a ―Food Security Lens‖.

Vision
2020,
Millenium Poverty NEPAD
Develop- Reduction Policies &
ment PRS Programmes
Goals

Social Sector Emergency

Policies response
(e.g. HIV/AIDS, (Disaster
Health, Nutrition Management,
Pension Food Aid)
scheme)

Agricultural
Regional
Policies Donor
SADC (e.g. Agric. Sector
Policies Strategy, Irrigation,
Pro-
Seed & Subsidy grammes &
Policy) Policies

Design of the policy has been informed by the use of a ―Food Security Lens‖ through which
all existing and planned policies have been viewed. The lens shows the degree to which ex-
isting initiatives will or could have positive impact on food security for the country, and the
resulting implications for a new food security policy. The policy relates to existing policies and
goals in four ways:
 It provides strategic direction for achieving international and national goals to
which the Government of Lesotho is committed
 It plugs gaps in the current policy framework as this relates to food security

4
  It provides strategic guidelines on precisely how to reach food security objectives
through policy measures that are set out in existing policies (e.g. the Health and
Social Welfare Policy and the Agriculture Sector Strategy).
 Where a food security policy area is shown to be well covered by other policies,
the food security policy will NOT duplicate. Rather, it will seek to ensure that
strong monitoring and evaluation links are established so that impacts on food
security can be measured and corrective actions taken if required.
3. The Policy will be as specific as possible with respect to implementable and monitorable
actions and responsibilities. It sets out a framework which can easily be further elaborated
in preparation for actual implementation.

4. The Policy relies on the principle of comparative advantage with respect to the different
roles expected of key stakeholders. GoL is expected to provide an environment in which
the private sector, NGOs and communities can operate effectively in pursuit of food secu-
rity. Where necessary, GoL will step in to provide public goods and to support vulnerable
groups. The private sector is given the space and the opportunity to provide services in a
cost effective manner. GoL is responsible for playing a role in the coordination of NGOs
and CSOs, building partnerships with them, and allowing them to operate freely. The Poli-
cy will help to identify areas of support and priorities for UN agencies and donors.

5. The Policy will mainstream HIV/AIDS in terms of specifying:

 the special conditions or special policy measures that are appropriate for PLWA,
HIV/AIDS infected and affected households and communities. This will include the
access of children to assets;
 that PLWA and HIV/AIDS organisations are fully integrated into the institutional
framework for the implementation of the policy;
 that monitoring and evaluation mechanisms collect, analyse and disseminate inform a-
tion that allows the relationships between food insecurity and HIV/AIDS to be unders-
tood and acted upon.

6. The Policy will mainstream gender concerns in terms of ensuring that:

 the needs of men and women are catered for in suggested policy measures, sepa-
rately if necessary;
 the specific needs and human rights of women in relation to productive assets such
as land and credit are reflected in suggested policy measures;
 that monitoring and evaluation mechanisms collect, analyse and disseminate inform a-
tion that allows the relationships between food insecurity and gender to be unders-
tood and acted upon.

5
 CHAPTER 2:
FOOD SECURITY IN LESOTHO, KEY FEATURES AND TRENDS

2.1 DEFINING FOOD SECURITY

The World Food Summit 1996 described food security as a situation when

All people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient
safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life.

The widely accepted definition of food security implies that a number of conditions are to be
fulfilled at the same time in order to achieve a state of food security, namely:

 Availability: Food supplies must be sufficient adequately to feed the population,

 Access: All people must have physical, social and economic access to sufficient
food,
 Stability: Access and availability must be ensured at all times,
 Effective utilisation: The food consumed must be safe and nutritious.

Food insecurity exists if only one of these conditions is not fulfilled.

One can distinguish between different levels of food security:

1) Food security at national aggregate level: Total food available from different sources
of supply is sufficient to cover the aggregate national needs. This particularly relates
to the issue of availability.
2) Household food security: Capacity of different categories of households to obtain or
to be entitled to the food they need. This relates to the issue of access.
3) Individual level: The food actually consumed covers the specific nutritional needs of
the individuals. This particularly relates to the issues of utilisation and nutrition, but
also intra-household distribution.

Nutrition security may be defined as a situation where all people at all times are able to utilise
sufficient nutrients to live an active and healthy life. Food security is a necessary but not suf-
ficient condition for nutrition security. This is because other factors, chiefly individual health,
the level of hygiene in the environment and the quality of care can interfere with the transl a-
tion of food security into nutrition security.

This policy is, therefore, a contribution to improving nutrition security in Lesotho. It is not,
however, the whole story. Non-food security factors and issues are to be covered under the
proposed Integrated Nutrition Policy which is currently under development.

2.2 FOOD SECURITY IN LESOTHO – KEY FEATURES AND TRENDS

As noted above, food security can be analysed at various levels (the individual, household,
district, zonal, national) and through its components: availability, access, stability and utilisa-
tion. Using these categories, this section presents the current state of food security in the

6
country. The Section concludes by setting out the implications of the current situation for the
design of food security policy1.

2.2.1 Individual level

The level of food security at the individual level can be approximated to in various ways. One
way is through the use of anthropometric measurements to measure the weight and height of
children aged under 60 months in the population. This is sometimes taken to be a represen-
tation of the nutritional status of the entire population.

Table 2: Under weight and stunting in Lesotho’s children

Year % Underweight % Stunted (height for
(weight for age) age)
1995 16 33
2002 15 31
Sources: FAO (1999) and UNICEF / BOS (2002)

These rates of underweight and stunting indicate the likelihood of significant chronic food in-
security problems in the country. The table shows that there has been no significant im-
provement in the situation between 1995 and 2002. Insofar as they indicate food intake of
children, these measurements need to be interpreted with a degree of caution, however, as
they capture the influence of health and care factors as well as food. Moreover, it is well
known that there are increasing levels of obesity in the country amongst adults, particularly
women, and that obesity and under-nourishment can and do exist within the same household
in Lesotho. This poses question marks for the extent to which anthropometry can be used to
estimate under-nutrition in the population as a whole.

Another way of approximating to food security at the individual level is to calculate the de-
gree of undernourishment in the population. This measure takes the total food available in
the country and divides by the population, taking into account income distribution in the coun-
try. Table 3 presents the results for Lesotho

Table 3: Under-nourishment in Lesotho

Year Total Population Number of people Proportion of under-
(millions) undernourished (mil- nourished in total
lions) population
1990 – 1992 1.7 0.5 27
1995 – 1997 1.9 0.5 26
1999 – 2001 2.0 0.5 25
Source: FAO, 2000

The depth of undernourishment is less in Lesotho than other countries in Southern Africa.
However, with approximately 2,230 Kcal/person/day available (FAO, 2003) compared to a
calorie need of 2,500 Kcal/person/day (higher than FAO average because of Lesotho‘s cold
climate), there has been hardly any reduction in the proportion of undernourished people in
the last decade.

In terms of intra-household distribution, utilisation and safety of food, the available in-
formation indicates the following:

1
For much more detail on the trends in food security over the last 20 years and future prospects, readers are re-
ferred to Marsland N., M. Metz, M. Phoofolo, and M. Sejanemane. “Food and Nutrition Insecurity in Lesotho:
Problems, Trends and Responses” (Second Draft) December 2004, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security,
Maseru.

7
  Available statistics on the dietary intake of children under 5 indicate low energy
density in weaning foods and low dietary diversity.
 There is no information available on adult dietary intake.
 The (very) limited available research on post harvest losses for maize indicate that
this could be as high as 15 – 20%. This needs to be corroborated by further re-
search.
 Food safety is compromised for those households without access to clean water
(23% of the total in 2000) and the 46% without access to sanitary means of excreta
disposal (i.e. a pit latrine or better). This latter figure is worryingly high. Percent-
ages of households without clean water and waste disposal are appreciably higher
for poorer wealth groups, particularly those in rural areas.
 The Maseru abattoir has been closed down. Lesotho, therefore does not produce
meat of certifiable quality, and this has deleterious health implications.

2.2.2 Household and Zone Level

The nature and depth of food insecurity in Lesotho varies across space and time and accord-
ing to the demographic make up of households. In analysing this, the following issues need
to be considered:
 Wealth status and geographical location of households
 The time of year and type of year (in particular whether there has been a good or a
bad harvest)
 Age, sex and health status of household members

In May 2004, The Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment Committee (LVAC) analysed the ways
in which households of differing wealth status obtained food and income in different parts of
the country2,3. The LVAC analysis shows how households categorised as ―poor‖, ―middle‖
and ―well-off‖ in community wealth rankings secure access to food in a “typical” , “average” or
“normal” year. Key points are as follows:
 Purchased food is a significant source of annual kilocalorie needs for all wealth
groups in all parts of the country. In addition, as wealth decreases, food from pur-
chases becomes more important and food from own crops less important in meeting
annual kilocalorie needs. For the poor, purchased food accounts for 45 – 60% of an-
nual kilocalorie needs, whereas food consumption from own production of food crops
accounts for 20% or less of annual kilocalorie needs.
 In order to purchase food, households need income. The importance of different in-
come sources in relation to total income varies significantly by geographical area and
by socio-economic status. The poor in peri-urban areas are estimated to rely on em-
ployment for 60% of their income. On average, reliance on employment accounts for
around 40% of the income of the poor. Most of the rest is made up from ―other trade‖ 4
and ―non-food production‖5 . Relatively minor parts of income come from cash crop
sales and livestock. The high rate of unemployment in the country (estimated at
around 30%) and under-employment in rural and urban areas is therefore of great
significance as a factor undermining food security for the lower socio-economic
groups. In contrast, employment income is much less important for the ―well-off‖ ac-
counting for between 5% and 30% of total income. The well-off derive most of their
income from a combination of cash crops, livestock sales and trading.

2
Detailed analysis of food and income sources for different wealth groups in the main livelihood zones in the
country can be found in the Technical Annex.
3
LVAC assessments do not as yet cover urban areas, however, it can be expected that purchases are as - if not
more - important as in peri-urban areas.
4
Which includes petty trade such as buying and re-selling salt.
5
Which includes firewood sales, collecting and selling building stones, brewing and then selling joala. The dis-
tinction between “other trade” and “non-food production” is that under the former, there is buying and selling,
whereas under the latter there is just selling.

8
  The ―poor‖ derive most of their income locally, (on average around 60% of their in-
come is locally sourced), with smaller proportions coming from other parts of the
country and from RSA. ―Middle‖ and ―‖well-off‖ groups derive higher proportions of
their income from further afield i.e. (a) non-local but still within Lesotho and (b) from
RSA.

The LVAC data gives a good general overview. However, in order to complete the picture a
number of other facets are necessary.

First, the situation of very poor and vulnerable households. Highly labour constrained
households in which adults are sick rely more on gifts and destructive coping strategies in-
cluding asset sales and sex work than the ―poor‖ as defined above. Many in the very poor
group are old and alone, too old or sick to work, they rely upon the charity of others in their
communities.

Second, in situations of stress, the ―normal‖ picture illustrated above changes significantly,
as various coping strategies are deployed, and the need for transfers to support food security
increases. Indeed, in recent years this ―normal‖ picture has been something of a rarity, with a
combination of price shocks and climatic factors having a serious effect on food security at
the household level. In 2002, it was estimated that around 40% of the rural population had
suffered acute food insecurity, necessitating immediate resource transfers (interpreted as
food aid). During the current consumption year (April 2004 – March 2005), the LVAC has es-
timated that needs are even greater than they were in 2002 – 03, and that the country would
need 44,000 tonnes of food aid deliveries to meet food needs. W hen interpreting these fig-
ures, it is important to note that that the most important problem over recent years has been
increased inability of households to withstand shocks to livelihoods, as opposed to the sever-
ity of the shocks themselves.

Third, levels of poverty and vulnerability vary across the country, so not all the ―poor‖
are equally poor and not all the ―well-off‖ are equally wealthy. In 1999, detailed work con-
ducted by Sechaba consultants showed that poverty was most widespread in the mountains.
All mountain areas had at least 79% of their households under the poverty line – compared
with a national average of 65%. The lowland areas including all the urban and peri-urban ar-
eas were the least poor. Other research, however, points to a growing problem of serious
poverty in peri urban and urban areas. Turner et al (2001) found that “a new kind of poverty
is emerging in the (peri) urban areas. On many indicators used in this study, the poorest live-
lihood category in these areas is worse off than any other group in the country. This poses
new challenges for welfare support and development policy.” Thus, whilst the incidence of
poverty may be lower in (peri) urban areas, the depth may be as high as or even higher than
in remote rural areas.

Finally, various studies have found a strong gender dimension in terms of poverty and food
insecurity at the household level. Sechaba Consultants found that in 1999, women earned
30.9% of the reported total national income, while men earned the remaining 69.1%. Clearly
women are active in the economic sphere. Unfortunately, they dominate in the less produc-
tive areas, including informal business, sale of joala (local beer), hawking, sale of fruits and
vegetables, sale of animal products, sale of home-grown vegetables, other small-scale sale
enterprises, sale of assets, food aid, and finally gifts. Many of these means of survival are
desperation measures. Households were found to receive a mean annual income of M7,567
from men with wage work, but only M5,517 from women with wage work. This disparity ex-
isted despite the fact that women with wage work had a mean of 7.8 years of school, while
men with wage work have only 5.8 years of school. Clearly women are discriminated against
in the work place. (Sechaba Consultants, 2000: 79).

9
When assessing the role of gender in household food security, it is critical to distinguish be-
tween de jure and de facto female headship 6. Households headed de facto by women ac-
tually show a higher cash income per member than male headed households. This is be-
cause so many of these households profit from the wage income of absent husbands. On the
contrary, households headed de jure by women form the poorest class of livelihoods in Leso-
tho. These are usually households headed by ageing widows who have lost many of the hu-
man and material assets that they enjoyed in their younger days and who may find it hard to
secure any cash income at all.

2.2.3 National Level

Analysis of the evolution and the main characteristics of Lesotho‘s food situation at the ag-
gregate national level over the period 1980 – 2002 reveals the following:
 In most years, commercial cereal imports made up the major share of domestic cereal
supplies.
 Because of the currency union with South Africa and a relatively solid foreign exchange
position (foreign exchange reserves for 7 to 12 months import cover during recent years),
Lesotho has the capacity to finance substantial food imports. This could change in future
however, as revenues from SACU receipts are reduced. The weak dollar and uncertain-
ties regarding the garment sector pose further question-marks around foreign exchange
revenues from exports.
 Food aid accounts for a relatively low proportion of total cereal supply. Over the 11 years
between 1992 and 2002, food aid accounted for an average of 3.3% of total supplies,
peaking at 11% in 1995 and again in 2002.
 There is a high fluctuation in imports and production. Cereal imports largely compen-
sated for shortfalls in production until the mid 1990‘s, bringing about a smoother supply
situation overall.
 There has been a substantial drop in cereal imports since 1998 which does not appear
to have been fully compensated for by increased production,

As a result of the development of production and imports in the more recent years, an overall
supply deficit has emerged: total cereal supplies (i.e. production plus imports), have not
been sufficient to cover average minimum consumption requirements. This situation has con-
tinued into 2003 and 2004. This in turn is evidence of increased poverty and a reduction in
purchasing power amongst the population, having become increasingly unable to cope with
the food price hikes from the end of the 90‘s. These points are illustrated in the following fig-
ure:

6
De jure female headed households are headed by widows, divorced and single women. De facto female headed
households are those in which the woman is married but her husband is not normally resident at the household.
Many of these households benefit from the wage income of absent husbands

10
Figure 2: Cereal production and imports in comparison to national minimum kilo-
calorie requirements from cereals.

700,000

600,000

500,000

T
400,000
o
n
s 300,000

200,000

100,000
Cereal production Net cereal imports
0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Minimum requirements7
Source of data: FAOSTAT

2.2.4 Summary

The current state of food insecurity in Lesotho can be summed up as follows:

 At individual level available data indicates that rates of nutritional stunting and wast-
ing are as high today as they were 10 years ago. Similarly, one quarter of Lesotho‘s
population are estimated to be malnourished, a figure which has changed little since
the mid-1990s.
 There is evidence of problems with respect to intra-household distribution of food and
dietary intake of children. Food processing losses need further investigation.
 At household level, there is a high degree of dependence on food purchases for food
security, especially amongst the poor. Purchase depends on income, and this de-
pends significantly (though not exclusively by any means) on employment. With lev-
els of poverty probably increasing 8, households are becoming increasingly vulnerable
to food and income shocks, such as sudden devaluations or droughts. Very poor
households are forced to employ survival strategies, and their numbers are probably
growing. Food insecurity exists all over the country but is most widespread in the
mountains Urban poverty is a growing concern. Of all households, those headed by
women (de jure) are amongst the poorest and most vulnerable.
 At national level, the country relies heavily on commercial imports to meet food needs.
Foreign exchange reserves have been sufficient to finance import needs thus far, al-
though this could change in future. Since the turn of the century, the decline of food
imports have led to an emerging food deficit, i.e. the aggregate national needs have

7
Minimum requirements are set at 180 kg cereals per person per year (FAO/WFP 2003, see above), based on the
following assumptions: This amount of cereals provides some 1700 kcal. per person / per day and in typical
Basotho diets, about 75 per cent of the daily calorie supplies stem from cereals. Taking into account calorie
consumption from cereals (some 500 g per day) and other food commodities, this results in average total daily
calorie supplies of over 2200 kcal per person and day.
8
Data from the Bureau of Statistics indicates that real Gross National Income per capita remained roughly con-
stant between 1982 and 1998, and fell by 19% between 1998 and 2002. Some of this fall is due to exchange
rate movements (i.e. appreciation of the dollar against the rand).

11
 not been fully covered by domestic production and food imports. This has been due
to an increased level of poverty and reduced purchasing power.

2.2.5 Future Trends

Looking to the future, there are a number of likely trends which will have an impact on food
security in the country.

