Induction Healing of Porous Asphalt
Quantao Liu, Erik Schlangen, and Martin van de Ven
Research on the induction healing of porous asphalt is summarized. Steel
wool is added to porous asphalt concrete to make it electrically conduc-
tive and suitable for induction heating. When microcracks occur in the
material, an induction generator is used to heat the material to close the
cracks by the high-temperature self-healing of bitumen. The electrical
resistance and induction heating speed of porous asphalt concrete rein-
forced with steel wool are examined. Porous asphalt concrete containing
steel wool is found to be electrically conductive and can be heated with
induction energy. The mechanical properties of this porous asphalt are
also studied. Steel wool can reinforce porous asphalt concrete by increas-
ing its strength, particle loss (raveling) resistance, and fatigue resistance.
Furthermore, the induction healing effect of this porous asphalt con-
crete reinforced with steel wool is evaluated. It is proved that the fatigue
life of induction-healing porous asphalt can be extended significantly by
the application of induction heating. It is also found that the optimal
heating temperature for the best healing effect is 85°C. These findings
indicate that the self-healing potential of porous asphalt concrete and the
durability of porous asphalt pavement are improved by induction heating.
Finally, a test section was paved on the Dutch A58 motorway with a porous
asphalt layer containing steel wool. Because asphalt concrete exhibits
better self-healing at higher temperatures, the future for the application
of induction-healing porous asphalt concrete appears to be promising.
Porous asphalt concrete is used extensively as a surface wearing
material to reduce traffic noise on Dutch motorways. Now, nearly
90% of Dutch motorway networks are surfaced with a porous asphalt
wearing course (1). The open nature of porous asphalt concrete can
reduce traffic noise by 3 to 4 dB (2, 3). Porous asphalt also reduces
spray and splash and prevents aquaplaning under wet conditions (4, 5).
However, porous asphalt is not durable. Compared with dense-graded
asphalt mixtures, the service time of porous asphalt is much shorter
(6). Loss of particles from the road surface, called raveling, is the
dominant defect of porous asphalt surface layers (7). Raveling has
a negative influence on noise reduction and comfort and determines
the maintenance strategy (8). Therefore, to improve the durability of
porous asphalt layers, raveling should be prevented.
Asphalt concrete is a self-healing material. Asphalt concrete can
restore its stiffness and strength when subjected to rest periods.
The self-healing capability of asphalt concrete has been shown in
laboratory tests and in the field since the 1960s (9–13). Bazin and
Saunier found that asphalt concrete beams tested until failure under
uniaxial tensile loads could recover 90% of their original resistance
when they were left to rest under pressure at a temperature of 25°C
(9). Meanwhile, the authors also found that fatigue-damaged beam
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2600
GA Delft, Netherlands. Corresponding author: Q. Liu, Quantao.liu@tudelft.nl.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2305, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2012, pp. 95–101.
DOI: 10.3141/2305-10
95
samples could regain more than one-half of the original fatigue life
after a 1-day rest period was introduced to the failed samples and the
crack faces were pressed together with light pressure during this rest
period. The recovery of both strength and fatigue life demonstrated
healing induced by rest periods.
Later, more laboratory experiments were done to study the strength
recovery and the fatigue life extension of an asphalt mixture when
rest periods were introduced to the loading. Laboratory experi-
ments done by Van Dijk et al. (10), Castro and Sánchez (11), and
Little and Bhasin (12) demonstrate that the fatigue life of an asphalt
mixture can be extended when rest periods are introduced in the
normally continuous loading test. Asphalt concrete also was healed
in field experiments; Williams et al. used surface wave measure-
ment to assess the stiffness of a pavement before, immediately after,
and 24 h after loading passes. The stiffness recovered completely
after 24 h of rest (14). It was also reported by many researchers
that cracks observed in winter disappeared in summer. As a conse-
quence, healing plays an important role in the shift factor required
to translate the laboratory fatigue life to the in situ fatigue life (15).
It is well known that the self-healing of asphalt concrete is a tem-
perature-dependent phenomenon. A high temperature has a positive
effect on healing and shortens the recovery response (16–18). Grant
concludes that healing is almost immediate at high temperatures (16);
Kim and Roque show that asphalt concrete heals better at higher
temperatures (18).
This research examines the potential of asphalt concrete to heal
the microcracks inside at high temperatures, restore its mechanical
properties, and prevent raveling by induction healing. The idea of
induction healing is to activate the self-healing capacity of porous
asphalt concrete at high temperatures via induction heating. To
make induction heating work, steel wool is added to the porous
