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NOTES ON CRIMINALISTICS
POLYGRAPHY
Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph =
(writing chart) is a scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in
blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indicative of emotional
disturbance especially of a lying subject when being questioned.
Thomas Jefferson = firs person known who used the term Polygraph to described one
of his inventions
Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually
given with some justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the
low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the
middle of the diastolic stem.
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin
changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also
referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be
beyond a persons defensive power.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the
time he was conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their
offspring through the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to divulge
information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading
impression with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an
organism or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to
an obstacle or trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a
deviation from the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which
reach an organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve
caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
arteries.
Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an
earliest known reference to a method of detecting deception.
TYPES OF ORDEAL
1. Ordeal of Heat and Fire = in this test the suspect walked a certain distance, usually
nine feet, over red-hot plowshares or holding a red-hot iron.
2. Ordeal of Hot Water = this test requires that the water had to be boiled, and the
depth from which the stone had to be retrieved was up to the wrist for one accusation,
and up to the elbow for three or more accusations.
3. Ordeal of Boiling Oil = this ordeal was practiced in villages of India and certain parts
of West Africa.
4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal = the accused will be required to touch his tongue to an
extremely hot metal nine (9) times (unless burned sooner), Once his tongue is burned,
he will be adjudged guilty. In some country instead of hot iron, they used a hot needle to
tease the lips and once the lips bleed it is an indication of guilt.
5. Ordeal of Cold Water = this ordeal has a precedent in the Code of Ur-Nammu and
the Code of Hammurabi under which a man accused of sorcery was to be submerged in
a stream and acquitted if he survived.
= in 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with the witch-
hunts. Floating is an indication of witchcraft.
6. Ordeal of Rice Chewing = a method of detecting deception whereby an accused will
be required to take rice (to clergy bread or cheese).If the accused failed to swallow
even a single grain of concentrated rice he/she will be adjudged guilty.
7. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) = in this method the accused will be
required to run fast for twelve (12 hours), take a cap of rice and drink a dark colored
water (as much as one gallon).
8. Ordeal of the Cross = the accuse and the accuser stood on either side of a cross
and stretched out their hands horizontally. The one to first lower his arms lost.
9. The Test of the Axe = in Greece, a suspended axe was spine in the center of a
group of suspects, when the axe stopped, whosoever was in line with the blade was
supposed to be the guilty as pointed by divine providence.
10. The Test of the Candle = this ordeal was used in Burma, the accuser and accused
were each given identical candles and were lighted at the same time. The candle that
burns the longest determines which the truth.
11. Donkey’s tail (Ash tail) Ordeal = a method of ordeal where all accused persons
will be instructed to select a cage with a donkey, using a donkey’s tail they will strike the
donkey and whichever cries first will be adjudged guilty.
12. The “Hereditary Sieve” = Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this Ordeal in his famous
book on Criminal Investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of
each suspect was called. The deception criteria were described as follows--- “If the
bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of the name pronounced is innocent, if the bean
remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.
Daniel Defoe = wrote an essay entitled, “An Effectual Scheme for the Preventing of
Street Robberies and Suppressing all other Disorders of the Night”
Angelo Mosso = In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the
research of an Italian psychologist Angelo Mosso. He made used of an instrument
called plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear and its influence on the
heart and respiration.
= developed a scientific cradle
Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association Test using series of
irrelevant questions and relevant question separated in time.
B. Sticker = believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the
influence of the exciting mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon it.
= he made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.
Sir James Mackenzie = an English clinician and cardiologist, constructed the Clinical
Polygraph in 1892, an instrument to be used for medical examinations with the
capability to simultaneously record undulated line tracings of the vascular pulses (radial,
venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked paper.
In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devised
the Clinical Ink Polygraph with the help of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian
Shaw. This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-
marker movements and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were
easier to acquire and to interpret.