 Demography: Lesotho is on the verge of undergoing dramatic demographic changes

which are likely to have far reaching implications for the nature of the economy. The
rural population will decrease, and the urban population will account for 50% of total
population within the next 20 – 25 years. Large numbers of 15-49 year olds will prob-
ably die of AIDS. HIV/AIDS is therefore likely to impact on the demographics of Leso-
tho, by increasing the number of dependents (both young and elderly), and changing
the gender ratio, as women are disproportionably affected by the epidemic. This in
turn will affect labour supply and productivity, reduce or halt macroeconomic growth
and increase levels of poverty and income disparities.

 Government spending: Changes in SACU rules will significantly reduce government

expenditure. In the worst case scenario, Government spending could be down to 25%
of GDP in 10 years time (currently government expenditure accounts for around 45%
of GDP). A less pessimistic scenario would see government spending at around 35%
of GDP. Whatever the actual reduction, the upshot will be that government will not be
able to sustain social protection systems for vulnerable groups without increased ex-
ternal support. Indeed, GoL will have greater need for donor support for food security
programmes in general, and this will be true even if economic growth rates pick up.

 Land reform: Given the delays in finalising the Land Code to date, prospects of actual
legislation in the near future must remain uncertain. When the Code does come into
force, the main benefits will be in terms of improved commercial and industrial devel-
opment, improved accommodation of the urbanisation process and welfare benefits
associated with the improved tenure security of otherwise vulnerable rural dwellers
(widows and orphans). It is unlikely that land reform per se will have a major impact
on agricultural productivity (i.e. without accompanying improvements in rural finance
and input supply).

 Government service provision at district and local level: Service provision at local
level faces several formidable challenges. Ongoing processes of decentralisation and
the movement towards the Unified Extension Service (UES) have been slow. If mean-
ingful decentralisation actually happens over the next 3 – 4 years, this should have a
positive knock-on effect in terms of the functioning of the UES and responsiveness of
government services that promote and protect food security. Other things being equal,
the longer that uncertainty remains, the more difficult it will be for government to im-
prove the food insecurity situation.

2.2.6 Challenges for Food Security Policy

Current levels and likely future trends in vulnerability and food insecurity demand a robust
response in policy terms. The country is at a cross-roads in terms of how best to tackle food
insecurity. The key areas are as follows:
 First, access to food for majority will depend on increased purchasing power. This
means increasing incomes on the one hand and minimising the likelihood of escalat-
ing food prices on the other. Therefore, generation of increased employment in both
rural and urban areas and / or remittances must be a central part of policy. The Food

12
 Security Policy will need to integrate with the scope of other policies, particularly the
PRS and the Agricultural Sector Strategy to maximise impact in this area.
 Second, access to food for most of the rural population can also be improved through
increases in own food production. Thus increasing domestic food production will also
be a key part of the fight against food insecurity, insofar as this is economically justi-
fied. This will depend on taking forward various strategies that increase the productiv-
ity of the agricultural sector.
 Increased agricultural productivity and employment will not, however, adequately ad-
dress the problem of the burgeoning number of very poor and vulnerable households,
a high proportion of which are unable to participate in the productive economy. Assist-
ing de jure female headed households, households highly affected by HIV/AIDS and
other very poor groups will mean that imaginative and cost effective safety net and
social protection measures will need to be prioritised also. This situation poses a di-
lemma for policy makers, as government revenues are likely to reduce in future ow-
ing to changes in SACU rules. This will reduce the ability of GoL to sustain safety net
interventions and will increase the need for greater donor engagement in this field.
 Over the medium term, policy makers will need to come to terms with the fact that Le-
sotho is urbanising. Urban food security has particular features which include the fol-
lowing : A high dependence on the market for food; small (and contested) areas of
land for production of food; a significant intake of ―street food‖ and; less cohesive / en-
trenched traditional safety nets for helping out in hard times.
 The multi-sectoral nature of food insecurity means that addressing it effectively will
require coordination between several sectors in government and civil society. This
means that the institutional arrangements for the policy will need to link institutions in
terms of implementation and, critically, in terms of monitoring and evaluation and food
security information systems. The challenge is to do this in a way that builds on exist-
ing structures in a sustainable manner.

2.3 FOOD S ECURITY FIELDS OF ACTION

Figure 3 gives an overview of the relevant ―fields of action‖ for food security policy. It shows
the full range of policy areas that could have an impact on food security in the country. It can
be seen that some of the policy areas cover one aspect of food insecurity (e.g. access or
availability), while others are likely to affect different aspects of food security at the same
time (e.g. access and availability and/or stability and/or utilisation). It should be noted that
the relevant policy area includes those aspects of nutrition that are related to food utilisation
only. Other aspects of nutrition (health, water and sanitation) are outside the main focus of
the policy, although the policy will influence and be influenced by these. These other aspects
will form a main focus of planned Integrated Nutrition Policy for Lesotho.

This general picture in the diagram needs to be assessed in the light of likely impacts on the
various population groups explained in section 2.2. In particular, policy measures need to be
implemented in such a way that they maximise impact on the food security of chronically vul-
nerable and chronically poor groups in the short term whilst also promoting longer-term food
security through productivity enhancement of agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.

13
 Figure 3: Food Security Policy Fields of Action
Addressing Availability, Access, Stability and Utilisation

FOOD AVAILABILITY ACCESS TO FOOD

Agriculture/
food production Employment
(crops, livestock,  Migrant labour
horticulture)  Formal
Rural finance  Informal
Soil & water conservation  Urban
Land tenure  Rural
Irrigation
Food imports Infrastructure
 Commercial Food marketing Social protection /
 Food aid deliveries
Emergency operations
Utilisation
Food stocks
Food processing
& preservation Feeding
programmes
Supply of fortified and HIV/AIDS
and protective food
STABILITY
Health
Education
Water and sanitation
Nutrition
Adapted from: FFSSA, 2004b

2.4 PRIORITISING FOOD SECURITY POLICY MEASURES IN LESOTHO

Prioritising food security policy measures is complex as there are many variables to consider.
It is possible, however, to assign different emphases to various policy spheres on the
grounds of their likely impact on food security9. In order to do this, four issues need to be
considered:
1. Judging the challenges within the four aspects of food security: availability, access, sta-
bility and utilisation. All four are important to attain a state of food security, however, they
do not require equal emphasis in the Lesotho situation.
2. Distinguishing between different population groups within the population - as not all are
equally food insecure or vulnerable to food insecurity - and taking into account the num-
bers of households falling into each group.
3. Identifying the ways in which policy should support different types of entitlement to food
for the population groups. Entitlement is the means by which households gain access to
food. Four types of entitlement can be defined:
 Production based entitlement (food from own production)

9
Questions of cost and cost-effectiveness are not considered at this level. These issues become important at the
level of strategy, i.e. when deciding on which course of action to take within a given policy sphere or spheres.

14
 Trade based entitlement (capacity to buy food in exchange for commodities and cash
owned)
 Own-labour entitlement (bartering labour for food, wages earned from employment)
 Transfer entitlements (food or income obtained through direct private or public relief
assistance).
4. Selecting those policy measures which best support the various entitlements of different
population groups. This may be direct or indirect, short or long term.

1. Availability, access, stability and utilisation

At national level, Lesotho depends heavily on commercial imports. Foreign exchange re-
serves are sufficient to finance this, although this situation is not guaranteed for the future.
Despite this uncertainty however, the analysis in section 2.2 above shows that food insecu-
rity in Lesotho is a problem mainly at the household level. Here, two issues are apparent: (a)
food from own production is low in relation to food needs, particularly for the poor and (b)
therefore the poor largely depend on other ways of meeting their food needs (chiefly em-
ployment and petty trading plus various coping strategies) . Both these facts argue for an
emphasis on increasing access to food, as opposed to increasing food supply at the national
level. In addition, it is clear that chronic household access problems have been compounded
by repeated shocks. This has resulted in reduced stability of food security at household level.
In relation to utilisation of food, available information indicates that there are some concerns
regarding the energy density of food intake by infants, food safety and processing losses
(possibly). The existence of malnourished children in the same household as obese mothers
indicates that there are problems either in intra-household food distribution and/or the quality
of the diet given to children. It is necessary, therefore, that food security policy addresses
these issues. They do not require as much emphasis as food access issues, however.

2. Population Groups and Entitlement Support

For policy purposes it is useful to categorise population groups according to their levels and
features of vulnerability and poverty. In this regard, the population can be divided into the fol-
lowing groups:

Category 1: Extremely poor: Households in this category are unable to make a living in nor-
mal times without some form of assistance (e.g. the disabled; many of the elderly; many of
the de facto female headed households; people living with AIDS). In terms of support, the
first priority would be for public and private transfers. Public transfers would include ―formal‖
measures such as food aid, cash or vouchers, and also measures to support community
safety nets (to enable private transfers). Such transfers would need to be more or less per-
manent, as there is only a small probability of people in this group becoming economically
productive. This group is the most food insecure of all in Lesotho. For this reason, support to
them should be accorded high priority. They are, however, not as numerous as the next
group: the chronically vulnerable, and this needs to be considered in allocating resources
also.

Category 2: Chronically vulnerable to poverty and food insecurity: Households in this cate-
gory can make an independent livelihood and perhaps start to accumulate assets only in the
most favourable of circumstances, e.g. a number of consecutive years of favourable weather
for agriculture. Most would be classified as ―poor‖ and would fall below the accepted poverty
lines for Lesotho10. People in this group are either in or ―living on the edge‖ of poverty. Unlike
the first group, people in this category are economically productive and, depending on their
livelihood, can respond to interventions aimed at supporting production of food, employ-

10
In 1999, 65% of the country’s population were estimated to have fallen under the official poverty line (under
M80 per person per month).

15
 ment and trade. In rural areas, equal priority should be given to supporting own food pro-
duction and employment. In urban areas, emphasis should be given to generating employ-
ment. Owing to their vulnerability, they will also need transfers on a temporary basis after
shocks such as drought or sudden unemployment They should be the main target of Produc-
tivity Enhancing Safety Net (PESNET) measures, which meet immediate consumption needs
whilst also generating longer term benefits (e.g. Cash For Work, Inputs For Work, Food For
Work). The objective of policy is to enable them to strengthen their asset base so that they
can become more resilient to less than favourable circumstances.

Category 3: Vulnerable to transitory food insecurity: Households in this category are normally
able to make an independent livelihood, but need assistance in hard times (e.g. after a cli-
matic shock). More than the second group, they have the capacity to generate an economic
surplus and employ others. Depending on livelihood, in rural areas this group would benefit
from measures which enable them to increase food production and/or employment and/or
trade. In peri-urban and urban areas support for employment and trade are appropriate,
although small scale food production may also be relevant. In times of emergency, such as
the 2002/03 state of famine, and large scale retrenchment (as is currently affecting garment
sector workers), they may justifiably qualify for immediate food or cash based relief meas-
ures.

Category 4: Not usually vulnerable to food insecurity: Households in this group have
either (a) sufficient wealth and assets to withstand food security shocks and / or (b) have a
low probability of facing such shocks. Falling into category (a) would be the successful com-
mercial farmers who have enough working capital and sufficiently diversified sources of in-
come (e.g. remittances from RSA, a small retail business as well as commercial agriculture)
to absorb downturns in production. Falling into category (b) would be salaried government
employees Whilst not normally food insecure themselves, they are an important target for
food security policy because they provide income, employment and transfers of food and in-
come for less well-off groups. Policy measures should aim at enhancing the stability of their
livelihood sources and providing an environment in which these can grow. In this regard, pol-
icy should focus on enabling these groups to become more productive and competitive.

An illustration of the relationship of these different groups to food insecurity and vulnerability
is depicted in the following figure:

Figure 4: Illustration of food insecurity and vulnerability of different population groups

in Lesotho
Acute food in-
Degree of secure in the wake Never food insecure
food security of major shocks (Category 4)
(Category 3)

Recommended
kcal for Lesotho
(2,500 Kcal)
Chronically vulnerable
to food insecurity
(Category 2)
WHO minimum
(2,100 Kcal)
Chronically food inse-
cure (Category 1)

Time

Major and widespread shock happens

here
Note: The Kilo-calorie (Kcal) figures are per person per day (pppd) figures. FAO recommends a
pppd intake of 2,500 kcals owing to Lesotho‘s cold climate.

16
Although now dated, some indication of the size of the four categories described above can
be derived from the 1999 poverty data analysed by Sechaba consultants (2000). In this study,
Lesotho‘s population was divided into income quintiles. These can be roughly compared to
the four categories (Table 4)

Table 4: Proportions in Income Groups by Zone in Percent

(Monthly income per person per household, 1999)

Income quintile Food Security Urban Lowland / Foot- Mountains /

Category hill Senqu River Val-
(rough ap- ley
proximation)
0 - < M14 Category 1 5.0 19.3 32.0
M14 - < M35 Category 1- 2 10.8 19.5 27.3
M35 - < M72 Category 2 16.9 20.9 19.6
M72 - < M150 Category 2 -3 27.4 20.6 12.6
> = M150 Category 3 – 4 39.9 19.6 8.6
Adapted from Sechaba Consultants (2000)

Applying the weightings derived from the sample and the population sizes for the 1999 sur-
vey, it was found that there are more than 2,200 households in the country with no income
whatsoever (Sechaba Consulants 2000: 77).

Summary:

In weighing up policy measures, immediate priority should go to those which support the food
security of groups 1 and 2 above. This is on the grounds that they are the most food insecure.
This does not mean, however, that groups 3 and 4 should be ignored. On the contrary, the
longer term food security of all in Lesotho depends to a large degree on growth in the agricul-
tural and industrial sectors. Supporting the economic productivity of the less vulnerable
groups will generate employment and transfer benefits for the more vulnerable. From the
perspective of food security policy therefore, measures aimed at groups 3 and 4 should be
seen as complementary to directly targeted support aimed at 1 and 2. The impact of such
measures on food security may take longer to come to fruition, however.

It is obvious that these categorisations are only useful for policy if they can be measured.
Whilst the Sechaba data can give some indication, this is now dated and there is urgent need
to get more up to date information. It will be important, therefore, to make methodological im-
provements in the area of vulnerability assessment and food security monitoring. This issue
is tackled in section 3.9 below.

17
 Priority Fields of Intervention

Table 5 shows the relationship between fields of intervention and impact on entitlements to
food.

Table 5: Impact of Fields of Intervention on Access to Food of Different Target Groups.

Fields of Promotion of agri- SMME promotion Public transfer / so-

Intervention cultural production and employment cial safety nets
generation (Includ-
ing Food For Work
Impact on and Cash For Work)
entitlements
Impacts on own pro- Rural poor and bet-
duction entitlements ter-off farmers - -
(Categories 1, 2,3,4)
Impacts on trade en- Rural poor and bet- Urban poor (informal -
titlements ter-off farmers sector) and rural poor
(Categories 3, 4) (Categories 1,2 and
3)
Impacts on employ- Enhanced capacities Urban un- and un- -
ment entitlements of categories 3 and 4 deremployed (Cate-
to employ rural land- gories1, 2 and 3)
less, un- and under-
employed
(Categories1, 2, 3)
Impacts on transfer Enhanced capacity of Enhanced capacity of Very poor rural and
entitlements categories 3 and 4 to categories 3 and 4 urban poor. Other
assist rural poor (ie to assist the poor (ie groups also after
categories 1 and 2) categories 1 and 2) shocks.
(Category 1: perma-
nent, 2 and some-
times 3: temporary
after shocks)

Key: Category 1 = Very poor and chronically food insecure

Category 2 = Poor and chronically vulnerable to food insecurity
Category 3 = Vulnerable to temporary food insecurity
Category 4 = Never food insecure
SMME = Small and Medium Sized Enterprises,

The table indicates that promotion of agricultural production, employment generation and
public transfers / safety nets will have a number of impacts on the entitlement to food for dif-
ferent population groups. Thus, promotion of employment through SMMEs will have primary
impact on categories 2 and 3. Public works (CFW and FFW) on the other hand, if properly
targeted, will have an impact on category 1 as well as 2 and 3. Clearly, not all of the very
poor can benefit from such policy measures and they will need to be assisted through trans-
fers. Policy measures in the field of agricultural production can have a number of effects on
all categories in rural areas.

18
 Chapter 3:
STRATEGIC FIELDS OF ACTION FOR FOOD SECURITY

3.1 EMPLOYMENT PROMOTION TO ENSURE SUFFICIENT AND STABLE ACCESS TO FOOD

3.1.1 Promotion of Formal and Informal Employment Opportunities

Policy measures: Promotion of rural and urban employment, SMME development in formal
and informal sectors and migrant labour opportunities.
Objectives: Improved and reliable access to food for the urban and the rural population.

a) Problem to be addressed

In June 2004, unemployment was estimated at 30% of the workforce 11. Estimates of changes
in unemployment and employment over the past few years vary, however, the consensus
seems to be that overall unemployment has been rising since the mid – late 1990s. GoL
(2002) reports that an average of 25,000 job seekers were entering the workforce each year
in the late 1990s whilst just 9,000 per annum were being absorbed into the workforce 12.

The Lesotho PRS identifies increased employment as the number one priority in the fight
against poverty with improved food security as the second priority. Basotho have identified
lack of meaningful employment as the most fundamental cause of poverty. It is also a fun-
damental cause of food insecurity.

b) Current Responses to Unemployment and Under-employment

Currently, employment issues are tackled in a number of policies and strategies. Table 6 be-
low presents various categories of employment, together with approximate numbers em-
ployed, whether the employment promotion is covered by other policies / interventions and
whether adequate provision has been made for monitoring the food security impacts of em-
ployment.

11
Source: Pawlowska (2004: 9): Formulating A PSD Strategy for Lesotho (World Bank June 10, 2004).
12
Draft National Employment Policy – Ministry of Labour and Employment, July 2002.