asphalt mixture to make it electrically conductive and suitable
for induction heating. When microcracks occur in porous asphalt,
induction heating is applied to the material to increase the tempera-
ture; microcracks can be closed through the high-temperature heal-
ing of the bitumen (diffusion and flow). Closure of the microcracks
prevents the formation of macrocracks and, in the end, raveling. The
induction healing concept is discussed in detail elsewhere (19–21).
Induction heating can heat the mortar locally to heal cracks inside
rather than heating the stones, whereas other heating methods (e.g.,
infrared heating) will heat all the materials. Induction heating can
use less energy than other heating methods because induction heat-
ing tends to heat only the conductive mortar. The objective of this
paper is to summarize research on the induction healing of porous
asphalt concrete.
Materials and Experiments
A Dutch porous asphalt mixture PA 0/16 with 5.2% (by mass) bitumen
was used as a reference mixture in this research. Type 00 steel wool
was directly incorporated during mixing to make the mixture suitable
96
for induction heating. This steel wool had a density of 7.6 g/cm3, a
length of 9.5 mm, and a diameter of 8.89 to 12.7 µm. Porous asphalt
cylinders (Φ100 mm × 50 mm) and beams (50 × 50 × 450 mm3) were
prepared with these materials.
Experiments have proven that induction healing works in porous
asphalt concrete. First, the electrical resistance and induction heat-
ing speed of the samples containing steel wool were studied. Then,
particle loss, indirect tensile strength, and fatigue tests were done to
determine the effects of steel wool on the mechanical properties of
porous asphalt concrete. Finally, the induction healing effect of this
porous asphalt concrete was evaluated in a four-point bending test.
Electrical Resistance Test
The electrical resistance of porous asphalt cylinders containing dif-
ferent contents of steel wool was measured with a resistance tester.
Two copper plate electrodes connecting with the resistance tester
were placed at both ends of the sample to measure the electrical
resistance. A light pressure was applied to the copper electrodes
to obtain good contact with the surface of the sample. The con-
tact resistance between the two electrodes was about 0.4 Ω, which
was negligible compared with the resistance values measured
(>100 kΩ). After resistance was measured, electrical resistivity was
calculated according to Ohm’s second law, given in
RS
ρ= (1)
L Norm EN 12697-23. After testing, indirect tensile strengths of the
where
ρ = electrical resistivity,
R = measured resistance (Ω),
S = electrode conductive area (m2), and
L = internal electrode distance (m).
Induction Heating Test
To check whether the cylinder samples with steel wool could be
heated with induction energy, the induction heating experiment was
performed by using an induction heating generator with a capacity
of 50 kW at a frequency of 70 kHz (Figure 1). The distance between
the coil of the induction machine and the top surface of the heat-
FIGURE 1   Induction heating generator.
Transportation Research Record 2305
ing sample was about 20 mm. Samples were induction heated for
3 min. During heating, a 640- × 480-pixel full-color infrared camera
was used to record and analyze the temperature variations of the
samples.
Particle Loss Test
One main disadvantage of porous asphalt is particle loss. The Can-
tabro test was used to evaluate the particle loss resistance of porous
asphalt containing steel wool. This test was done at 21.5°C in a
Los Angeles abrasion machine without steel balls according to the
European Norm EN 12697-17. The weight of each specimen was
determined initially (W1), before being placed into a Los Angeles
drum, and after 300 revolutions of the drum (W2) to determine the
weight loss during testing. This weight loss (PL) is an indication of
particle loss (raveling) resistance. Test results were expressed as a
percentage of weight loss from the initial weight, given as
W1 − W2
PL = × 100 (2)
W1
Indirect Tensile Strength Test
The indirect tensile strength of the cylinders was investigated at
5°C. The strength was determined at a vertical displacement rate of
50 mm/min until peak load was reached, according to the European
samples were calculated from
2F
ITS = (3)
πDH
where
ITS = indirect tensile strength (Pa),
F = total applied vertical load at failure (N),
D = diameter of specimen (m), and
H = specimen height (m).
Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test
The fatigue resistance of reference samples and samples containing
2.54% steel wool (mass content in the mixture) was studied with
the indirect tensile fatigue test for its simplicity. The load-controlled
fatigue tests were done at four load levels at 5°C in a continuous sinu-
soidal load test at 8 Hz according to European Norm EN 12697-24.
The fatigue test ran until failure of the sample. Some signs of per-
manent deformation were still evident at the loading areas of the
sample at such a low temperature. After testing, the fatigue life of
the sample at each loading level and the regression fatigue lines of
these two mixtures were determined according to
Nf = k σ − n (4)
where
Nf = number of loading cycles to fatigue,
k and n = regression constants, and
σ = horizontal tensile stress at center of specimen.
Liu, Schlangen, and van de Ven 97