S. Veraguth = he is said to be the first person to use the term Psychogalvanic Reflex.
Veraguth was the first scientist to use the word association test with galvanometer.
= in 1907, he described his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions
that there was an ascending galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant
stimuli versus the rest curve on non-crucial stimuli.
Vittorio Benussi = in March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian Society for Psychology in Rome where he described how he record the
subject’s breathing patter using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted the changes in
inspiration-expiration ratio during deception.
= he also included recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection
of deception and probably the first person to record more than one physiological
response.
Dr. William M. Marston = in 1915 was credited as the creator of the systolic blood-
pressure test used in an attempt to detect deception during questioning, and using a
standard blood pressure cuff and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of the
pressure cuff to obtain readings at intervals during examination. This was called
Discontinuous Technique.
Harold Burtt = In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an
indication of deception.
= He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in
the detection of deception than the changes in blood pressure
Ruckmick = in 1936, the term Psychogalvanic Reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated
by Ruckmick and proposed the term Electrodermal Response.
John E. Reid = in 1950, he developed the Control Question which consist of a known
lie and incorporated it into the relevant/irrelevant technique.
= he developed a movement or activity sensor a means of recording arm and
leg movements
= Reid also developed the silent answer test and guilt-complex test to be
administered to overly responsive examinee
Cleve Backster = developed the psychological set theory and the anticlimax
dampening concept.
= he also developed and introduced the Quantification System of Chart
Analysis (Numerical Scoring) which permits the examiner to score the charts
numerically according to standard rules.
2. Physiological Leg Premise = that among the physiological responses that may be
recorded are those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific
nervous component system
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING
The Central Nervous System (CNS) = is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
All other nerve ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates into two:
The Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System.
Hypothalamus = is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire
endocrine-hormonal system.
Fight, flight, freeze = are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat,
sometimes simply called F3. The physiological responses concomitant to these
behaviors are the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of
energy, and narrowing attention and focus to the features of the threat.
Pen and Inking System = the one that provides for the permanent record of the test
Capillary Ink = a water based ink intended for polygraph instruments
1. Irrelevant Question = a question that has no connection with the matter under
investigation and deals with known facts that the subject cannot be denied. It is
designed to be emotionally neutral to examinees and usually answerable by “yes’. Also
called Neutral Question.
Characteristics of Irrelevant
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
2.No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect’s background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a ‘norm’ for
examinee, or throughout the examination as needed to reestablish norm pattern.
2. Symptomatic Question = is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un-
reviewed questions or that the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-
reviewed questions.
Examples:
n Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not
gone over word for word?
n Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this
test I have not gone over word for word?
4. Relevant Question = a question deals with the matter under investigation. Color
coded red in computerized instruments. It is designed to generate reactions from
deceptive subject.
Types of Relevant Question
a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) = addresses the primary issue or direct
involvement of the subject on the matter under question. It is use primarily with the
single-issue examination.
n Ex. Did you take that missing money?
b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) = deals with the physical acts that support
the primary issue. This is usually use in multi-issue examination.
n Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?
c. Guilty Knowledge = designed to probe whether the subject possesses information
regarding the identity of the offender or the facts of the case under question.
n Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
d. Evidence Connecting Question = test question in which the examinee is asked
about a particular piece of physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It
could be items left at the crime scene by the perpetrator or stolen property.
n Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?
5. Comparison Question = a question which is the same in nature with that of the
relevant question but broad in scope.
= is used for comparative purposes with the relevant question.
= designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.
b. Exclusive = a comparison question separated in time, place and category from the
relevant question. It was introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents
the guilty suspect from perceiving the comparison question as an ambiguous relevant
question.
Example:
n During the first __ years of your life, did you ever ____?
n Prior to 2009, did you ever _____ ?
n While in college ______?
n Between the ages of __ & __, did you ever _____?
Types of Polygraph Technique/Test
1. General Question Test = consist of series of relevant, irrelevant control questions in
a planned order. Developed by John E. Reid
3. Peak of Tension Test = consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant
questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of the
asking of a series of question in which only one has any bearing upon the matter under
investigation.