19
 Table 6: Employment, Policies and Food Security Related M & E

Type of employment Approximate Employment promotion Food secu-

numbers* covered by other policies? rity related
M&E?
Employment in South Africa 60,000 miners plus Yes: in PRS and in Joint Bi- No
approximately lateral Commission of Coop-
40,000 ―other‖ . eration (JBCC).
Farm rural employment (i.e Probably around Yes: in ASS; in Section 3.2 No
working on someone else‘s 300,000 of this policy document and
farm) in the draft National Em-
ployment Policy)
SMMEs in rural and urban ar- 100,000 -130,000 Yes: in the PRS and in the No
eas: MTICM White Paper on the
Development and Promotion
 Rural non-farm employment of Small Business and in the
 Home enterprise and small draft National Employment
business in rural and urban Policy.
areas
 The ―informal sector‖ in ur-
ban areas
Formal sector waged employ- Largest: Garment Yes: in the PRS No
ment (large private sector em- sector (40,000).
ployers)

Formal sector waged employ- Government (includ- Increasing employment in No

ment (large public sector em- ing parastatals) the public sector is not a pri-
ployers) 35,000 ority.
Key: ASS = Agricultural Sector Strategy
* Sources: National Employment Policy (draft) 2002, Labour Force Survey (1999), NEPAD-CAADP National Me-
th
dium Term Investment Programme (4 draft, December 2004)

c) Employment Objectives and Strategies of the Food Security Policy

The employment objectives and strategies of the PRS, aiming at alleviating poverty, are fully
compatible under the food security perspective to improve economic access to (affordability
of) food. Therefore reference is made to the respective section of PRS, particularly with re-
gard to: the promotion of urban formal and informal sector employment; self-employment
through SMME development; off-farm rural employment, and; migrant labour issues. Em-
ployment in agriculture is also addressed in the ASS and in the measures to promote agricul-
tural and food production that are set out in section 3.2 below.

Table 4 above makes clear that there is a gap in the present policy framework with respect to
monitoring and evaluating the links between employment types and status and food security.
There is also a consequent gap in translating the results of such analysis into policy adjust-
ments that will maximise the food security impact of the employment effort. Therefore, exist-
ing data collection and analysis efforts need to be modified to include these links, and chan-
nels of feedback to employment policy makers strengthened. This will involve the following:

20
Data collection and analysis for M&E of employment – food security linkages.
 Expanding existing Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment Committee (LVAC) analysis to
include expenditures
 Conducting special studies through the LVAC and possibly in collaboration with the
PRS Poverty Monitoring Unit (when this becomes operational). One example would
be an investigation into the food security impact of garment sector employment and
unemployment. Another example would be research into the food security impact of
non-mining related and informal cross-border remittances.
 Establishing links between the proposed Food Security Policy Unit (FSPU) in MAFS
(see Chapter 4 below for more details), MTICM and a strengthened labour market in-
formation system administered by the Ministry of Employment and Labour.
 Ensuring that analysis of linkages between food security indicators and employment
indicators is routinely analysed in the Lesotho Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire
Survey (CWIQS) conducted annually by the Bureau of Statistics.

Feeding the results of M&E to policy makers for policy adjustments as required.
The key actors in this regard will be the proposed FSPU in MAFS and the PS, MAFS. In or-
der to facilitate translation of improved understanding of employment - food insecurity link-
ages into policy, the FSPU may facilitate a food security – employment working group, in-
cluding representation of the following agencies / bodies:
 MAFS with FSPU as the secretariat of the working group.
 Ministry of Trade, Industry, Cooperatives and Marketing
 Ministry of Employment and Labour
 LNDC
 Ministry of Foreign Affairs
 Ministry of Local Government
 Bureau of Statistics
 LVAC
 UN agencies
International and Local NGOs

Stakeholders
As listed under previous point.

3.1.2 Public Works Programmes: Cash-for-Work/ Food-for-Work

Policy measures: Public works programmes.

Objectives: Ensure access to food for the structurally and temporarily un- and underem-
ployed through employment and income generation in public works programmes
Assumption: Resources (cash, food) to finance public works programmes are made availa-
ble through MFED and/or donors.

In spite of the efforts under the PRS to promote formal and informal sector employment, it
must be assumed that there will remain a significant number of permanently or temporarily
un- and underemployed, calling for public employment schemes.

There are two choices in this field: Food For Work (FFW) and Cash For Work (CFW). Each
is intended to serve an immediate and a longer term purpose:

21
 1) By providing immediate payment in the form of food, cash or vouchers, these
schemes help to overcome acute livelihood stress of vulnerable population groups
during critical times of the year / after a livelihood shock; when there are no other al-
ternative ways of employment and income,
2) By creating productive assets / public goods, the schemes contribute to an improved
productive basis for sustained long-term food security. Typically, these projects are in
the fields of improving rural infrastructure or natural resource conservation (building of
dams, soil conservation measures, afforestation, building of feeder roads), activities
which can absorb a high number of unskilled labour.

These types of interventions are most suitable for households which do not have labour con-
straints. The interventions may be used as a ―one off‖ temporary measure after a shock (eg
hail and frost damage to crops) and / or on a temporary but recurrent basis for households
experiencing seasonal food insecurity.

The high rate of youth un- and underemployment calls for special employment schemes par-
ticularly designed to meet the interest and needs of youth, e.g. employment cum capacity
building and qualification, or works in specific fields, e.g. environment protection or comm u-
nity development.

CFW versus FFW in Lesotho

13
If there is a choice of cash or food based interventions, tests of appropriateness should be
applied.14

FFW is appropriate only where:

1. targeted households lack access to food; and
2. there is a lack of availability of food and giving cash would not stimulate market supplies
(inelastic supply); and
3. targeted households have labour potential that is not currently used or only poorly paid.

CFW is appropriate where:

1. targeted households have surplus labour; and
2. either food is not the primary economic problem or access to food for some households is
lacking; and
3. food is generally available for those with purchasing power and is not unusually expensive;
and
4. the risk of inflationary pressure is low/a depressed economy needs a cash injection.

Given the usual availability of food on the market in most parts of Lesotho, CFW could be a
suitable response in many situations.

Like FFW, CFW can be self-targeting by setting wage rates that will only attract those with no
better alternatives. One advantage of CFW over FFW is that it treats people affected by crisis
as active agents in their own lives, by giving them choices. There are further possible advan-
tages of CFW over FFW. First, CFW is generally less costly, 15. Second, experience in other
parts of the world suggests that the works are generally taken more seriously and executed

13
Sometimes there is no choice, since food aid resources are readily available while financial re-
sources are rare, due to reasons mentioned further below.
14
The following points are taken from ―Missing the Point: An Analysis of Food Security Interventions in
the Great Lakes‖ Levine S. and C. Chastre (HPN Network Paper No. 47 July 2004, ODI)
15
A comparison of FFW with CFW in Ethiopia revealed that CFW was 50% more cost efficient than
FFW. Cf. Metz, Manfred & T. Mebrahtu, 2003, Getting over the Dependence on Food Aid through
Cash-for-Work and Triticale, An Assessment of new approaches by the IFSP South Gonder, Addis
Ababa

22
with higher commitment. Third, CFW can stimulate the local economy, including agriculture,
if part of cash income is used to buy local products and services. Participants of FFW
schemes, on the other hand, often have to resell – usually at a depressed price – part of the
food rations received in order to generate some cash for other urgent expenses.

One potential disadvantage of CFW is the possibility of misuse of funds, also, there is a fear
amongst some agencies that ―men will drink the money‖. Experience in other parts of Africa
has shown, however, that cash for work schemes can be successful if carefully managed. A
potential weakness of both CFW and FFW schemes is that they can fail if necessary inputs
(e.g. shovels and wheelbarrows for road construction) are not delivered on time. Moreover,
the quality of the assets constructed by FFW / CFW can be of sub-standard quality unless
correct supervision and materials of appropriate quality are used.

Policy Direction

In the light of the potential advantages of CFW and its suitability to Lesotho. The GoL shall
make renewed efforts to increase its use in the appropriate circumstances through continued
liaison and negotiation with key donors and agencies, and by careful research, monitoring
and evaluation of its effects. This does not mean that FFW will be replaced by CFW, but
rather that a more sophisticated analysis will be made of the suitability of these different op-
tions in given situations before decisions are made. Where it is clear that CFW is more ap-
propriate the GoL will make strenuous efforts to secure support from development partners,
as well as using its own resources, to ensure successful implementation.

Stakeholders

 The primary responsibility for this lies with the proposed FSPU, in collaboration with
other departments in MAFS, MFDP, MHSW, MTICM, Ministry of Employment, DMA,
LVAC, FNCO, WFP, international NGOs and donor partners.
 Ministry of Gender, Youth and Sports, Ministry of Environment, MoLG, MAFS to de-
sign and implement youth employment programmes.
 NGOs and UN Organisations: To support such initiatives and provide technical assis-
tance.
 Local NGOs, civil society groups and communities themselves will be fully consulted
and involved at all stages.

3.2 PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PRODUCTION

Introduction:

Agriculture provides income, employment and food through own production – these are the
critical pillars of livelihood for the majority of Lesotho‘s rural population. The performance of
the agricultural sector has been declining over the years, with negative implications for food
security. In order to enhance food security in terms of ensuring adequate access to food and
sufficient and stable food supplies, the past negative trends need to be reversed, i.e. agricul-
tural productivity, production, employment and incomes must be increased. These are the
main concerns of the Agricultural Sector Strategy (ASS). The ASS and other agricultural sec-
tor policies (National Irrigation Policy, Seed Policy and Subsidy Policy) outline several rele-
vant agricultural policy measures in this regard. In addition, and very importantly, the Agricul-
ture and Food Security chapter of the PRS sets out several important directions for food se-
curity. It is important to note however, that these policies and strategies generally have an
agricultural growth orientation, i.e the measures proposed are to increase agricultural pro-
duction and marketing. Whilst this will, if successful, have beneficial impacts on access to

23
food, it is not the same thing as an explicit food security orientation with a focus on access
and stability. It is therefore necessary to subject the ASS, other policies and the agricultural
sector in general to a ―food security lens‖ in order to pick out , emphasise and complement
those policy fields and strategic actions that are most relevant for tackling the priority food
security problem, namely improving access to food.

3.2.1 Input supply

Policy measure: Promotion of input supply

Objectives: Increase agricultural production, thus improve access to food through own pro-
duction, employment and trade of vulnerable rural HHs. Particularly relevant for households
which are chronically vulnerable and those which experience temporary food insecurity
(household categories 2 and 3). Also: Increase food availability
Critical conditions: Private sector involvement in input supply, sufficient financial resources
in the case of input subsidies.

Issues:
In the past, untimely and inappropriate input supply has proven to be a major impediment to
agricultural production (availability) and of access/entitlement (own production, income) at
household level. There have been various reasons for this constraint:
 Lack of applied research on appropriate varieties, adapted to the specific environmental
and socio-economic conditions of Basotho farmers,
 No systematic seed multiplication
 Poor farmers are not able to retain part of harvest for seed, often all is consumed.
 Lack of funds (see also under rural credit, 3.3.2.) to buy fertilisers and seeds.
 Erratic and unpredictable input subsidies and input supplies by the Government have
discouraged farmers to take appropriate decisions and to obtain the inputs in time, and,
furthermore
 The private sector has been discouraged from playing a more effective role in input sup-
ply.

Strategic actions:
The measures to improve the input supply situation comprise:
 Agricultural research to select suitable seeds and / or input packages which are appro-
priate for the specific environmental and the socio-economic conditions of the Basotho
farmers. Research approaches will imply on-farm research and closely link with the agri-
cultural extension service as well as networking and exchange of research results
among regional research institutions.
 Support to strengthen domestic sources of input supplies, e.g.:
 Promotion of seed multiplication and distribution of seed and other inputs through ag-
ricultural cooperatives and in cooperation with the private sector.
 Promotion of the establishment of community/village seed banks through technical
assistance and initial investment support for constructing suitable storage facilities
and build-up seed stocks. There is a potential role of food aid: Food grain in ex-
change of seed grain to build up the initial seed stocks. Once established, the seed
banks will be replenished on the basis of a rotational system. In the case of disasters
and harvest failures, external support may be provided for replenishment (element of
crop insurance).
 Encouragement of input supply by agricultural cooperatives, through organisational
support and input subsidies (see following point).
 Input subsidies should only be in the form of targeted subsidies and applied, according
to the criteria set out in the ―Agricultural Subsidies Policy‖, to promote technological in-
novations and as a temporary remedy for vulnerable households after shocks, to enable
them to regain their productive capacity. Under certain circumstances, even free input

24
 distribution to clearly identified vulnerable households is justified. Such households my
depend heavily on public and private transfers (see section 3.5 below) but have still a
capacity to produce some food on their own (e.g. through home gardening, see section
3.2.4 below).

In the light of past experience, the following principles will be applied in providing tar-
geted input subsidies:
 Input subsidy programmes shall be subject to livelihood analysis followed by commu-
nity based targeting, to ensure correct targeting.
 The private sector will be fully involved in all future programmes, with the GoL playing
a facilitating role.
 All future programmes will take full advantage of the positive examples of appropriate
crop and input mixes pioneered by various NGOs. GoL will also engage fully with
NGOs in terms of implementation.
 All future programmes will contain a clear and effective exit strategy, which includes
sensitising farmers as to the temporary nature of the intervention.
 Monitoring of input supplies will be undertaken to ensure efficiency. This will include tak-
ing corrective actions if required to ensure effective supplies.

Main stakeholder involved and their role:

Target groups: Small and larger farmers, farmers’ associations (categories 2, 3, 4 above),
seeds and inputs for home gardens: categories 1,2,3).

 MAFS: Reorientation of research and extension services, decentralised services to co-

ordinate with farmers/ community and cooperative organisations and private sector.
Design and monitor of subsidy scheme, if any; liaise with other stakeholders (coopera-
tives, private sector).
 FAO & NGOs: Technical assistance and initial investment support to communities /
farmers organizations.
 CSOs (e.g. village groups, farmers‘ associations): Establish and manage seed banks.
 Private sector: Commercial input supply.

3.2.2 Conservation farming

Policy Measure: Promotion of conservation farming

Objectives:
 Increase and stabilise agricultural production; also enable small and poor farmers to cul-
tivate fields, thus improve access to food through own production, employment and trade
of vulnerable rural HHs (particularly household categories 2 and 3).
 Prevent soil erosion through appropriate cultivation practices.

Issues:
Conservation farming, a minimum tillage technology, has been introduced by church based
organisations and with FAO support in Lesotho in recent years. It helps to overcome a num-
ber of critical issues which many Basotho farmers face under prevailing conditions. These
include:
 Lack of means to cultivate fields: Many farmers do not have oxen and cannot pay for a
ploughing service. If they are unable to find somebody for a sharecropping arrangement
to plough their field, the land remains idle.
 Waterlogging and accelerated soil erosion after heavy rains.
 High evaporation and limited water retention capacity of ploughed fields, therefore crop
losses occur if there are dry spells during the cropping season.

25
Conservation farming with minimum tillage makes ploughing obsolete, the soil is less sus-
ceptible to erosion, waterlogging and drying out, compared to ploughed fields. Furthermore,
fertiliser can be accurately and economically applied specifically to the planting holes which
leads to savings and yield increases.

Using the basin method, conservation farming requires relatively high work input during the
initial phase when the planting holes are prepared. Furthermore, timely weeding is critical,
before the weeds develop and propagate their seeds. Once the planting holes are estab-
lished, however, no further land preparation is required (in contrast to conventional farming
where ploughing is necessary every year).

Farmers in Lesotho report that first on-farm trials with conservation farming have yielded im-
pressive results. The technology allows also small farmers without draught animals and ac-
cess to ploughing services to obtain good yields. Thus, conservation faming can yield imme-
diate and positive long-term effects on production and on household food security.

Strategic actions:
Due to its likely significant impacts on food security, particularly of poor households, the
spread of conservation farming shall be further promoted.

In order to get a clearer picture on the conditions, properties and yields of conservation farm-
ing, field trials will have to be systematically monitored and compared with conventionally cul-
tivated fields. Furthermore:
 Trials to adapt the technology to the local conditions shall be conducted.
 Special training modules on conservation farming shall be offered to extension staff
and farmer groups.
 In the initial phase, input subsidies for innovative approaches can be applied, accord-
ing to the criteria of the subsidy policy.
 Initial preparation of the field can be supported through cash- or food-for-work
(CFW/FFW), if the farm household meets special criteria of vulnerability (women /
child headed / HIV/AIDS affected households – i.e. category 1 households).

Main stakeholders involved and their role:

Target group: Farm HHs belonging to category 2 and 3, but also category 1 farmers (if exe-
cuted with associated CFW / FFW programmes) and category 4 farmers.

 MAFS extension staff, to monitor, supervise trials, disseminate, liaise with NGOs, to
organise initial support (subsidies, grants).
 MFLR to monitor and assess impacts on soil erosion.
 FAO to provide technical assistance.
 NGOs: Initiate, advise, organise initial support.
 Community organisations: Organise CFW/FFW where applicable.

3.2.3 Block farming

Policy measure: Promotion of block farming

Objectives: Increase agricultural production by making more effective use of available re-
sources, particularly land and labour.
Also: improve access to food through own production, employment and trade.
Conditions for Success: Lessons are drawn from past failures of block farming ap-
proaches.

26
Issues:
Block farming is the aggregation of smaller farm units into a larger unit. There are different
concepts for block farming, such as a special form of sharecropping or land-lease arrange-
ment, where a number land holders leave their land for cultivation and management by
commercial farming enterprises, or block farming on a cooperative basis. In principle, block
farming can be applied on rainfed or irrigated land.

Block farming aims to establish commercially oriented and viable farming units in order to
make more productive use of the available agricultural land. The expectation is that this will
be achieved by applying modern farming technologies and realising economies of scale in
purchasing, management and marketing operations.

The focus of block farming is on increasing availability, but it can also contribute to increased
agricultural income and employment, thus access, particularly if the land would otherwise
remain un- or underutilised. The land ―owners‖ can find employment as labourers on the
fields, e.g. for guarding, weeding and/or harvesting. On the other hand, the use of modern
technologies may lead to a reduction of labour inputs. The impacts of block farming on rural
employment need to be closely monitored.