Induction Healing in Four-Point Bending 1.0E+11

Fatigue Test

Electrical resistivity (Ω m)
To evaluate the healing effect via induction heating, the extra
1.0E+09
fatigue life of fatigue-damaged porous asphalt concrete beams
with different heating and resting temperatures was investigated
in a four-point bending fatigue test. Four-point bending fatigue was
used instead of indirect tensile fatigue to void permanent deforma- 1.0E+07
tion during fatigue and better simulate traffic loading on pavement.
The original fatigue lives of the beams were measured in a strain-
controlled fatigue test at 300 microstrain and 8 Hz at 20°C in a 1.0E+05
four-point bending fatigue test. The fatigue tests were stopped at
one-half the stiffness. After the fatigue test, the beams were induc-
tion heated to 70°C, 85°C, or 100°C and rested at 20°C for 18 h or
1.0E+03
directly rested at 20°C or 5°C for 18 h. The rest period durations 0 1 2 3 4 5
were chosen for simplicity. Finally, the extra fatigue lives of the
Steel wool content (%)
healed beams were measured again at the same microstrain. The
fatigue life extension ratio (i.e., extra fatigue life divided by original FIGURE 2   Resistivity versus steel wool content.
fatigue life) was used to quantify healing for simplicity.
The possibility of multiple instances of induction heating also was
examined to show that induction heating could be repeated when
cracks return after healing. A strain amplitude of 300 microstrain
(the so-called percolation threshold), the continuous steel wool in
at a frequency of 8 Hz was applied to the porous asphalt concrete
the sample forms the first conductive paths for electrons passing
beams for 50,000 cycles. Then, samples were directly rested for
through (22, 23). Beyond the percolation threshold, the conductive
18 h or induction heated to 85°C and rested for 18 h for the first time.
network develops and spreads gradually in three dimensions with
After that, another 50,000 cycles of fatigue loading were applied to
the increased steel wool content, so adding more steel wool causes
the beams, followed by a second rest alone or a heating and rest-
a sharp decrease of the electrical resistivity. When the steel wool
ing process. The damaging, heating-and-resting, and redamaging
content reaches 3.81%, steel wool fibers contact each other in all
process was repeated four times. Finally, the beam fatigue life was
directions, and many conductive networks and passages are formed,
measured. Results of computed tomography (CT) scanning proved
corresponding to a low value of resistivity at which adding more
that the heating and reheating process does not cause drainage of
steel wool no longer reduces the resistivity. Therefore, 3.81% is the
binder at 85°C.
optimal steel wool content to make the mixture conductive.
All the beams used in this research were prepared with 1.27%
steel wool; the same composition was used for the mixture of an
induction healing test section of porous asphalt. A low steel wool
Induction Heating Speed
content (instead of the optimal content) was used for the test section
to solve the mixing problem and reduce the cost. An infrared camera image of the sample is presented in Figure 3 to
illustrate how induction heating was studied. The mean tempera-
ture increase at the top surface of the sample was calculated with
Results and Analysis infrared camera software and used as an indication of induction
heating speed.
Electrical Resistance
Figure 4 illustrates the temperature increase at the top surface of
Figure 2 shows the change in electrical resistivity of the samples as the sample during induction heating. Plain samples cannot be heated
a function of steel wool content (by mass of the reference mixture). with an induction generator; adding steel wool to porous asphalt
Three stages are observed in the electrical resistivity curve: high makes it suitable for induction heating. The samples with a higher
resistivity, exhibiting insulating behavior with resistances higher steel wool content heat more quickly, but the heating speed (i.e.,
than 109 ohm-meters (Ω-m); transit, when the electrical resistivity of temperature increase over a certain time during induction heating)
samples decreases sharply from 109 to 104 Ω-m; and low resistivity, is maximized at a steel wool content of 3.81%. Therefore, 3.81% is
exhibiting conductive behavior with a resistance of 104 Ω-m. the optimal steel wool content to obtain the highest heating speed
To understand how steel wool makes porous asphalt concrete of 0.80°C/s.
electrically conductive, consider the conductive steel wool fibers as Compared with the electrical resistivity curve in Figure 2, the
electron paths. When a small amount of steel wool is added to the samples do not need to be fully conductive for induction heating.
mixture, the fibers are uniformly distributed in the porous asphalt Every single steel wool fiber is a heating unit, so samples with a
concrete samples and completely isolated from each other, so the small amount of steel wool also can be heated with induction but
electrons cannot travel through the steel wool, having a similar at a much lower speed. Electrical resistivity also is important to the
resistivity to that of a plain sample without steel wool. When more heating speed; optimal conductivity corresponds to optimal heat-
steel wool is added to the mixture, the fibers start to contact each ing speed. It was also noted in the experiment that the sample with
other; electrons can travel from one fiber to another, causing a grad- the higher conductivity can be heated more homogenously at the
ual increase in the electrical conductivity and a gradual decrease sample surface because the steel wool distributes heat more evenly
in the electrical resistivity. If the steel wool content reaches 2.54% in the conductive samples.
98 Transportation Research Record 2305