= padding questions before and after the relevant questions.
4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test = the subject is presented with
seven (7) previously numbered cards face down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of the
cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with the
instruction that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being shown to him is
the one he has seen earlier.
6. Silent Answer Test = Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject
will only answer in his mind.
7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) = the reactions on the control and relevant
questions are compared via numerical scoring
Polygraph Examiner = is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the
truthfulness of statement through the use of a polygraph instrument.
= is someone who has successfully completed formal education and training in
conducting polygraph examination and is certified by his agency to conduct such
examination.
Polygraph Examination = a process that encompasses all activities that take place
between a polygraph examiner and an examinee during a specific series of interactions.
For a valid polygraph examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and Cardiovascular activity
must be monitored and recorded.
2. ln-Test (Actual Test) = is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph
examiner
Conditions of the Room
n It should be spacious for two persons
n Well lighted
n Well ventilated
n Sound Proof
n Not decorated
a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner informs the subject that the test
is about to begin.
b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks when the examiner starts
asking question. Second vertical line marks when the examiner finishes asking
question.
c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject answers the question with
“yes”. This also indicates the period when the subject answers the question and
usually followed by a “number” indicating the order number of question, example
+3, +4, +5….)
d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers the stimulus with “no”. This
also indicates the period when the subject answers the question and usually
followed by a “number”.
2. Secondary Markings = are markings which are placed only if the examinee does
something which will cause the physiological tracings to distort. These markings are
usually placed below the affected tracing.
a. M – Movement
b. T – Talking
c. DB – Deep Breath
d. C – Cough
e. CT – Clear Throat
f. SW – Swallow
g. SNF – Sniff
h. Y – Yawn
i. SZ – Sneeze
j. LGH – Laugh
k. SLP – Sleep
l. B – Belch
m. OSN – Outside Noise
n. ISN – Inside Noise
o. EE – Examiner Error
p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question
q. MI – Movement Instruction
r. TI – Talking Instruction
s. AI – Answering Instruction
t. BI – Breathing Instruction
u. WU – Wake-Up
v. TDB – Take Deep Breath
GLOBAL ANALYSIS
In global analysis, the examiner looks for significant reactions that occur
repeatedly which is referred to as “Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the
consistency of reaction to a specific question with significant magnitude
n NUMERICAL SCORING
The numerical scoring is a method of rendering polygraph decisions that
are based exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological
responses recorded during a structured polygraph examination
Types of Validity
n Face Validity = opinion or consensus of experts
n Content Validity = selection of pertinent issues of inquiry
n Predictive Validity = ability to predict a future outcome
n Concurrent Validity = ability to identify what is already known
n Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant info
n Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas
n Construct Validity – meaningful defined and understandable relationships
(correlations) between various phenomena
n Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions
n Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy improves with the use of
additional information
Result Errors
n False Negative = refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event
or item.
= in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception was not practiced
by the examinee.
n False Positive = is the false detection of something that is not actually present.
In polygraphy
= it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the examinee.
Admissibility of Result
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. Many
polygraph examiners and lawyers have attempted presenting polygraph evidence in
court but all resulted to futile.
Philippines
n Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides that:
“The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special knowledge, skill,
experience or training which he shown to posses, may be received in evidence.”
U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE (First case in
Polygraphy)
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals - 1993 (U.S.)
Areas of Inquiry:
n the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested;
n whether it has been subjected to peer review and publication;
n its known or potential error rate;
n the existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation; and
n whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific
community.
In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in 1973, ruled that:
In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of polygraph results with
Rules of Evidence, which states that:
"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the opinion of a polygraph
examiner may in the discretion of the trial judge be admitted as evidence as to the
truthfulness of any person called as a witness if the examination was performed by a
person who is qualified as an expert polygraph examiner.”