Actions / policy measures:

Government will be a facilitator, not directly involved in the operations. The establishment
and management of block farming initiatives will be supported by the extension system, and
incentives will be provided through subsidies for innovative approaches, preferably for in-
vestments (irrigation equipment, tractors, etc.) in line with the Agricultural Subsidy Policy.
The creation of larger farming units and investments on the land will be facilitated through
land tenure reform that provides for more secure land tenure arrangements.

First initiatives regarding block farming have already been undertaken. These initiatives shall
be closely monitored, in order to draw lessons on the feasibility of approaches, economics
(cost and returns), suitable crops, yields, benefits to the parties involved, impacts on em-
ployment and environment, etc.

Apart from close monitoring of existing initiatives, there are a number of further preconditions
/ assumptions for a successful application and dissemination of the block farming concept.
These include:
 Identification / mapping of the potential areas for block farming,
 Adoption of the land tenure reform,
 Based on private sector initiative / management ,
 Facilitated by the Government,
 Access to credit,
Where block farming with mechanisation crowds out agricultural labour, provisions for alter-
native non-farm employment opportunities must be made, in order to avoid negative impacts
on household food security.

Main stakeholders involved, role:

Target Groups: Rural HHs belonging to category 3 & 4, category 2 as to employment crea-
tion and monitoring employment effects..
 MAFS: To facilitate establishment of block farming sites, provide conceptual, organisa-
tional and extension support, plus initial subsidies for investments, where appropriate.
 Cooperation with MFLR for site selection.
 Private sector / farmers: To establish, organise and manage block farming units.

27
3.2.4 Homestead gardens

Policy measure: Promotion of homestead garden production

Objectives: (i) Improvement of access to food for vulnerable and food insecure population
groups in rural and urban areas through own production and sales; (ii) Improved incomes for
less vulnerable groups through sales.
Conditions for Success: Marketing opportunities and processing and conservation facilities
to absorb marketable surplus production.

Issues:

In a situation of widespread poverty, growing unemployment, HIV/AIDS, and weak and de-
clining agricultural performance, homestead food production has become an increasingly im-
portant source of household food supply for many rural, urban and peri-urban dwellers. Par-
ticularly in the case of women or child headed and HIV/AIDS affected households, who are
not able to cultivate larger fields, the homestead gardens offer the possibility to grow some
food for home consumption and also for sale. Through water harvesting and use of house-
hold wastewater, fruits and vegetables can be produced in the homestead gardens at many
times of the year. Special protective vitamin-rich crops can be grown for household members
with HIV/AIDS. In combination with small animal production (milking goats, rabbits, poultry),
homestead recycling systems can be established, with crops and crop residues used as
animal feed, and animal dung used as manure.

Thus, homestead gardens represent a comprehensive approach to food security, addressing

access, availability, stability and nutrition aspects.

Actions / policy measures:

Homestead gardening for vulnerable households has been promoted under the ―Livelihoods
Recovery through Agriculture Programme‖ (LRAP) by MAFS and Care in four southern dis-
tricts. The impact of this programme is to be evaluated soon and depending on the outcome,
the approach may be rolled out over the whole country.

Main stakeholders and role:

Target groups: Categories 1 & 2, but also 3, including rural and urban poor, rural landless
and particularly vulnerable HHs with limited manpower capacity (e.g. de jure female headed
households and households which include PLWA).
 MAFS, to coordinate with NGOs, capacitate and appoint extension staff for this task.
MAFS will also coordinate with MHSW around nutritional needs.
 NGOs: To provide technical assistance and inputs to vulnerable groups.
 Village groups, to disseminate the concepts and assist each other.

3.2.5 Irrigation

Policy measure: Promotion of small-scale irrigation schemes

Objective: Increase and stabilise agricultural production through irrigation, thus improve and
ensure access to food of smallholder producers.
Key Issues: High potential but formidable hurdles to be overcome to realise potential. Due to
failures and lessons learned from the past, only small irrigation schemes recommended at
this stage.

28
Issues:
Dependence on rainfed agriculture, with erratic rainfall patterns and recurrent droughts, is
one of the reasons for low productivity and repeated crop failures. Though there are abun-
dant surface and groundwater resources in Lesotho, they are hardly used for irrigation. Out
of a total of 270,000 ha of arable land, about 36,000 ha, i.e. some 13%, are considered to be
suitable for irrigation, of that only 2,600 hectares have been developed so far, and less than
100ha are actually still operational. 16

There is a need – and a potential – to develop irrigation, in order to:

 Mitigate the effects of drought (thus improving the stability aspect of food security),
 Diversify production, and to
 Increase overall production and productivity (thus improving availability of food at na-
tional and availability plus access at household level).
Irrigated agriculture is more labour intensive than rainfed agriculture, thus if successful, there
are further likely positive impacts on rural employment and income. On the other hand, spe-
cial provisions will need to be made if labour constrained households are to benefit.

Actions / policy measures

The NATIONAL IRRIGATION POLICY OF LESOTHO (2002) set out a number of strategies
to be pursued for irrigation development, such as the rehabilitation of existing irrigation
schemes, the promotion of private commercial farms with irrigation (related to the block farm-
ing concept, see no. 3 above), capacity building in irrigation development and management,
research and international cooperation in irrigation technologies, promotion of cross-border
collaboration on irrigation matters 17 and assistance of smallholder farmers to develop and
manage self-help irrigation schemes.

In order to maximise the impact on household food security, the focus should be on small
farm irrigation schemes. Assistance in this field includes site selection, scheme development,
organisational support (Water User Associations), extension services, and financial support
(including matching grants for initial investment; operational, maintenance and replacement
costs to be borne by the beneficiaries). Technologies to be considered and promoted include
water-harvesting techniques, small dams and collection reservoirs, manual -, fuel -, solar or
wind-operated pumps, gravity irrigation through stream diversions and water control struc-
tures. Special emphasis is put on the involvement of women and strengthening their role in
irrigated agriculture.

It should be noted that whilst there is indeed great potential for irrigation in Lesotho, almost
all past initiatives have failed. In order to succeed, a number of organisational, management,
capacity and technical issues need to be tackled. In addition, the following conditions must
be fulfilled for the development of feasible and sustainable irrigation schemes:
 Secure land tenure, to facilitate investment decisions and also as collateral for credit; to
this end, the land reform process must be speeded up (see also under Land policy, 3.2.3
below).
 Access to credit (see Rural credit supply, 3.3.2. below).
 Development of product markets (see 3.3.3 below).

Thus, it is clear that irrigation can only be successful if other policies and interventions to re-
move key constraints are implemented.

16
ASS, p. 100. The ASS lists three reasons why the irrigation schemes have largely failed in the past:
1) The schemes were established without functioning cooperative and management structures.
2) Insufficient finance for investment and working capital.
3) Insufficient technical capacities to install and maintain the irrigation equipment.
17
GoL, PRS, p. 41.

29
Main stakeholders and their role:

Target groups: Farmers belonging to categories 2,3,4.

 MAFS: To facilitate the process of irrigation development from site selection through ex-
tension, support and advisory services up to monitoring and evaluation. 18
 FAO, NGOs and private sector: For capacity building, exploration and application of ap-
propriate irrigation technologies, networking/ promotion of technology transfer, manage-
ment of sub-components of irrigation schemes.
 Water User Associations: Participating farmers to form such associations for the man-
agement of the smallholder irrigation schemes.

3.2.6 Livestock

Policy measures: Promotion of livestock production and improvements in range manage-

ment
Objectives: Improving access to food by maintaining household cattle, small stock and poul-
try livestock assets and improving their productivity.
Necessary Conditions for Success: In relation to cattle and small stock, combatting stock
theft requires effective cooperation with and performance by the police. In addition, success
will depend on Local Authorities being willing and able to introduce and operate improved
range management for cattle and small-stock.

Issues:
Livestock have multiple uses and contribute in various ways to household food security. Cat-
tle, sheep, goats and fowls provide meat and products (milk, wool, mohair, eggs) for home
consumption and sale, pigs provide meat, generally for sale, and cattle are also important for
draught power. Livestock are also used as assets, sold in times of need, to meet food con-
sumption and other expenses such as medical and school fees, or for burial expenses if a
family member dies.

About 70% of all Basotho households own some kind of livestock. However, as is the case
for crop production, the data indicate that overall the contribution of livestock to household
food security has fallen over the last decade. With reference to cattle and small-stock, widely
reported increases in stock theft are undoubtedly a major factor here.19 Stock theft is most
damaging to rural livelihoods in Lesotho. Anecdotal evidence suggests that it has increased
over the last decade. The funeral costs in connection with high death rates of the HIV/AIDS
pandemic are another factor that has drawn on the livestock holdings of many households.

Degraded rangeland resources and a diminished fodder basis are another severe constraint
for cattle and small-stock production.

Actions / policy measures

In order to reverse the downward trend and enhance the contribution of livestock to house-
hold food security, the following actions will be taken:
 To combat stock theft. The crisis dimension of stocktheft calls for new and innovative
approaches. A system of electronic marking and registration of the animals with a micro-
chip offers a possible solution. After a thorough evaluation of the economic and technical
feasibility of the Microchipping Pilot Project currently being implemented, a further ex-
pansion and promotion may be considered. This will, however, only work if combined

18
For details, see National Irrigation Policy
19
A survey of livestock farmers in Qacha’s Nek and Mokhotlong districts reveals that, on average, 4 out of 10
animals are stolen, and that only 1 out of 10 stolen animals has been recovered. (Camelot, 2005)

30
 with improvements in the performance of law enforcement agencies and improved cross-
border cooperation in this field.
 Rangeland productivity: Community councils should spearhead improved systems of
range management and control. This may involve the collection of grazing fees and the
use of these for community development development activities.
 Small stock for poor and vulnerable households. Even poor and vulnerable households
in urban as well as rural areas usually have the capacity to keep small stock at their
homestead (e.g. goats, poultry, rabbits) which provide a complementary source of
household income, food supply and nutritional variety (meat, milk, eggs). The increased
animal protein is particularly important for people suffering from HIV and AIDS. Together
with homestead gardens (see 3.1.2.4 above), small-stock ideally complements a system
of household permaculture (vegetable waste used as fodder, animal dung as manure).
Such approaches shall be further promoted and spread
 Promotion of intensive livestock and milk production in peri-urban areas.

Main stakeholders and role:

Target groups: Farm HHs in the highlands (category 2,3 and 4; poor rural and peri-urban
HHs (categories 1, and 2, in particular).especially for rabbits, poultry and other fowls; catego-
ries 3 and 4 in peri-urban areas for intensive livestock and milk production..

 MAFS to initiate and promote concepts for stock theft and range management control.
 FAO to provide material and technical assistance.
 Community organisations (new decentralised councils, grazing associations) to imple-
ment stock theft and rangeland control mechanisms.
 LMPS to cooperate with MAFS and community organisations with regard to stock theft
prevention and control.
 NGOs to support, test and disseminate – in coordination with MAFS - household per-
maculture approaches.

3.2.7 Land conservation and rehabilitation

Policy measures: Intensification of land conservation and rehabilitation

Objectives: To maintain the fertility and long-term food production levels by slowing and
eventually stopping the process of land degradation. To improve short-term food security by
public employment programmes in this field, and rehabilitation of dongas.
Necessary Conditions for Success: Rules of good farming practices are observed by
farmers; awareness ownership for recultivated dongas and sensitive areas prone to erosion.

Issues:
The Lesotho environment is very fragile. It is characterised by steep slopes and weak soil
formations. It is estimated that 0.25 per cent of the arable land, i.e. some 675 ha, or 39.6 mil-
lion tons of soil, is lost through soil erosion each year, with the most visible signs being deep
gullies in the lowlands and exposed rock in the mountains. The direct consequence of soil
erosion is the decline in agricultural production and productivity, exacerbating the problems
of food shortage and poverty.20

Actions / policy measures

 Promoting appropriate cultivation practices (e.g. conservation farming, see above) and
physical protection measures (terraces, soil or stone bunds), to prevent further soil ero-
sion.

20
PRSP, Chapter 10

31
 Awareness creation and enforcement of physical protection measures for cultivation of
slopes.
 Promoting gully rehabilitation, (stone barriers, afforestation and recultivation) and pro-
moting ownership of dongas and cultivation in them during and after rehabilitation.

There is a role for cash-/food-for-work with regard to the construction of physical protection
measures / gully rehabilitation (see also section 3.1.2 above). This way, the intervention
serves dual food security objectives: Providing temporary income and employment to vulner-
able groups in times of need, and protecting/ improving the production potential of the natural
resource base.

Main stakeholders and role:

Target groups: Rural households from categories 2 and 3 (and also 1, where appropriate, for
CFW/FFW) for conservation measures and for allocation of land in rehabilitated dongas.

 MFLR /MAFS to set technical standards for natural resource protection, technical plan-
ning and supervision of interventions in natural resource protection.
 NGOs to support implementation.
 Community organisations to organise implementation.

3.3 PROMOTION OF SUPPORT SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

The success of many of the policy measures listed before depends on an improvement of
critical support services, such as extension, credit and marketing. These services will, in turn,
be enhanced by a further improved rural infrastructure.

3.3.1 Extension

Policy measure: Strengthening UES and specialised extension services

Objectives: Improving livelihood conditions in communities and enhancing production and
income earning capacities of farm HHs.
Necessary Conditions for Success: Financial and human resources for extension service
are significantly increased.

Issues

Well-functioning extension services are important for the success of the Food Security Policy.
The introduction of the Unified Extension Service (UES) was intended to improve the impact
and functioning of extension, at least insofar as agriculture is concerned. The UES is a par-
ticipatory extension method, at the centre of which is the Action Learning Cycle (ALC). This
consists of a number of steps designed to allow the extension worker to facilitate problem
and solution diagnosis in communities and help in the preparation of a Community Action
Plan (CAP). A key part of the UES is the training of Farmer Extension Facilitators (FEFs).
These are farmers who are trained in UES by extension agents to go back to their villages
and facilitate CAPs By using FEFs, the UES attempts to compensate for the serious staffing
and coverage problems of the mainstream GoL extension cadre.

There are significant potential synergies between the establishment of the UES and decen-
tralisation. As and when financial power is decentralised down to district level, it should en-

32
hance the ability of districts to be responsive to the needs of their populations, with the bot-
tom-up approach of the UES being a key tool in this regard.

Applied to food security, the expectation is that through UES households will realise that they
can become more self-sufficient in food production by making use of resources available to
them. Thus they will become less reliant on blanket government subsidies and emergency
food relief.

It is intended that the principles and practice of UES is adopted by all Ministries in their en-
gagement with communities. Only in this way can such a participatory community-based de-
velopment approach be properly operationalised.

Within MAFS, it is important that there be good links between agricultural research and the
UES. The ALC should be a major source for both identifying research needs and disseminat-
ing research results. Also, there is need to ensure that specialist extension agents are inte-
grated within the extension system.

Constraints:
There are a number of constraints which prevent the UES from operating effectively. It is im-
portant that these are addressed so that food security objectives can be reached. Many of
the constraints have already been identified and solutions proposed in the Agricultural Sector
Strategy. For the purposes of the Food Security Policy, therefore, the focus will be on con-
straints which have not been identified in the ASS, as well as providing more details on those
that have.

In general, the extension service in MAFS (and other Ministries) is under severe pressure
due to staffing shortages (exacerbated by HIV/AIDS) low morale, poor incentives, lack of
equipment and transport, and low skill levels.

More specifically,
 Good progress has been made with respect to training of extension staff in the UES
at district level, however, the same cannot be said for the training of FEFs.
 Knowledge of UES at head office in MAFS is not widespread thus districts are not
adequately supported and guided in the implementation of the UES.
 Currently, the principles and practice of UES are not uniformly adopted and applied
by all Ministries
 Currently there is an insufficient number of specialised extension agents to comple-
ment the generalist front line staff in their engagement with communities. This ham-
pers effective coordination and cooperation. Such inter-Ministerial collaboration is
fundamental to successful implementation of various aspects of the Food Security
Policy and of the UES itself.
 Whilst in theory there are strong links between agricultural research and the ALC, in
practice these links are weak to non-existent, particularly at head office level in MAFS.
This issue is identified in the ASS, but as yet, not enough has been done to remedy it.

Policy Actions

In order to address these constraints, three policy actions are required:

1) Putting UES on a broader basis, by including other services / disciplines other than agri-
culture, so to be able to offer a comprehensive (holistic) package for community development
This will require training, co-ordination and cooperation between MAFS and other Ministries
in this regard.

2) Creation of staffing and training programmes which ensure that the capacities to apply the
concept of UES are in place within MAFS.

33
3) Strengthening the linkages between agricultural research and extension through training
and re-organisation as required within MAFS.

Stakeholders:

Target groups: Rural HHs of all categories.

Responsibility for achieving UES training of head office MAFS staff and staff from other Min-
istries should be taken up by the National Extension Working Group (NEWG). MAFS and
MoLG need to ensure that there is effective inter-Ministerial collaboration at district level and
below. This will be aided by the on-going decentralisation process. The Department of Re-
search will work with Departments of Crops and Livestock at MAFS to ensure that research
is properly integrated into the ALC at all levels.

3.3.2 Micro-Credit Schemes

Policy measure: Establishing two-tier micro-credit schemes

Objectives: Enhancing the production and income earning capacities of rural and urban
households through an appropriate and efficient system of micro finance.
Necessary Conditions for Success: Lessons are drawn and applied from past failure of
rural credit scheme (Agricultural Development Bank).

Issues:
Lack of access to credit has been identified as a major constraint to economic development.
In rural areas, the current situation prevents farmers from making necessary investments to
develop their farm into a viable and commercial enterprise. In rural, peri-urban and urban ar-
eas, the situation stifles the emergence of micro and small enterprises.