84.5°C

80

70

60

50

40

30

20.7°C

FIGURE 3   Induction heating image of sample.

Particle Loss Resistance
Figure 5 shows the effect of steel wool content on the particle loss
resistance of porous asphalt concrete, where the average value of
five measurements is shown for each steel wool content. The par-
ticle loss of plain porous asphalt concrete samples is 14.84%. The
particle loss of porous asphalt concrete decreases with increased
steel wool content and then reaches a minimum after which adding
more steel wool results in increased particle loss. Moderate steel
wool reinforces the mastic, but too much steel wool reduces the
bitumen film thickness, thus leading to poor cohesion between the
mastic components. The minimum particle loss value is 8.01% at a
steel wool content of 2.54%. Therefore, 2.54% is the optimal steel
wool content to obtain best particle loss resistance in porous asphalt
concrete. In terms of durability, porous asphalt concrete containing
steel fiber used for induction heating is expected to have good par-
ticle loss resistance in itself, which can delay raveling. For this rea-
son, 2.54% is considered to be the optimal content of Type 00 steel
wool for this induction heating application.
Indirect Tensile Strength
Figure 6 illustrates the indirect tensile strength of porous asphalt
samples with different steel wool contents, where the average value
of three measurements is shown for each percentage. The indi-
rect tensile strength of a plain porous asphalt concrete sample is
2.06 MPa. The indirect tensile strength of porous asphalt concrete
can be increased by adding steel wool, but adding too much results
in decreased strength. This finding coincides with the results of par-