There is very low access to financial services in Lesotho. The main problems for expanding
access to financial services are:
 The difficulty in serving the rural population in the mountainous terrain;
 The absence of consistent and effective regulation of the various components (ex-
cluding banking) of financial services; and
 Difficulties with the legal and contractual environment.
Source: FinMark Trust (2003)

Finance for small enterprises

MTICM has picked out difficulties in borrowing money or attracting equity investors as a key
constraint on small business development in Lesotho. The situation is compounded by the
fact that as much as two thirds of small businesses in Lesotho are owned and run by women.
However, women are minors in the eyes of the law, and this deprives them of the legal ca-
pacity to act as independent economic agents. This legal discrimination is one of the factors
that tends to trap women in the informal micro sector (MTICM: 2002).

In relation to credit for small business development, MTICM has been mandated with the
task of establishing a Special Task Force to explore the scope for improving access to fi-
nance. In addition under the PRS the GoL is committed to conduct a study to assess how
credit can be made available to SMMEs in a viable and sustainable manner. The study is to
form the basis of a long overdue micro-credit policy.

34
It will be important for food security stakeholders to be fully involved in the development of
the policy. In particular, the proposed FSPU will be charged with the task of ensuring that
food security concerns are reflected in the micro-credit policy.

Finance for small-holder agriculture

The issue of (the lack of) credit in rural Lesotho is covered only in general and non-specific
terms by existing policy. For this reason, it is important that the Food Security Policy spells
out the issue in depth.

The collapse of the Agricultural Development Bank in Lesotho is symptomatic of the fate of
institutional rural credit systems in Africa and elsewhere. Such institutions have largely failed
in the past, because:
 There is an inability of credit institutions to establish the creditworthiness of borrowers;
 Institutional credit is typically only provided for specific purposes such as agricultural
production loans. No provision is made for the other needs of the borrowers (such as
household subsistence and ceremonial obligations) which usually account for the bulk of
their credit needs;
 Institutional lending is characterised by cumbersome and time-consuming loan applica-
tion, approval and disbursement procedures. These, coupled with often highly central-
ised structures and the fact that farmers are widely dispersed, lead to late disbursement
and loan ineffectiveness;
 The wide dispersion of farmers and the small size of loan units result in prohibitive over-
head costs for the credit institution;
 Poor supervision of credits, and corrupt practices by credit officials have often contrib-
uted to low loan recovery;
 Insistence (by commercial banks) on the provision of collateral security, which most bor-
rowers cannot provide.

As a consequence, the following conclusions can be drawn as to features of a functioning

and sustainable rural credit system:
 The overhead costs must be kept low;
 Lending procedures should be simple enough for rural borrowers to understand, expedi-
tious enough to enable timely disbursements, and transparent so to avoid corruption;
 Provision should be made not only for the requirements for agricultural change, but also
for the subsistence and social needs of borrowers. Providing only agricultural loans,
which constitute only a minor proportion of borrowers‘ credit needs, and would still leave
them dependent on informal credit sources.
 Such a credit system should operate on a self-sustaining basis. To facilitate this,
 Interest charges on loans should cover operating costs (but the costs have to be
kept low);
 Provisions must be made to ensure a high rate of loan recovery, particularly through
training and supervision;
 A mechanism for self accountability should be built into the credit system.,

Actions / policy measures

Since no institutional credit system can be expected to meet the above conditions all at once,
the establishment of a two-tier rural credit system is proposed, composed of (i) rural banks
and (ii) credit and savings groups. Small farmers and small rural non-farm enterprises obtain
credit through membership credit and savings groups, while larger farmers and lager rural
enterprises would be directly served by the rural banks.
Figure 5 presents the structure such a para-institutional rural credit system.

35
 Figure 5: Proposed Structure of a Rural Credit Programme

(Development/ Central Bank

of Lesotho
donor funds)
Funds
Loans
RURAL BANK Savings and loan
repayment

RURAL CREDIT LARGER RU-

LARGER AND SAVINGS RAL NON-
FARMERS ASSOCIATIONS FARM
ENTERPRISES

SMALL RURAL
SMALL
NON-FARM
FARMERS
ENTERPRISES

A two-tier rural credit and savings system, as presented in Figure 5, has a number of deci-
sive advantages, compared to a fully institutionalised rural credit system:
 The transfer of everyday aspects of credit management to groups enhances the credit
programme‘s adaptability to local conditions and reduces the time required to process
loan applications and to disburse loans.
 The fact that groups are composed of people who know each other well, substantially
facilitates the assessment of the creditworthiness of individual borrowers, of their in-
vestment opportunities as well as their capabilities.
 These attributes, coupled with group responsibility for repayment and equity participation
in the group, will significantly reduce loan default.
 Access to credit by women can be ensured through promotion of special womens credit
groups.
 Group lending raises the average size of loan units to be administered, thereby reducing
the distribution, supervision and recovery costs incurred by the credit institutions.
 It can also serve to mobilise savings. Existing financial institutions have been incapable
of mobilising rural savings, mainly due to the logistical problems associated with the es-
tablishment of a viable institutional network at the community level. Thus, people living in
the villages were confined to accumulating savings in the form of assets, particularly
livestock, with problematic implications: The risk of stocktheft (see section 3.2.1, par 7
above) and the tendency for overstocking.

The two-tier rural credit system can be combined with credit subsidies, to keep interest
rates low and to encourage investments, and credit guarantees for the lending institution as
insurance against default.

Credit and savings groups are not new to the rural Basotho population: A number of informal
credit and savings associations exist for different purposes (e.g. burial societies). Some pro-

36
jects have channelled credits through such associations, 21 and a concept for rural savings
and credit groups has already been outlined by the Lesotho banks. 22 The rural credit system
to be established can build on such initiatives. An amount of M26 million from the special Pri-
vatisation Unit proceeds account of the MFED, earmarked to be used for establishing a de-
velopment fund23, could be the initial seed money for the proposed rural credit system.

A similar two-tier rural credit system can be established in urban areas, to encourage the
development of small enterprises and informal sector activities.

Main stakeholders and their role:

Target groups: Households of all categories .

MFED, MAFS, MTICM, CBL, Post Office Bank / private banks to design rural and urban mi-
cro credit schemes and to initiate the steps for its implementation.

3.3.3 Marketing, processing, trade

Policy measures: Promotion of agricultural and food marketing, processing and trade.
Objectives: Improved food production and supply, access and supply stability;

Issues:

By bridging time and space between producers and consumers, marketing of agricultural and
food products affects production and supply, supply stability and access. Poor market per-
formance means high marketing costs and margins, low prices for producers (if they can sell
at all) and high prices for consumers (if the products reach the consumer markets at all).
While the marketing channels from South Africa into Lesotho are well established, internal
marketing of agricultural produce in Lesotho as well as export marketing channels are poorly
developed.

Improving market performance means higher producer prices and better sales opportunities
for farmers, thus increasing food supplies, farmers‘ income, stimulating market oriented pro-
duction and inducing agricultural growth. It also means improved physical and economic
access for the consumers: Products are accessible at affordable prices.

By processing and preservation, the marketing potential of food and other agricultural prod-
ucts can be substantially expanded. Furthermore, the shelf life of products is extended, spoi-
lage and waste are prevented, and value added is realised, with positive implications for em-
ployment and income. Food processing and preservation contribute to food security with re-
gard to availability, access and stability.24 The re-opening of the Cannery at Masianokeng
offers new possibilities in this field.

The export potential for Lesotho‘s food and agricultural products has, so far, remained widely
unexplored. Particularly interesting in this regard are seasonal vegetables and fruits which
can be supplied off-season to countries in the northern hemisphere.

The following major constraints with regard to food marketing have been identified in Lesotho:

21
E.g. the IFAD supported Rural Finance and Enterprise Support Project (RF&ESP).
22
See also Central Bank of Lesotho/Standard Bank/Nedbank Lesotho, 2001, Manual of Operations for Rural
Savings and Credit Groups.
23
Central Bank of Lesotho, 2003, Blueprint fort he Establishment of Development Fund, Final Draft
24
Issues related to nutrition (food safety and preservation of the nutritional value are addressed in section 3.5.3).

37
 Highly dispersed producers offering relatively small amounts of marketable surpluses.
 Poor market infrastructure.
 Poor market organization.
 Lack of market research and information.
 Lack of processing and preservation facilities.

Actions / policy measures

Promotion of market organisation and market infrastructure: Producers are dispersed

and offer small and irregular quantities. This situation calls for market organisation and an
appropriate market infrastructure which assembles the individual lots, allows grading and
standardisation, and ensures continuous supplies of sufficient marketable products in an effi-
cient way.
Promotion of such initiatives can be made through:
 Market research, exploration of market potentials for specific products,
 Creation of public awareness on specific features and qualities of Lesotho‘s food prod-
ucts (ecological, highland climate, freshness, smallholder produced).
 Promotion of contacts between producers and potential buyers, e.g. through participa-
tion in local / regional trade fairs.
 Training for marketing agents,
 Management and organisational support, e.g. for cooperative marketing organisations,
 Establishment of rural rotational markets and roadside collection points, development of
market infrastructure at such places (e.g. stalls, storage facilities),

Promotion of processing of food and agricultural products: This includes research in

appropriate processing and preservation technologies, investment support, market research
and sales promotion for processed products on national and international markets.

Wool and mohair are the most important agricultural cash and export products of Lesotho but
are exported in a raw unprocessed state. The same applies to hides and skins. A feasibility
study on the establishment of a processing facility (wool scouring plant) will be undertaken,
and/or the interest of national or foreign investors in establishing such a plant in Lesotho
should be facilitated. Promotion of manufacturing and marketing of wool and mohair products
will be pursued, e.g. through training and facilitation of expert consultations in fields of design,
technology, management and marketing.

Export promotion: This is done through market research (exploration of export potentials for
Lesotho‘s products), advertisements of range and specific qualities of such products, financ-
ing of pilot export schemes to test and develop new markets, promotion of participation in
international trade fairs, etc. Very importantly, GoL needs to play an active role in achieving a
better international trading environment for its agricultural products, both processed and un-
processed. Since the country is completely surrounded by RSA, and since most of Lesotho‘s
food exports are destined for RSA, one important aspect of this would be to ensure that Ba-
sotho exporters meet the sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards applying in South Africa.

Market information: Ensuring market transparency through market information is critical to

an efficient market system, with beneficial effects for the producers and consumers alike. Im-
proved market information will reduce the marketing risks for producers and traders, enable
them to offer the right types of products in the desired qualities and appropriate standards,
and allow them take advantage of existing price differentials on different market places.

In Lesotho, a market information service for vegetables is maintained by the Department of

Marketing of the MTICM. A study will be undertaken to review its effectiveness in reaching
the appropriate clients with the relevant information in good time, and the possibilities of ex-

38
pansion with regard to the type of products and the market places (producer, assembling and
consumer markets) to be covered.

Because of the dependence of Lesotho‘s market on the regional markets, links to regional
market information systems will be established. GoL will play an advocacy role in regional
fora and in bilateral discussions with other countries in the region on this issue. Lessons
learned from the successful Regional Agricultural and Trade Information Network (RATIN),
currently in operation in East Africa will be applied.

Main stakeholders and role:

Target groups: Rural households belonging to categories 3 and 4. Indirect employment bene-
fits will accrue for households in categories 1 and 2.

 MITCM, in coordination with MAFS, to

 Promote food market research,
 Promote market organisations and market infrastructure,
 Maintain an effective market information service,
 Initiate feasibility study on wool and mohair processing.
 Farmers‘ Associations and Cooperatives, traders‘ associations, to implement market or-
ganisation and development.
 Livestock Products Marketing Services.
 FAO to provide technical assistance.

3.3.4 Rural infrastructure

Policy measures: Improvements of rural infrastructure through CFW / FFW programmes;

Monitoring of ongoing and planned infrastructure programmes in terms of impact on food se-
curity.
Implications of rural infrastructure improvement for food security:: Increased produc-
tion, more efficient supplies and improved stability by improving physical access and reduced
transport costs.

Issues:
Rural infrastructure, particularly road infrastructure, has a substantial bearing on food securi-
ty: the state of infrastructure dictates the accessibility of areas and the transport costs, which
in turn determine the supply and the prices of inputs, food and other items. Difficult area
access and high transport costs imply high input prices to producers, low producer prices,
and high prices to consumers, adversely affecting supply/availability as well as the de-
mand/access side of the food equation.

Good infrastructure linkages are particularly important, but also costly to establish, in a
mountainous country like Lesotho. This does not only involve road construction in difficult
terrain but also many bridges over rivers and streams. Although substantial improvements in
the road network have already been made in Lesotho over the past years, some areas, par-
ticularly remote parts of the highlands, are still not easily and not always accessible, hinder-
ing smooth supplies and increasing the marketing costs to and from those areas.

The poor state of the Maseru railhead (Maseru Container Terminal, MASCON) hinders effi-
cient handling of bulk imports. Considering the dependence of the country on food and other
imports, there is an urgent need for overhauling. There are plans for further infrastructure im-
provements in the pipeline, promoted by the EC and under the Millennium Challenge Ac-

39
count (MCA) sponsored by the USA. MCA funds are also earmarked for overhauling the
MASCON infrastructure.

Actions/ policy measures:

Owing to it‘s importance for food security in Lesotho, CFW / FFW programmes that construct
and maintain feeder roads which provide access to villages will be promoted under the Food
Security Policy. These programmes create productive assets and provide temporary em-
ployment and income for vulnerable groups.

In addition, the food security impact of more general infrastructural improvements being car-
ried out by e.g. the EC and under MCA funding will be monitored.

Main stakeholders and role:

CFW / FFW measures particularly appropriate for non-labour constrained households in

categories 1 and 2. All households should benefit from improved infrastructure.

 For CFW / FFW, the stakeholders are as under 3.1.2 above

 The FSPU will take responsibility for monitoring the impact of improved infrastructure on
food security, in conjunction with MoW and donors.

3.4 LAND TENURE AND FOOD SECURITY

The on-going land tenure reform process has important implications for food security in Leso-
tho. Whilst the Food Security Policy itself will not be directly concerned with implementation
of land tenure reform, it is important that those charged with implementing the Food Security
Policy understand the implications of likely changes in land tenure and are able to act ac-
cordingly.

Policy measure: No specific policy measure for the Food Security policy apart from monitor-
ing the impact of land reform on food security. (The on-going land reform process is com-
plementary to Food Security Policy).
Implications of Land Reform for Food Security:: (i) Enhancement of investments and
economic production in rural, urban and peri-urban areas through improved tenure security
and an efficient system of land administration. (ii) Protection of the land rights of vulnerable
groups.

Issues
Land tenure security is generally considered as a necessary condition for the achievement of
food security in Lesotho. Several basic tenure conditions must be met if food security is to
be possible.
(i) People‘s land rights must be clear and secure; they must facilitate investment and
economic growth in all sectors of the economy, and promote the environmentally
sustainable use of land in both rural and urban settings.
(ii) Land must be accessible to all citizens, women as well as men, and the policy and
laws must take due account of the needs of all citizens, particularly those of the
poor and vulnerable. This includes children who may inherit land from diseased
partnts.
(iii) All administration of land must be effective, accountable, transparent and lawful,
make efficient use of the state‘s scarce human and financial resources, and be ac-
cessible and comprehensible to all citizens.

40
There is currently a dual system of land administration that is based on customary law in the
rural areas and more formal Roman-Dutch law in the towns. Up to now, the Land Act 1979
is the principal law governing tenure relations and the administration of land held in the coun-
try. The present dual system of customary and common law fulfills the conditions set out
above only to a limited extent. The legal systems intersect uncomfortably in the rapidly ex-
panding peri-urban areas where most land allocation has been either unlawful or irregular. In
fact, it is the rapidly expanding urbanisation into the rural areas which most urgently calls for a
reform of land tenure. Furthermore, both the customary and common law discriminate against
women‘s land rights and the land rights of the growing number of orphans.

The Agriculture and Food Security chapter of the PRS argues that ―food security will not be
achieved if the poor are not confident about their ownership of the land they want to make
productive‖ and therefore commits Government to ―develop a National Land Policy and enact
the Land Bill‖ ―in the next three years‖. 25

How will land tenure reform affect food security?

First, The impact of land tenure reform on general agricultural productivity and the contribu-
tion of the sector to food security is likely to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. The
following effects can be expected:
 The facilitation of a legal arable land market, through the development of which land
will gradually come to be used more efficiently in larger, more consolidated holdings.
 Better regulated, less contentious sharecropping arrangements, which will also stimu-
late more efficient and productive use of the nation‘s limited arable resources.
 At the same time, the Land Act will provide safeguards to protect the rights and live-
lihoods of the poor and disadvantaged as these more modern market mechanisms
and farming models take effect.

Second, more immediate impacts will be felt in the non-agricultural sectors:

 In the commercial and industrial land market, investor confidence will be substantially
improved by improved transparency and by enhanced physical planning processes
and controls. This should in turn stimulate investment and employment.
 Further, enactment of the Land Code should have directly positive environmental re-
sults in urban and peri urban areas: The enhanced tenure security it will create for
low and middle income groups will stimulate stronger environmental commitment and
investment in residential and commercial properties and their surroundings. Also –
but depending on the quality of governance that society will commit itself to – the
Land Bill and the Town and Country Planning Bill will facilitate more effective physical
planning and development controls. Such measures should improve sanitation, re-
duce pollution and protect natural resources within urban and peri-urban zones.

Third, land reform should protect the interests of the disadvantaged:

 By abolishing discrimination against women in land matters, the proposed land reform
significantly improves the prospects of sustainable livelihoods and food security for
women (particularly widows) and for female headed households.
 Largely because of HIV/AIDS and partly because of the rapid modernisation of socie-
ty, Lesotho‘s existing social protection mechanisms are being overwhelmed by grow-
ing food and livelihood insecurity. The new Land Act will include a number of social
safeguard functions to protect the interests of the disadvantaged (including orphans)
as land markets develop.

25
GOL, PRS, 2004, p.42.

41
Fourth, tenure insecurity is not a major cause of land degradation in Lesotho. But the pro-
posed land reform will reinforce Basotho farmers‘ existing perception of their security of te-
nure and should thereby offer a further stimulus to sustainable resource use. There are,
however, some question-marks over the ability of Community Councils to manage the land
market.

Fifth, until people have the knowledge and confidence to assert the rights and exploit the op-
portunities that the new land systems give them, much of the potential that the land reform
offers for food security will remain unused. The Land Bill cannot come into effect until it has
been translated into Sesotho and extensive public education and awareness work has been
done. These important provisions mean that major steps towards public awareness and un-
derstanding must be taken before the land reform becomes effective.

Finally, as well as public education, the success of land reform in improving urban and rural
food security will depend heavily on institutional capacity and the quality of governance.

Implications of Land Reform for Food Security Policy

The key implication for food security policy is that the impact of land reform on the food secu-
rity of different population groups must be monitored closely. Information gained as a result
of this monitoring must be conveyed to relevant stakeholders in a timely manner so that in-
formed decisions can be made.

Main stakeholders

The key stakeholders from a food security policy perspective are:

 The FSPU, which will be in charge of monitoring the impact of land reform on food
security and translating the results to key policy makers.
 MOLG, NGOs, CBOs and other implementing agencies, who will need to take re-
sponsibility for acting prudently on the monitoring information that is presented to
them.

3.5 PUBLIC TRANSFERS / SOCIAL SAFETY NETS

Public transfers and social safety nets are critical to ensuring the food security of vulnerable
groups in Lesotho in both rural and urban areas. The following sub-sections set out the strat-
egies by which food security of these groups can be assured.

3.5.3 Transfer Based Entitlement Support

Three types of support can be distinguished under this heading:

 Free food distribution,
 Cash transfers, and
 Voucher schemes.

These types of support can be used in either an emergency assistance mode and / or a so-
cial protection mode for chronically vulnerable and chronically poor groups.

42
Up until very recently in Lesotho, the only type of large scale pure transfer intervention was
free food distribution26. Since December 2004, however, a universal old age pension (cash
transfer) for all over 70 years has been introduced.

Policy measure:.Public transfers to very vulnerable and food insecure population groups.
Objective: To avoid deprivation and ensure a minimum subsistence level of extremely vul-
nerable and food insecure population groups who lack other means of livelihood support.

3.5.13.1 Food Assistance for Emergency Response and Long-Term Support

a) Emergency response

Food assistance in the form of free distributions in emergencies is the appropriate response
when the following three conditions all apply:
1. targeted households lack access to food;
and
2. there is a lack of availability of food on the market and therefore the risk of inflation if
cash is given out instead of food;
and
3. alternative ways of helping people get access to food would either take too long (as
in the case of abrupt, rapid onset disasters) or might not be practical or reliable .

Experience of Emergency Food Assistance in Lesotho

These conditions have not always been met. In addition, there have been a number of op-
erational difficulties. An evaluation27 of the response to the declared state of famine in 2002 /
03 found the following:
 Targeting criteria and actual selection of beneficiaries was often unclear and handled
arbitrarily
 Targeting problems compounded by lack of resources and skills to reach intended
beneficiaries
 Monitoring data and record keeping was very patchy, thus hampering management
and monitoring.
 The proposed of food aid reportedly had some disincentive effects (i.e. households
did not plough or prepare their land in some cases).

Policy Responses and Actions

In the light of experience, the following actions will be taken immediately when this policy
comes into effect:

 Targeting Criteria and Capacity: Assessment methodology for appropriate identifica-

tion of vulnerable people will be improved in line with the actions listed under the sec-
tion dealing with vulnerability assessment section 3.10 below).

 Policy framework and institutional arrangements for emergency responses: The

mandate of DMA will be modified to incorporate strategies on newly emerging and
potential forms of humanitarian crises situations (Including HIV/AIDS pandemic).
DMA will be decentralised in line with the ongoing local government reform. This will
entail provision for a well-designed structure at district level with independent and

26
Smaller schemes such as war pensions have been in place for some years.
27
Van der Booengaard et. al. 2004.

43
 adequate financial budget provisions. LVAC data will be fully integrated into DMA
structures at district level, and capacity to collect process and analyse vulnerability in-
formation at district level will be enhanced. Feasible district based contingency plans
for timely food security interventions will be developed, and over time DMA structures
should become a point of interaction with other partners and donors that are asso-
ciated with disaster management.

 Implementation capacity for the emergency response: GoL will intensify its efforts to
work with WFP and INGOS to strengthen the capacity of local Implementing Partners
(IPs). GoL will review FMUs function, especially in terms of reporting, accounting and
auditing. This will be done as part of the planned merger of FMU and DMA.

 Costing aspects of the emergency response: GoL will work with development part-
ners to improve on availability of financial data through establishing clearer account-
ing procedures for humanitarian emergency operations.

 Exit strategies: GoL will work with development partners to develop clear differentia-
tion guidelines between mitigation and recovery activities, drawing on best practice
from around the region and elsewhere. This task will be supported by improvements
in vulnerability assessment methods in line with section xxx above.

 In addition to these factors, there are some specific issues in relation to HIV/AIDS,
these are considered in more detail in the HIV/AIDS and Food Security Section below.

Stakeholders and their role

The primary responsibility for improving assessment targeting lies with the LVAC and DMA.
For all other activities, DMA will take the lead, supported by the FSPU in MAFS. In order to
be successful, DMA will organise support from other agencies within and outside government.
Of particular importance will be support from WFP, which has played a major role in streng-
thening capacity in the past. In addition, integration with the National AIDS Commission at
central and district levels will be important.

b) Food Assistance for Social Protection

In contrast to emergency relief, the long-running school feeding programmes appear general-
ly to have worked smoothly. These have been carried out by GoL, in partnership with WFP
and NGOs for over 20 years. Currently WFP covers 90% of all primary schools in Lesotho
but is gradually phasing out support as GoL takes over under the Free Primary Education
(FPE) initiative. The GoL will continue to work with WFP on school feeding to ensure a suc-
cessful transition to total responsibility.

GoL will also continue to work with WFP in relation to PRRO 10310 which provides targeted
social protection to vulnerable groups (112,000 persons per month) in the form of food aid.

There are some special considerations with respect to reaching HIV/AIDS affected communi-
ties and households. These will be tackled in more detail in the HIV/AIDS and Food Security
Section below.

3.5.1.2 Cash Transfers

a. Emergency response

In all cases where there is no clear comparative advantage of food assistance, and where
the food markets function reasonably well, cash transfers appear to be a more appropriate,
effective and efficient way of emergency response. It is likely that these conditions apply to
44
high proportions of vulnerable groups in lowland, urban and peri-urban Lesotho in particular,
however, it is not easy to demonstrate this with current assessment methodologies. There is
thus a need for improvement (this point is returned to in section 3.10 below).

Cash transfers schemes require much less infrastructure and are easier to implement than
food transfer schemes. Moreover, cash offers the possibility of choice and can be used ac-
cording to the individual needs and priorities. Due to this reason, recent field visits have
found that current beneficiaries of food transfers in Lesotho often prefer cash to food. 28 A fur-
ther argument in favour of cash is its positive influence on local and regional food production
and markets.29 Having said this, there are some potential difficulties with cash (as noted in
section 3.1 above), necessitating careful design and management.

Cash transfers are an appropriate response to emergencies when the following three points
apply:

1. targeted households lack access to food; and

2. food is generally available for those with purchasing power; and
3. the risk of inflationary pressure is low/a depressed economy needs a cash injection.

3.5.1.3 Vouchers

Vouchers are a kind of blend between food and cash transfers. The vouchers are distributed
to eligible groups and can be cashed for purchases of a predetermined set of commodities in
specific shops. The participating retail outlets can be ordinary private shops which are re-
funded by government on presentation of the coupons. Thus government is not directly in-
volved in supply and retailing operations: its involvement is confined to administrative tasks
such as the issue and distribution of the vouchers and refunding the participating retailers.
The schemes can be designed so as beneficiaries have a choice among a range of sched-
uled commodities, this gives the vouchers a "near-money" property. Voucher schemes are
consistent with the operation of markets and a cost-effective way of food-mediated income
transfer to low income households, largely in line with the objectives of budgetary savings
and market liberalisation. 30

Vouchers are an appropriate response to emergencies in similar conditions to cash i.e.

when:

1. targeted households lack access to food; and

2. food is generally available for those with purchasing power; and
3. the risk of inflationary pressure in food markets is low.

The key difference between vouchers and cash is that: there is a greater degree of security
against fraud or misuse. On the other hand, vouchers are less flexible than cash, thus impor-
tant non-food needs are not catered for. This may result in vouchers being sold for cash by
targeted families.

b. Longer term responses for the chronically poor and vulnerable

The arguments for and against cash and vouchers used in emergency situations generally
apply in the case of longer term support to vulnerable groups. An additional key issue is mak-
ing sure that the interventions are sustained. Experience with long-term cash support to vul-

28
Field trips undertaken to peri-urban Maseru, Qacha‘s Nek in November and December 2004 in the
process of preparing this policy.
29
Van der Boogaard et. al. (2004: 57).
30
Thomson, A. & M. Metz, 1996

45
nerable groups in Lesotho is limited to small scale war pension schemes. Given the high
rates of HIV/AIDS and poverty in the country, the possibility of large scale long term support
needs to be considered. To make this a reality will depend on sustained engagement by GoL
and development partners in support to key groups. Progress and impact of the recently in-
troduced pension scheme should be closely monitored, so that lessons learned can be ap-
plied to other interventions including a possible HIV/AIDS disability benefit scheme.

Policy direction

In the light of the possible advantages of cash and voucher systems and their potential suit-
ability for vulnerable population groups in emergency and longer-term contexts, GoL shall
make renewed efforts to increase their use in the appropriate circumstances through contin-
ued liaison and negotiation with key donors and agencies. Initially, research – drawing on
best practice in other countries, as well as emerging experience with GoL's pension scheme
- will be commissioned to identify the modalities of future interventions. Depending upon the
findings, research may be followed by introduction of pilot programmes, possibly introduced
alongside food assistance programmes in selected areas. Where it is clear that cash and / or
vouchers are more appropriate than food, the GoL will make strenuous efforts to secure sup-
port from development partners, as well as using its own resources, to ensure successful im-
plementation.

Stakeholders and their role

The lead role will be taken by the proposed FSPU in collaboration with other departments in
MAFS, MoFDP, MoHSW, NAC, DMA, LVAC, FNCO, WFP, international NGOs and donor
partners.

3.5.2 Consumer subsidies

Policy measure: Research on temporary consumer subsidies for staple food grains.
Objective: To establish the economic feasibility of such schemes in Lesotho.

Issues:

Consumer subsidies are a frequent instrument applied to ensure supplies of basic food
commodities at affordable prices to consumers.

A distinction needs to be made between general and targeted subsidies – with pros and cons
for both systems: While general subsidies are relatively easy to administer, they are quite
costly, absorbing a substantial share of budgetary resources, and benefiting all, including the
better-off households who can afford higher prices. They may also lead to market distortions.
Targeted subsidies involve higher administrative and management efforts, skills and cost,
and are prone to corruption. If they are properly managed, however, targeted subsidies are
cheaper and more effective in reaching the poor and vulnerable.

Different approaches can be applied for targeted subsidies, such as a voucher system (these
are used in the USA); distribution through special shops (used in India); subsidies for inferior
goods which are only consumed by the poor (as in Egypt, where brown bread is subsidised);
or geographical targeting (areas where the most vulnerable live, e.g. highlands).

Lesotho had practiced a general subsidy on (unsifted) maizemeal for about one year in 2002,
aimed at people who lacked purchasing power to acquire food at the prevailing rapidly in-

46
creased market prices.31 It was a one-shot-action for which M 4 Million had been allocated,
and it was discontinued after the M 4 Million were exhausted. Although there was an in-built
element of self-targeting, the scheme was not evaluated and, therefore, little can be said t o
what extent it was effective in reaching the poor. 32

Because of the largely open boundaries and customs union with RSA, general subsidy
schemes will face difficulties in Lesotho as if the price differential is large enough, the subsi-
dised food will flow out across the border.

Actions:

GoL will commission a study on the feasibility, effectiveness and efficiency of consumer sub-
sidies, based on past experience. If the results are positive, then a suitable subsidy scheme
can be designed and introduced in times of need.

Stakeholders:

MTICM to commission the study, in cooperation with DMA, Lesotho Flour Mill and the FSPU.

3.6 HIV/AIDS AND FOOD S ECURITY

Policy measure:: Promote food security for all households and communities affected by HIV
and AIDS through mainstreaming HIV/AIDS in the Food Security Policy..
:

Owing to its importance as a determinant of food security in Lesotho, HIV/AIDS merits a spe-
cial place in the Food Security Policy. HIV/AIDS has an impact on all aspects (availability,
access, utlisation and stability) and all levels (individual to national) of food security in the
country. Accordingly, interventions are needed at all levels and across sectors to mitigate its
effects. By the same token, improved food security can have significant impacts in both pre-
venting contraction of HIV and in slowing the progression of HIV to AIDS. Food security in
the context of HIV/AIDS needs to target community and household resistance and resilience,
and to ensure appropriate safety nets are operational. In order not to increase stigma and
discrimination, there is a need to strengthen community coping capacity rather than just tar-
geting individuals infected or affected.

Policy Directions.

All policies and programmes need to be assessed through an HIV lens to ensure that they do
not increase vulnerability to infection and that they mitigate the impact of HIV/AIDS. At an
overall institutional level, strengthened mechanisms for cross-sectoral working need to be
established at village, district and national levels. This is especially important for service pro-
vision and policy. As a consequence, henceforth GoL will ensure that the Lesotho National
Aids Commission (NAC) the District Aids coordinators and PLWA organisations are fully
integrated in / linked to relevant institutional structures for implementing this Food Security

31
DMA, 2003
32
The subsidy was restricted to unsifted, i.e. low grade maizemeal. This implied a certain element of
self targeting, since only poor people would consume unsifted maizemeal. Anecdotal cases of diver-
sion of the maizemeal and use as animal find have been reported. The subsidy amounted to 30% of
the price of maize and was paid to the flour mills.

47
Policy. Further details on institutional structures are contained in chapter 4 of this policy
document.

Experience to date in Africa has shown the need for development, relief and rehabilitation to
be addressed together. Development practice, without increased support through safety nets
and other forms of social protection, is not enough for the most vulnerable. Any programme
to mitigate the impact of HIV/AIDS must therefore directly address, or ensure that other pro-
viders are addressing, all three aspects: development, relief and rehabilitation.

These issues can be taken forward by integrating a number of approaches:

 Supporting consumption directly through food assistance
 Boosting productivity to increase household access to food
 Supporting community safety nets .

For all three aspects, targeting is key. Not only must targeting effectively identify the most
vulnerable, but it must also ensure that the process does not lead to increases in stigma and
discrimination (see above).

3.6.1. Supporting consumption directly through food assistance

Recalling Section 3.1.2 above, it is useful to view food assistance in two circumstances: (a)
as a temporary emergency measure, designed to protect consumption levels in the wake of a
livelihood shock, and: (b) as a longer term instrument of social protection for the chronically
vulnerable and chronically poor. In both circumstances, special arrangements are necessary
to ensure that families and communities affected by HIV/AIDS are properly catered for.

Key Principles of direct consumption assistance in the context of HIV/AIDS and required pol-
icy responses:

1. Due to HIV/AIDS induced labour constraints, conventional FFW (and CFW) projects
may not be suitable. One possible response is to promote Food For Capabilities (FFC) pro-
jects in which food is used as an incentive to undertake activities that HIV/AIDS affected
households can do. An example of this is Food for Care activities whereby households are
rewarded for completing training in home based care with food rations. These possibilities
need to be carefully evaluated to avoid stigma and misuse.

2. People living with HIV and AIDS have special nutritional requirements. Moreover,
these requirements change as the disease progresses from HIV to AIDS. The required policy
response is to create an environment in which agencies can respond to these different needs.
Therefore, GoL will henceforth undertake to:
 Intensify training of front line staff in WHO disease staging techniques;
 Strengthen partnerships with food aid providers and research providers so that nutri-
tional packages that are relevant to different stages of the disease can be adminis-
tered;
 As a minimum, to ensure that food packages are modified to maximise protein and
micro-nutrient content whilst not compromising carbohydrate content.

3. As PLWA and their families may not be able to reach food assistance distribution
points, special efforts will be made, in consultation with communities, to ensure that those
affected by HIV/AIDS receive their due. This may involve mobilisation through support
groups.

4. Monitoring and evaluation of food aid needs to measure the nutritional status of bene-
ficiaries rather than distribution of food, to ensure cost-effectiveness of the intervention.

48
5. With this in mind, and as noted in Section 3.1.2.4 above, GoL will carefully evaluate
the impact of the LRAP homestead gardens programme in order to decide whether it should
be rolled out nation-wide.

Key Stakeholders:

Target groups: All households and communities affected by HIV and AIDS

The catalyst for turning these principles into practice will be the proposed FSPU. The Unit will
work closely with Town councils, Maseru City council, MoLG, NAC, FNCO, DMA, WFP and
NGOs on the food assistance logistics and with NAC, MoHSW, UNICEF, WHO and NGOs on
the health issues. PLWA and their families will be fully consulted at all stages of the various
interventions.

3.6.2. Boosting household access to food through increased food production and
economic productivity

Several sub-sections earlier in this policy document have included and / or referred to the
need for special provision to be made for HIV/AIDS affected households - CHECK. The key
areas are as follows:

Table 7:
Ensuring that PLWA and affected families are catered for in the Food Security Policy

Strategy / Policy Area Urban / rural Role of the Food Security Policy

Conservation Farming Rural Ensure that PLWA can benefit by suggesting

links between CFW / FFW activities and field
preparation
Extension Rural Ensure that extension staff are trained in
HIV/AIDS friendly extension
Home gardening Rural and Ur- Ensure that PLWA and HIV / AIDS affected
ban families are part of the target group if and when
the LRAP initiative is rolled-out.
Livestock Rural and Ur- Ensure that PLWA and HIV / AIDS affected
ban families are part of the target group for small
stock and poultry
Micro-credit Rural and Ur- Making sure that credit schemes are tailored to
ban take into account of the special needs of
HIV/AIDS affected borrowers
Land reform Rural and Ur- Ensuring that the impact of land reform on the
ban food security of OVCs and AIDS widows is
monitored accurately, and results of monitoring
reach the right decision-makers

Key Stakeholders

Target groups: All households and communities affected by HIV and AIDS

The proposed FSPU will be responsible for taking these issues forward. Close linkages will
need to be made with other parts of the MAFS (research, crops, livestock), NAC, MTICM,
FAO, NGOs, and PLWA groups.