180 17
1.27% steel wool
160
2.54% steel wool
140 15
3.17% steel wool
Temperature (°C)

Particle loss (%)

120 3.81% steel wool

4.44% steel wool 13
100

80
11
60

40 9
20

0 7
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 1 2 3 4 5
Heating time (s) Steel wool content (%)

FIGURE 4   Temperature increase during induction heating. FIGURE 5   Particle losses of samples.
Liu, Schlangen, and van de Ven 99

3.2 high tensile stress levels because damage develops rapidly in it. The
fatigue life of porous asphalt concrete containing 2.54% Type 00
3 steel wool is much longer, which indicates that these samples can
resist higher fatigue loading without developing damage due to
2.8 fatigue failure. The improved mechanical properties (i.e., particle
loss resistance, indirect tensile strength, and fatigue resistance) of
ITS (MPa)

2.6 porous asphalt concrete indicate that adding steel wool to porous
asphalt for induction heating purposes also reinforces it, which
2.4
definitely will prevent or delay the formation of microcracks in the
sample. As a result, raveling also will be delayed.
2.2

2
1.8
0 1 2 3 4 5
Steel wool content (%)
FIGURE 6   Indirect tensile strength (ITS) of samples.
ticle loss testing: Moderate amounts of fiber reinforce the mastic,
but too much can lead to poor cohesion between the mastic compo-
nents, resulting in decreased strength. The maximum indirect tensile
strength of a sample reinforced with steel wool is 3.02 MPa with
an optimal steel wool content of 2.54%. This optimal percentage is
the same as that required for best particle loss resistance of porous
asphalt concrete because low temperature, indirect tensile strength,
and particle loss reflect the cohesive strength of asphalt mortar.
Indirect Tensile Fatigue Resistance
Figure 7 compares the indirect tensile fatigue lines of two mixtures:
one without steel wool and one with 2.54% steel wool (optimal
content for best particle loss resistance and strength). Porous asphalt
concrete with 2.54% steel wool has better fatigue resistance than
plain porous asphalt concrete. At the same tensile stress levels, sam-
ples containing 2.54% steel wool have longer fatigue lives, which
means that fatigue damage develops more slowly than in plain sam-
ples. It takes a short time to break plain porous asphalt concrete at
Induction Healing Effect in Four-Point
Bending Test
Figure 8 illustrates how fatigue life extension changes as a func-
tion of resting and heating temperature. The fatigue life extension
ratio of the beams (healing) is highly dependent on temperature;
the ratio is low at a low resting temperature of 5°C and increases
with increased resting temperature. When the heating temperature
increases from 70°C to 85°C, healing improves strongly. The incre-
ment of fatigue life extension ratio is proof of induction healing.
After that, additional increases in heating temperature result in a
decreased fatigue life extension ratio. This decrease can be attrib-
uted to the geometry damage caused by overheating, where the
mortar swells because it cannot bear the excess expansion caused
by temperature increase. Results indicate that 85°C was the optimal
heating temperature for the best healing effect.
However, these healing effects are not complete. The first reason
why is that the temperature increment after induction heating is lim-
ited because the temperature decreases to the resting temperature of
20°C quickly in 2 h and only in the first 2 h. Another reason for the
limited increment of healing can be attributed to the temperature
gradient in the sample; the sample is fully damaged over its height,
but induction heating tends to heal only the damage in the top part
of the beam, where the temperature is much higher than in the lower
part after induction heating. The tendency of healing the surface
damage is just what is needed to prevent raveling. The subsequent
test section with the same material also can be expected to show a
good induction healing effect, resulting in better raveling resistance.