49
3.6.3 Strengthening Community Level Safety Nets

When the ability to sustain a livelihood becomes impossible, then community safety nets be-
come critical. Traditional communal safety nets do of course exist in Lesotho, however, their
activities are neither continuous and normally are not sufficiently robust to cope with the
needs of large numbers of AIDS households.

In order to create a source of funds that are sustainable over the long term, communities will
need to embark on an on-going resource mobilisation campaign to identify and mobilise in-
ternal resources first and then tap into external resources. This community resource mobili-
sation campaign should include:

Community Participation— Building strong community cohesion, participation, ownership,

and management of all activities is an important aspect of best practices for HIV/AIDS pro-
grammes. Moreover, successful community resource mobilisation cannot occur in communi-
ties where ownership and participation does not exist. Many tools exist for mobilising com-
munities and there is no need to re-invent the wheel. The UES is an excellent vehicle for this
and it is important that HIV/AIDS awareness is mainstreamed into it.

Community asset mapping —Assistance to community groups should help develop strate-
gies to tap into local and external resources. A community may need to first appreciate the
resources available to it before it can effectively mobilise those resources. Community asset
mapping is a tool that uncovers hidden or undervalued resources.

Fundraising activities —The most successful fundraising is based on skills and resources
that already exist within the community. Fundraising strategies should evolve continually so
they avoid depending on one sort of fundraising activity or one group of donors. For example,
in an effort to gain donations and generate cash from a variety of sources, village AIDS
committees in Malawi have (Williamson and Donahue 2001):
 organised ―big-walks‖, where walkers are sponsored by businesses or individuals and
proceeds go towards the community fund;
 approached the religious communities to donate offerings collected during their respec-
tive religious services;
 created links with an agricultural research project to get free improved seeds and sapl-
ings for their community garden; and
 collect membership fees from people joining their AIDS committee.

Strategic actions

GoL will work with NGOs and PLWA organisation in order to maximise the performance of
available extension workers to mobilise communities. A key vehicle for this will be the UES.

Key Stakeholders

Target groups: All households and communities affected by HIV and AIDS

In partnership with the MAFS extension service, NGOs will need play a critical role in
strengthening community safety nets. Strong partnerships will need to be developed between
these players and the NAC, MHSW, District AIDS Coordinators and PLWA groups.

50
3.7 COMPLEMENTARY STRATEGIES TO ENSURE AVAILABILITY AND STABILITY OF FOOD
SUPPLIES AT NATIONAL LEVEL

Introduction: Policy measures to promote food production as outlined under 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4
above will have positive impacts on availability and stability of food supplies at national level.
In order to ensure sufficient and stable food supplies at national level, however, supplies
from domestic food production are complemented by commercial food imports, food aid deli-
veries and food stocks.

3.7.1 Commercial food imports

Measures: Maintain sensible and economically justified balance between commercial im-
ports and domestic production; reduce costs of commercial imports wherever possible.
Objective: Smooth supplies of commercial grain imports to enhance national food security.
:

Issues:
While domestic food production has fallen short of the national food requirements, food im-
ports have contributed a major and increasing share to national food supplies. From Figure 7
above it can be concluded that, up to 1998, cereal imports have by and large compensated
for the variations and overall stagnation of cereal production, thus helping to ensure food
availability and stability of supplies over time. This has changed since 1998, when, due to a
marked increase in market prices in the wake of the depreciation of the Rand, the commer-
cial food imports went down.

Figure 7: Cereal production and net cereal imports, 1980-2002

400,000

300,000
T
o
200,000
n
s
100,000

0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Cereal production Net cereal imports

Source of data: FAOSTAT

The fact that food imports have largely performed their function to ensure adequate and
smooth supplies, can be attributed to the following factors:

51
 Well established and functioning trading relations with the large and efficient South
African food market.
 An adequate import capacity, resulting from a relatively comfortable foreign exchange
position33 which has allowed, so far, unrestricted financing of imports.

It might be argued that given the past history of smooth imports there is no need for major
policy changes regarding the balance between food imports and domestic production. Under
a food security perspective, however, there are two reasons why this view should be cau-
tioned:

1) The foreign exchange position may worsen, i.e. import capacity may fall in future. If the
expected reduction of SACU transfers is not compensated by other sources of foreign ex-
change returns, the need to finance a large and increasing amount food imports may con-
tribute to an emerging balance of payment deficit, implying increasing foreign debts and
future debt services.

2) Lesotho’s food market is highly dependent on the market in the RSA which, again, is
closely linked with the world market. That means that the prevailing market prices in Leso-
tho, as in the RSA, are largely determined by the world market prices of food and the ex-
change rate of the Rand to which the Loti is pegged. The rapid depreciation of the Rand in
the late 1990s34 brought about a substantial increase in the market prices of food which, in
turn, eroded the purchasing power of poor consumers depending on the market for their
food supplies.

Actions / policy measures:

In relation to 1) above, it is important to maintain a reasonable balance between domestic
food production and dependence on imports. This implies that economically justified efforts
should be made to increase overall domestic food production, through measures explained in
sections 3.2 and 3.3 above.

In relation to 2), it is important to support own production of food - again, where such action
is economically justified - as this will reduce exposure to price and exchange rate risks.

As a safeguard against supply shortages and price hikes on regional markets, and to ensure
smooth supplies, the possibility of grain futures should be explored (see also under food
stocks, sub-section 3.7.3 below).

3.7.2 Food aid deliveries – FOOD AID POLICY

Measures: Clarification of delivery procedures, capacity building, and better negotiations

with donors
Objectives: Timely supply of food aid to meet consumption needs at National level; and
costs of national requirements minimised.
:

Issues:

Food aid deliveries contribute to increased availability and stability of food supplies at the na-
tional level..

33
See also chapter 2.
34
The price of mealie meal rose from M1.3/kg in 2000 to M3.6/kg in 2002 (Abbot 2002).

52
From Table 8 can be seen that there have been substantial variations in annual food aid de-
liveries, though, altogether, the contribution of total food aid supplies has been quite limited.
There have been two exceptional years, 1995 and 2002, when food aid deliveries made up
more than 11% of the total supplies. In these years, food aid compensated partly for substan-
tial shortfalls in production (1995) and commercial food imports (2002).

Table 8: Cereal production, commercial imports and food aid, 1992-2002

in metric tons
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Cereal production 93,896 153,428 223,243 81,221 257,418 206,122 169,192 173,852 178,605 241,500 191,250
Cereal imports 362,152 373,152 366,176 268,233 394,198 268,788 307,450 238,913 164,541 192,430 113,324
Food Aid 42,180 25,242 14,902 45,898 11,628 13,164 7,401 3,116 860 5,308 38,440
Total availability 500,220 553,815 606,315 397,347 665,240 490,071 486,041 417,880 346,006 441,239 345,016
Food Aid in %
of availability 8.4% 4.6% 2.5% 11.6% 1.7% 2.7% 1.5% 0.7% 0.2% 1.2% 11.1%
Source: FAOSTAT

Though food aid is usually provided as grant, it is relatively costly form of external resource
transfer,35 calling for effective and efficient use. In Lesotho, food aid has not always been ob-
tianed in the most cost effective manner non used optimally 36 The efficiency and effective-
ness of food aid operations will be improved through the following

Actions / policy measures: 37

 Improvements of the food security information system, as outlined in section 3.9.

 Clarification and prioritisation of fields for food aid interventions (see criteria set out un-
der section 3.5).
 Clarification of principles and coordination of approaches applied by different food aid
agencies.
 Capacity building for FMU at all levels.
 Local purchase of locally produced food items for food assistance programmes (e.g. for
school feeding). This will help to develop local markets and gives incentives to local
producers.
 Negotiations with donors on the appropriate volume, type and timing of food aid accord-
ing to the needs.
 To initiate and undertake a thorough study on the impacts of food aid.
 Revise and implement Food Aid Policy drafted in 2000.

Main stakeholders and role

 Food aid donors: WFP, USAID, NGOs

 Government institutions involved in food aid programmes.

35
Taking the procurement, transport, distribution cost for the food and the administration and overhead cost of
the food aid agencies into account, the costs per ton of food aid distributed are the multiple of the (economic)
value to the beneficiaries. For example, WFP calculates total costs for maizemeal food aid at some US$ 890/ton,
while the local market price Maseru is currently M 22 per 12,5kg bag or US$293 /ton. That means that the costs
of food aid are three times higher than the local market value of the same product. (Source of data: WFP / own
survey).
36
See Boogaard et al., 2004,
37
See also section 3.4.2.4

53
 LVAC, WFP and NGOs regarding the food security information system.
 FMU for planning and management of emergency operations,/ Logistics of food aid dis-
tribution.

3.7.3 Food stocks

Measures: Conduct studies into establishment of grain banks in remote areas and use of the
futures and options market as alternative to national physical food stocks.

Objectives: Ensure that food stocks are established in Lesotho only where and when eco-
nomically justified; ensuring that other cost effective ways of insuring against food shortages
are properly explored. :

Issues:
In situations of irregular supplies (e.g. seasonal supply variations, price hikes and drops,
harvest failures, temporary block of supply routes), there is a strong case for buffer stocks
and food security reserves. Buffer stocks are intended to smooth market supplies and price
movements, while the purpose of food security reserves is to compensate for irregular or de-
layed deliveries of relief food supplies, in order to ensure regular and timely delivery to the
beneficiaries / vulnerable population groups.

Around the world, there are good and bad examples and mixed experience with buffer stocks
and food security reserves. In order to be effective, certain conditions must be observed and
met.
These include:
 Public interventions in purchase, sales and stocking operations must not distort normal
market operations and not discourage traders from keeping their own buffer stocks.
 Purchase, stocking and sales/dispatch operations require special skills and an effective
system of supervision and control – otherwise the whole operation is prone to fraud and
failure.
 Building-up and maintaining buffer stocks and food security reserves involve a substan-
tial amount of investment and operational costs, with corresponding budgetary implica-
tions.

Due to the issues mentioned above, a decision to establish a buffer stock or a food security
reserve requires careful consideration. It is only justified if, by experience, there is a risk of
severe interruptions in the supply channels in the country and if the necessary capacities for
effective management and operation are in place.

Since, as stated before (3.3.1), there are well established supply routes from RSA which en-
sure smooth imports and food supplies to Lesotho, a general food reserve or buffer stock is
not justified. Furthermore, due to strong RSA links, a buffer stock for price control would not
be effective: If the food prices in Lesotho were depressed below the market prices in the
RSA, substantial amounts of food would flow back to the RSA. A possible and more cost-
effective alternative to physical reserves or buffer stocks are a ―monetary reserve‖, i.e. a con-
tingency fund to finance rapid commercial imports or grain future contracts. Grain future con-
tracts are extended at relatively low cost if not required.

There is, however, a possible case for physical food reserves or grain banks in remote areas
which are temporarily inaccessible during bad weather conditions.

54
Actions / policy measures:

The possibility, advantages and conditions for a ―monetary food reserve‖ through contin-
gency funds and/or grain future contracts will be explored. Establishment of such ―monetary
reserve‖ based on the results of the feasibility study.

An assessment of the risk of supply shortages in remote areas will be undertaken and the
needs an possibilities for establishing local food reserves / grain banks will be determined.
Establishment of local reserves / grain banks with clear guidelines on mode of operation and
release of the reserve stocks in the case of emergencies.

Main stakeholders and role:

Target group for local grain banks/reserves: People in remote and temporarily inaccessible
areas.

 MTICM to initiate / undertake study on the feasibility of a ―monetary food reserve‖ in

terms of contingency funds / grain futures.
 MTICM with DMA to design the concept and determine locations for local grain reserves,
to initiate implementation and to monitor operations.
 Local traders / Village Council to operate local reserves/grain banks, depending on
mode of operation.

3.8 FOOD UTILISATION AND NUTRITION

Policy measure: Improvements in food safety, quality, processing and preservation.

Objective: Improved food safety and nutrition through effective food utilisation

Issues:

Improved food security does not necessarily mean improved nutrition, due to the influence of
environmental health (water and sanitation) and quality of health care on the nutritional
status. Having said this, there are normally strong linkages between food security and nutri-
tion. Aside from the quantity of food consumed, the quantity, quality and safety of food avail-
able to an individual have a strong bearing on nutritional status and health. In Lesotho, im-
provements in current standards of food safety, quality, processing and preservation will be
of benefit for nutritional status. Key issues:
 Nutrition programmes are currently undertaken by a number of different agencies and
Ministries, but there is very little coordination or lesson learning.
 Available statistics on the dietary intake of children under 5 indicate low energy density
in weaning foods and low dietary diversity.
 There is no information available on adult dietary intake.
 The regulatory framework governing food fortification is weak.
 Food processing and preservation in rural areas is supported by the MAFS extension
service. In most instances, however, coverage is low and the knowledge and skills pro-
vided by extension workers is outdated.
 Efforts to encourage production and consumption of indigenous vegetables and fruits
have not been successful due to lack of coordination between MAFS and MTICM.
 Post-harvest losses in the main field crops (maize, sorghum, wheat, peas and beans)
are not prioritised by the MAFS, and little has been done to estimate them or deal with
55
 the consequences. The limited available research indicates that storage losses for maize
could be as high as 15 – 20%.
 Food safety is compromised for those households without access to clean water (23% of
the total in 2000) and the 46% without access to sanitary means of excreta disposal (i.e.
a pit latrine or better). This latter figure is worryingly high. Percentages of households
without both clean water and waste disposal are appreciably higher for poorer wealth
groups, particularly those in rural areas.
 The Maseru abattoir has been closed down. All slaughtering of animals Lesotho, there-
fore does not produce meat of certifiable quality. As well as the health concerns arising
from this, there are commercial implications for livestock producers.
 There is no policy on genetically modified food products.

Actions

An Integrated Nutrition Policy is currently under development. This policy will cover general
nutrition issues in depth. Therefore, the measures undertaken under the Food Security Policy
should be seen as complementary to the Nutrition Policy. It is not the intention of the Food
Security Policy comprehensively to cover all areas.

Key actions to be undertaken under this Food Security Policy are as follows:
 In order to improve coordination and lesson learning across agencies and programmes,
a food quality and processing information network shall be set up. The objective of the
network will be to exchange ideas and experiences on food quality, processing, preser-
vation and safety issues. The network will be coordinated by the MAFS, working closely
with FNCO and will consist of representatives from other Ministries, particularly MTICM,
local and international NGOs and the private sector.
 The current gap in information on adult dietary intake in Lesotho shall be plugged by a
study on the subject which will be commissioned by MAFS and FNCO. The objectives
will be (i) to find out the profile of dietary intake in both rural and urban areas, disaggre-
gating by age, gender and socio-economic status and (ii) make recommendations on in-
terventions to improve dietary patterns in adults. In addition, in order to improve quality
of diet, GoL will make special efforts to promote nutrition gardens, building on the suc-
cess of the LRAP project.
 The Agricultural Sector Strategy suggests several solutions to the problem of inappropri-
ate / insufficient nutrition extension. One issue that is not explicitly highlighted is the
need for dissemination and cross-fertilisation of knowledge and lessons learned to front
line extension workers. Improving this shall be one of the objectives of the food quality
and processing network.
 Further credible research on the post-harvest loss problem will be commissioned to shed
more light on this issue. Depending on the findings of this research, new approaches
and techniques for reducing losses shall be introduced through the MAFS extension ser-
vice. Key technical advice and support shall be sought from centres of excellence in this
field such as DFID‘s Crop Post Harvest Research Programme and ICRISAT.
 Improvements in food safety will come as a result of general economic development,
education and specific technical improvements such as increased coverage of clean wa-
ter and sanitary waste disposal. These issues are outside the scope of this policy. Im-
provements in food safety can be made however through improved coordination be-
tween the various agencies involved in nutrition programming. Coordination will be im-
proved through the effective working of the food quality and processing network. In addi-
tion, the GoL will work with development partners, particularly UNICEF, to strengthen
the FNCO so that it can better perform its coordination function..

56
 A feasibility study on setting up a regulatory body / function for food fortification in Leso-
tho will be done. This will guide the institutional changes / reforms necessary to improve
the regulatory framework on food fortification.
 A separate policy on genetically modified food will be developed.
 A feasibility study on the re-establishment of an abattoir in Lesotho will be conducted.
 Public media campaigns and nutrition education on relevant issues will be intensified.
This will include food hygiene, healthy diets, dietary diversification, HH food processing
and preservation. It will involve MAFS Home Economics, and general Extension staff, as
well as FNCO.

Stakeholders

Target Groups: All HHs, particularly those in categories 1 and 2, women’s associations.

 FNCO will be the key institution involved in taking forward the actions, supported by
MAFS, in particular the Nutrition and Home Economics sections..
 Local authorities, traditional leaders, Faith based Organisations and NGOs will be in-
volved in the organisatiion of nutrition education and renewed efforts will be made to in-
clude these issues as part of the community participation undertaken through the UES.,

3.9 FOOD S ECURITY INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Policy measure: Improvements of the food security information systems including early
warning and emergency information, long-term food security monitoring and linking food se-
curity monitoring with nutrition and poverty monitoring.
Objective: To provide the necessary and appropriate information for designing suitable food
security interventions and making them more effective

Issues:

A well-functioning food security information system needs to provide information on food

availability, food access, stability and utilisation to the correct decision makers, on time and
in a form which allows decisions to be made. The current state of the information systems in
Lesotho is such that these attributes are only partly met. The critical issues are as follows:

Emergency food security: The LVAC acts as an information hub and produces analysis
that is used by GoL, UN agencies (particularly FAO and WFP), donors and NGOs. WFP also
collects information used for monitoring the impact of food aid. The National Early Warning
Unit (NEWU) in DMA collects relevant agro-met and agricultural information supplied by Le-
sotho Met Services, MAFS and others. Recently, the USAID funded Famine Early Warning
System Network (FEWSNET) has expanded its operations to cover Lesotho, although the
impact has yet to be seen. There are some strengths regarding emergency food security in-
formation systems and also several weaknesses. As the LVAC is the centerpiece of these
systems, both strengths and weaknesses closely correspond to the institutional and technical
aspects of the LVAC.

Assessments of vulnerability to food insecurity are critical for selection of the correct policy
and strategy choices. Vulnerability Assessments (VAs) need to be able to provide inform a-
tion which distinguishes chronic vulnerability and food insecurity from acute. Only if this is
done will it be possible to identify each of the categories of households explained in
section 2.4 above. In addition, VAs need to (i) explain why particular groups are vulnerable
to food security shocks and; (ii) guide the choice of interventions to reduce vulnerability. In
doing this, the information that is provided needs to (iii) reach key decision makers at various

57
levels from national to sub-district on time and in a format that can be readily understood and
acted upon. This fourth point implies that (a) the positioning of the Vulnerability Assessment
Unit or Committee be such that there is direct access to senior decision-makers, and (b) that
(a version of) the information is presented in such a way that is understandable and relevant
at the district level.

Of the above points, currently only (i) and partially (ii) apply in Lesotho. In addition, it should
be noted that the NEWU is currently unable to perform its functions properly due to staffing
shortages. As an overall conclusion on information systems for emergency food security, it is
fair to say that these are being coordinated to a considerable degree through the LVAC, but
that there are weaknesses in the system that need to be addressed.

Chronic food security and longer term trends: With respect to monitoring of longer term
food security trends and impacts, there is a lack of coordination between various agencies
and various aspects are not being collected systematically. Unlike emergency food insecurity,
there is no hub for producing explicit food security outputs which analyse longer term trends
from a food security perspective and feed into policy. Some of the information gaps have
been identified earlier in this policy document (e.g. the links between food security and labour
market information). There is also currently no monitoring and analysis of the links between
food security and HIV/AIDS. Other critical gaps exist in relation to grain market prices and
livestock sales: currently there is no systematic collection of these critical data. In addition,
certain data contradict each other. The most serious aspect of this is the wide divergence
found between MAFS, BOS and FAO crop estimates. Finally, there is currently no explicit
monitoring of progress towards development goals related to food security (e.g the MDG No.
1 on reducing hunger).

Linkages between food security and related areas: Food insecurity is closely linked
to poverty. It is thus essential that strong information system links are established between
food security and poverty monitoring in future. Similarly, strong links should be established
with nutrition surveillance systems. Currently, the FNCO is rolling out a National Nutrition
Surveillance System. The NNSS covers four districts and there are plans to cover the re-
maining six by the end of 2005. The NNSS is severely constrained by lack of capacity, how-
ever. Whilst it was intended that quarterly nutrition monitoring reports would be issued on a
quarterly basis from 2003, to date, only one report has been published.

Policy Actions:
In line with the issues highlighted, policy actions are required in three areas:
 Emergency food insecurity information
 Longer term food security monitoring
 Linking food security information systems with nutrition and poverty monitoring.

Emergency food security information: The following actions are required:

 The position of Chair of the LVAC should become an established one within Govern-
ment, and the LVAC constitution and five year plan should be validated by Govern-
ment.
 The LVAC methodology will be modified so that it produces information that allows
chronic food insecurity to be distinguished from acute, and so that it can give a better
indication of HIV/AIDS related vulnerability.
 The LVAC outputs will be modified so that the findings are readily accessible and un-
derstandable at district level.

58
  The LVAC will be supported to enable it to introduce market analysis into vulnerability
assessment methodology. This will enable better informed decisions to be made as to
whether cash based or food based interventions are more appropriate in food crises.

In addition, urgent consideration needs to be given to the capacity and the correct institu-
tional home for the NEWU. Currently, the Unit is not performing satisfactorily. Whether it can
and should be strengthened and remain in DMA, or whether it should be moved to MAFS
and strengthened is a key question that will have to be resolved quickly by MAFS and DMA.
In reaching this decision, it should be noted that the core mandate of the NEWU is to provide
early warning of shocks which affect food security (REVIEW).

Longer term food security monitoring: Owing to the strong conceptual and analytical links be-
tween emergency and longer term food security monitoring, and mindful of the current lacuna
in longer-term monitoring, it would be preferable if the mandate of the LVAC was expanded
to cover the longer –term issues and links into poverty monitoring. If this is done, then hous-
ing the LVAC secretariat within DMA as is currently the case becomes highly questionable. It
would make more sense to relocate the secretariat to the MAFS and have it linked closely
with the new FSPU.
Linkages with poverty monitoring and nutrition monitoring: The proposed FSPU working with
the LVAC will take responsibility for making sure that the information links with poverty and
nutrition monitoring are robust. For food security - nutrition linkages, this will involve har-
monisation of sampling methodologies used by the LVAC with those in the NNSS. Further-
more, the FNCO will need to be strengthened in order for the NNSS to operate properly. GoL
will continue to work with development partners – UNICEF in particular – to achieve this. For
food security – poverty linkages, the LVAC will enter into dialogue with the MFDP to establish
information links between the food security and poverty monitoring systems. It is envisaged
that food security and livelihood outputs produced through the LVAC will be critical analytical
inputs for the poverty monitoring system and will contribute to general PRS monitoring (i.e.
monitoring beyond the indicators identified in the Food Security chapter of the PRS).

Stakeholders

MAFS and DMA to resolve the issue of NEWU and LVAC institutional home immediately.
The LVAC to develop an action plan for addressing the methodological issues noted above,
in line with the existing 5 year plan and supported by the Regional VAC (based at SADC
Headquarters in Gaberone). The work done by SADC and NGOs such as CARE should be
used to adapt the LVAC methodology.

59
 Chapter 4:
Institutional Framework

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Food security is an issue that cuts across sectors and all levels from intra-household to na-
tional and international. In order to reflect these facets in policy implementation, the institu-
tional framework for food security in Lesotho must have the following characteristics:
 Collaboration and coordination: Ensured involvement, collaboration and close co-
ordination of relevant ministries and other stakeholders at central and district levels
 Information exchange: among all stakeholders
 Responsiveness: to the needs of different districts, communities and types of
household
 Involvement and briefing of high level decision makers.

Moreover, the institutional structure should build on existing structures, not duplicate, and it
should be practical and implementable. This means that it should avoid creation of large and
totally new structures, except where these are unavoidable.

With these principles in mind, the following chapter sets out the institutional framework for
the implementation of the Food Security Policy and Strategy for Lesotho.

4.2 NATIONAL LEVEL

At national level, two existing committees shall be strengthened, and one new unit shall be
created. The committees are:

 The Inter- Ministerial Steering Committee.

 The Stakeholder Technical Committee.

 At the MAFS, a Food Security Policy Unit (FSPU) shall be established.

MAFS shall assume a co-ordinating role in respect of other Ministries.

Figure 8 depicts the proposed organisational structure and the relevant institutional linkages.

60
Figure 8: Proposed Institutional Set-up and Linkages

IMSC

Other PSs*

PS PRS

BOS
MAFS
STC
FSPU NAC
Other MAFS
Depts
Existing LVAC
stakeholders

Other Minis-
NEWU DMA FNCO (NNSS) tries

* It is envisaged that the PS MAFS will brief other PSs on a regular basis

4.2.1 Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee (IMSC).

Currently, there is an Agricultural Cabinet Sub-Committee, formerly known as the Famine

Relief Sub-Committee. The original mandate of this committee was to outline the food and
non-food requirements for the country in the context of the 2002 food emergency. It will be
re-vitalised under this policy and its new mandate will be to:
 Provide guidance in setting policy priorities
 Provide guidance in mobilising and allocating resources
 Ensuring policy coordination and evaluation of policy measures
 Initiating policy adjustments as necessary.

The IMSC will meet on a quarterly basis. It shall be chaired by the Minister of Agriculture and
Food Security and include the Ministers of the following Ministries:
Ministry of Finance and Development Planning
Ministry of Labour and Employment
Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation
Ministry of Trade, Industry, Cooperatives and Marketing
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare
Ministry of Local Government
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Prime Minister‘s Office

The office of the PS, MAFS shall be the secretariat for the IMSC.

61
4.2.2 The Stakeholder Technical Committee (STC).

There is currently a committee called the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Food Security. This
was established to guide the development of the Food Security Policy. It consists of middle
level technical staff from the following institutions:
 Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (Chair)
 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (Secretariat)
 Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation
 Ministry of Industry Trade Cooperatives and Marketing
 Disaster Management Authority
 Food and Nutrition Coordinating Office
 Food Management Unit
 Lesotho Chambers of Commerce and Industry
 Lesotho Council of NGOs

This committee will be re-named as the Stakeholder Technical Committee (STC), and will be
expanded to include: International NGOs, UN agencies, donor agencies, Traditional Authority
and the private sector. The Secretariat functions will be performed by the Food Security Pol-
icy Unit (FSPU) in MAFS. The objectives of the STC will include:
 Inter-agency coordination, to promote synergy effects and avoid duplication;
 Clarification of technical and organizational issues in strategy implementation;
 Initiation of studies to be undertaken and assessment of the results of such studies;
 Reviews of the food security situation; to be able to do so, the STC shall receive up-
dates and evaluation reports of ongoing food security programmes;
 Establishment of special task forces or working groups on issues of particular impor-
tance;
 Monitoring of the programmes and interventions of the different agencies;
 Making recommendations for improving programme design and implementation.

The STC will meet once every two months for the duration of this policy. Further meetings
may be convened if required.

4.2.3 The Role of MAFS and the Food Security Policy Unit (FSPU)

According to its food security mandate, MAFS will assume an overall coordinating role in
food security matters. Furthermore, within its conventional mandate, MAFS is responsible for
all fields of agricultural development contributing to access, availability and stability.

Figure 9: Mandates for Food Security Policy Areas

Coordination
MoW, MTICM FMU, MTICM MAFS MHSW, DMA FNCO,
FNCO, NAC MHSW
Employment Commercial Agricultural
SMME, Imports, development Transfers,
Marketing, for Access, Social Food
Food Aid
Processing, Food Stocks Availability, Protection, Utilisation
Trade Pro- Stability Emergency
motion Response

NOTE: The diagram shows the main Ministerial / Departmental areas only. Other Ministries will also
be involved

62
In order to comply with its mandate for food security, MAFS will establish a Food Security
Policy Unit (FSP). The FSP has two basic functions:

a. To coordinate implementation of the policy at technical level.

b. To be the hub of food security and vulnerability information in Lesotho.

The FSPU will report directly to the PS, and will also act as secretariat for the STC.
Terms of reference of the FSPU will include the following:
 Advice in food security policy issues
 Coordination with stakeholders
 Preparing project proposals
 Receiving and reviewing monitoring reports of food security programmes and projects
 Ensuring that food security concerns are well reflected in other policies and pro-
grammes
 Creating and managing a data bank on food security interventions
 Preparing sensitation material for the stakeholders at district and community level
 Preparing quarterly reports on the implementation and progress of the food security
policy.

4.3 DISTRICT LEVEL

In line with GoL‘s policy of decentralisation, district level authorities will be actively involved in
implementing the Food Security Policy. The role of the district level will evolve as greater
power and financial autonomy is devolved to this level over the coming years.

For co-ordination of food security interventions at district level, District Food Security Coordi-
nating Committees (DFSCCs) shall be established. These will include many of the same in-
stitutions as the existing District Disaster Management Teams (DDMTs), co-ordinated by
DMA at district level. Each DFSCC shall consist of at least the following:
The District Secretary (Chair)
The District Agricultural Officer (Secretary)
The District Health and Social Welfare Officer
The District Disaster Management Officer
The District Forestry Officer
INGO representatives
Local NGO representatives
Donor agencies as appropriate
UN agencies as appropriate
Local Civil Society Organisations (Church groups, Farmers‘ groups, etc)
Local Traditional Authorities

The role of the DFSCC will mimic that of the STC at central level. The DFSCC will be chaired
by the DS, with the DAO‘s office acting as the secretariat. The DAO will be responsible for
circulating the minutes of meetings and decisions made to the FSPU in Maseru. The Com-
mittee will meet on a monthly basis.

4.4 SUB – DISTRICT LEVEL

At the sub –district level, the two key institutions are the (Interim) Community Councils and
the traditional village level structures of village chiefs and their advisers. As many of the food
security interventions in the policy are implemented at community level, it is critical that
Community Councils and Village Authorities play a central mobilising role. In order to assist

63
them, the FSPU will work with the DFSCCs to develop sensitisation materials and techniques.
The DFSCCs, led by the DAOs will then be responsible for carrying these messages to the
communities for discussion and dialogue.

4.5 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS (CSOS)

CSOs, such as farmers‘ associations, church groups, women‘s and youth organizations, will
be expected to play an important role in implementing the Food Security Policy.

In particular, involvement of CSOs is important with regard to:

 Advocacy, articulating the interests and needs of their members,
 Sensitisation of their members and launching public campaigns on relevant food se-
curity issues (e.g. child nutrition, consumption habits, crop diversification, hygiene,
home gardening, etc.)
 Making proposals for projects and programmes to address the needs and interests of
their members,
 Setting priorities,
 Mobilising and organising their members for action,
 Monitoring the implementation and impacts of food security interventions.

4.6 UN ORGANISATIONS AND DONORS

The implementation of the Food Security Strategy will largely depend on contributions by UN
Agencies and bilateral donors with regard to:
 Policy support,
 Material assistance,
 Technical assistance.

In order to ensure their continued support, it is necessary that the UN Organisations and do-
nors are actively involved in the process of policy dialogue as well as in the design, imple
and donor membership of the STC and / or one or more of the DFSCCs.

4.7 NGOS

NGOs have played a key role in rural livelihoods in Lesotho for many years and are expected
to make substantial contributions towards the achievement of national food security objec-
tives, particular in the following fields:
 Advocacy and awareness creation on food security issues on the international and
national scene,
 Mobilisation and provision of material resources,
 Technical assistance,
 Training and capacity building; INGOs also to provide capacity building for local
NGOs in project planning, management, monitoring and technical fields,
 Community mobilisation.

A particular strength of NGOs is expertise in community based approaches and the ability to
try innovative approaches.

As for UN organisations and donors, both local and international NGOs will be represented
on the STC and / or the DFSCCs..

64
4.8 THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Effective implementation of the Food Security Policy depends on an active involvement of

the private sector, particularly in the following fields:
 Input supply,
 Marketing,
 Imports and exports,
 Transport,
 Rural and urban micro-credit schemes
 Food processing,
 Commercial farming,
 Design and construction of infrastructure projects,
 Consulting and training services in organisational development, business management
and technical matters.

In the past, the private sector has been discouraged in relation to various aspects of food se-
curity in Lesotho. This cannot and will not be allowed to continue. As such, the private sector
will be encouraged actively to participate in the implementation of various policy fields in
ways outlined in chapter 3 above. Private sector organisations will also be full members of
the STC and the DFSCCs as appropriate.

65
 Chapter 5
Monitoring and Evaluation

5.1 OBJECTIVES OF AN M & E SYSTEM FOR FOOD SECURITY

The M & E System will serve the following purposes:

 To provide the Government and other stakeholder with up-to-date information on the
state of implementation of the Food Security Policy;
 to assess whether the implementation of the policy is on track towards attaining the
planned food security objectives;
 to identify flaws in the design or implementation of the strategy, if they occur, which
need to be corrected to ensure effective policy implementation, and
 to make proposals for respective policy adjustments.

5.2 M & E INSTRUMENTS

The following instruments will be applied in performing the M & E tasks at policy level: 38
1) A Logical Framework (Logframe) analysis for the Food Security Policy including a set
of indicators which allow the assessment of progress, achievements and impacts.
2) A data bank of all relevant food security interventions.

The Logframe analysis is a suitable tool to

 establish a clear hierarchy of objectives,
 clarify cause-effect relationship between the objectives at the various levels,
 select appropriate indicators for measuring progress towards achievement of the ob-
jectives at the different levels,
 show the sources of data to be used in measuring the indicators, and
 identify given conditions and factors which are relevant for the achievement of the
policy objectives but cannot be influenced by the policy measures (assumptions).
Changes in such conditions also need to be monitored.

As a first step for implementing the Food Security Policy, a draft policy logical framework
shall be worked out. It is very important to note that the logframe is not a blue print that is ‗set
in stone‘ for the duration of the policy. It needs to be reviewed and where necessary adjusted
on a regular basis. This is important in respect of all aspects of the logframe.

The establishment of a data bank of all relevant planned and ongoing programmes and pro-
jects will enable policy makers (IMSC, STC) to keep track of the food security interventions
and facilitate coordination.

5.3 SETTING-UP AN M & E SYSTEM FOR FOOD SECURITY

The setting-up of an M & E System shall be guided by the following principles:

 M & E should be performed at all levels of strategy implementation and by the differ-
ent stakeholders (Government. NGOs and other implementing organisations).

38
M & E at the programme and project level will be done according to the established monitoring pro-
cedures of the agencies concerned with implementation.

66
  Monitoring activities by different organisations need to be comparable e.g. with re-
gards to indicators used, monitoring methods applied, structure of reports, reporting
timeframe. Ensuring that this happens will be one of the core responsibilities of the
FSPU.
 The monitoring reports will be presented to the STC and the IMSC.
 While the implementing organizations are responsible for monitoring at field level, the
STC and the IMSC will monitor progress towards achievement of the specific objec-
tives and the overall goal of food security.

Owing to the critical importance of food security to poverty and vice versa, close links will be
established with the emerging Poverty Monitoring System (PMS) for the PRS. Indeed, M&E
of the Food Security Policy may become part of the PMS. The responsibility for strengthen-
ing the links between food security and poverty monitoring will rest with the FSPU, and the
FIVAC in particular.

67
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69
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