1.E+01 70
plain
Fatigue life extension ratio (%)

60
2.54% steel wool
50
y = 8.9108x-0.208
Load (Mpa)

R2 = 0.9715
40
1.E+00
30

20
y = 12.029x-0.2933
R2 = 0.9776
10

1.E-01 0
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Cycles to failure Rest temperature and heating temperature (°C)

FIGURE 7   Fatigue lines (at 5°C, 8 Hz) of reference sample and FIGURE 8   Fatigue life extension ratios of samples with different
sample with 2.54% steel wool. resting and heating temperatures.
 100
2.5E+03
Without rest periods
With rest periods
With rest periods and induction heating
Flexural stiffness (MPa)
2.0E+03
1.5E+03
1.0E+03
5.0E+02
0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05 2.0E+05 2.5E+05 3.0E+05
Fatigue loading cycles
FIGURE 9   Fatigue life extension of samples caused by multiple
instances of induction healing.
Figure 9 compares the original fatigue curve, modified fatigue
curve with natural healing, and modified fatigue curve for samples
with multiple instances of induction heating to show the fatigue
life extension caused by natural healing and induction heating. The
original fatigue life of the sample is 95,700 cycles. With rest periods
alone, the sample was fatigued after resting twice. The fatigue life
of the sample with natural healing is 149,860 cycles, thus showing a
fatigue life extension ratio of 56.7%. With four instances of damage
loading of 50,000 cycles followed by four instances of induction
heating and resting, the modified fatigue life is 277,720, which is
2.9 times the original fatigue life; the fatigue life extension ratio
was 190% in this case. Even though this research does not fully
optimize when to heat the pavement and heating frequency, multiple
instances of heating definitely can greatly extend the fatigue life of
porous asphalt concrete.
Test Section Application
In December 2010, a 400-m-long induction healing test section was
paved on the Dutch motorway A58 near Vlissingen, Netherlands
(Figure 10). The mixture used was the same as for the sample beams
used in this research: standard porous asphalt concrete PA 0/16 plus
FIGURE 10   Paving the induction healing test section of porous
asphalt.
Transportation Research Record 2305
1.27% steel wool. This lower steel wool content (instead of the opti-
mal 3.81% for fastest induction heating speed or 2.54% for best par-
ticle loss resistance and highest indirect tensile strength) was used to
solve a mixing problem. Adding 2.54% steel wool to the mixture at
the asphalt plant was not practical because the high amount of fibers
caused the formation of clusters, which can decrease the strength of
the asphalt concrete and cause the steel wool to corrode. To avoid
cluster formation, the steel wool content was reduced to 1.27%,
which also decreased the materials cost.
Cores were drilled from this test section, and no steel wool cor-
rosion was found. Experiments were performed on these cores to
predict the performance of this test section; results indicate that
cores in the test section have a higher particle loss resistance than
plain cores. At the same time, the project partner has developed a
large induction heating generator for real application on the road.
These cores can be heated with the new induction generator at a
speed of 3°C/s. With this heating speed, only 0.44 min of heating is
needed to heat the road from 5°C to 85°C. The pavement is expected
to be heated at 5 km/h with the new generator. Healing tests are
being done to evaluate the healing potential of these cores and to
determine the suitable starting time to apply induction heating on
the test section.
Conclusion
According to previous research, the addition of steel wool to porous
asphalt conveys two benefits. The first benefit is that the porous asphalt
concrete becomes suitable for induction heating. Porous asphalt
concrete containing steel wool can be heated quickly with an induc-
tion generator, the healing rate of the material (i.e., fatigue life
extension) is enhanced by induction heating, and microcracks in
the material can be closed by high-temperature healing of the bitu-
men as a result of induction heating. The second benefit is the rein-
forcement effect. Steel wool improves the particle loss resistance,
indirect tensile strength, and fatigue resistance of porous asphalt,
thereby delaying raveling and extending the pavement fatigue life.
Another advantage is increased drainage resistance during production
and construction, keeping the bitumen well in place.
Results of these findings indicate that raveling on the test section
with induction heating can be expected to be delayed.
Acknowledgments
The corresponding author acknowledges a scholarship from the
China Scholarship Council. Cooperation between Delft University
of Technology, Heijmans-Breijn, and SGS-Intron on this project is
appreciated. Work on the test section was financed by Rijkswaterstaat,
Ministry of Transport, Netherlands.
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The Flexible Pavement Design Committee peer-reviewed this paper.