BROADCASTING - refers to the airborne transmission of AM POWER CLASSIFICATION

electromagnetic audio signals (radio) or audio-visual signals 1. Maximum rated carrier power - the maximum power
(television) that are readily accessible to a wide population via at which the transmitter can be operated
standard receivers. satisfactorily and is determined by the design of the
transmitter.
PHILIPPINE AM RADIO CALLSIGN 2. Operating power - the power that is actually supplied
 Luzon - DZ to the radio station.
 Visayas - DY
 Mindanao – DX OPERATING SCHEDULE
1. 2/3 of the total hours that it is authorized to operate
Parameters Philippine International between 6AM to 6PM local standard time.
Standards Standards 2. 2/3 of the total hours that it is authorized to operate
Frequency Band 525 – 1705 kHz 535 – 1605 kHz between 6PM to midnight local standard time.
Number of 118 107
Channels PROGRAM LOG ENTRIES
Bandwidth per 9 kHz 10 kHz 1. An entry of the time each station identification
Channel announcement is made.
Channel Spacing 36 kHz 30 kHz 2. An entry briefly describing each program broadcast.
Center ± 20Hz ± 20Hz 3. An entry showing that each sponsored program
Frequency broadcast has been announced as sponsored.
Stability 4. An entry showing, for each program of network origin,
Baseband 50-15000kHz 50-15000kHz the name of the network originating the program.
Frequency
ITU Emission A3E A3E OPERATING LOG ENTRIES
Type 1. An entry of the time the station begins t supply power
Guardband 36 kHz 30 kHz to the antenna and the time it stops.
2. An entry of the time the program begins and ends.
Antenna Vertical Vertical
3. An entry of each interruption.
Polarization
4. An entry of the following every 30 minutes: Operating
Type of Superheterodyne Superheterodyne
constants and antenna current.
Receiver
Intermediate 455 kHz 455 kHz
ANTENNA DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Frequency
1. The transmitting antenna system shall be vertically
polarized and shall radiate an effective field of not
MAXIMUM POWER ALLOCATION
less than that of a 60-degree vertical radiator.
Area Low Band Mid Band High Band 2. The antenna, antenna lead-in, and counterpoise shall
(529-918 (919-1312 (1313-1705 be installed so as not to present hazard.
kHz) kHz) kHz) 3. The antenna towers must be painted orange and
Metro Manila 10 kW 20 kW 30 kW white, with equal width stripes. Each stripe must be
Metro Cebu 10 kW 20 kW 30 kW 1/7th of the antenna height with orange as the top
Other Areas 5 Kw 10 kW 15 kW stripe
4. Towers up to 150 ft must have two steady burning
SERVICE AREAS lamps at the top of the tower
1. Primary service area - the area in which the ground 5. Towers higher than 150 ft must have flashing lamps
wave field of 3.16mV/m (70dBu) is not subject to 6. Antenna ground should consist of buried radial wires
objectionable interference or objectionable fading. at least a quarter of a wavelength, evenly spaced and
2. Secondary service area - the area served by the should not be less than 90° (ideally 120°) at 0.35 – 0.4
skywave and not subject to objectionable of a wavelength in length
interference. The signal is subject to intermittent
variations in intensity. ANTENNA SITE CONSIDERATIONS
3. Intermittent service area - the area receiving service 1. Location in relation to the population to be served
from the ground wave but beyond the primary and to other installations and airports.
service area and subject to some interference and 2. Conductivity of the soil and adjacent area to the site.
fading. 3. Conductivity of the path between the site and the
target area.
BROADCASTING TIMES
1. Daytime - refers to that period of time between 2100 COVERAGE PATTERN for AM is based on the standard
GMT – 1000 GMT (5:00AM – 6:00PM local standard groundwave field strength pattern, the frequency of each
time). station, and the ground conductivity of the local area
2. Nighttime - refers to that period of time between Predicted groundwave propagation for each service area
1000-2100 GMT (6:00PM – 5:00AM local standard are as follows:
time). 1. Primary Service Area – 2.5 mV/m
3. Experimental Period - refers to that period of time 2. Secondary SA – 0.5 mV/m
between 1600 GMT -2100 GMT (12 midnight -5:00 3. Intermittent – 0.15 mV/m
AM local standard time).
TRANSMITTER DESIGN 1. Authorized frequency - the carrier frequency
Parameters Philippine Standards authorized by the National Telecommunications
Carrier Power Limits 10% of Full Power Commission (NTC).
Max. Modulation for 85% 2. Carrier wave - sinusoidal voltage or current
Satisfactory Operation generated in a transmitter and subsequently
Operating Frequency ± 10Hz of Assigned Freq. modulated by a modulating wave.
Limits 3. Carrier frequency - the frequency of the carrier wave.
Carrier Shift 5% 4. Carrier frequency stability – carrier shall remain
Carrier Hum and 45dB below 400Hz tone within ± 10 Hz from nominal frequency, level stability
Extraneous Noise Level of ± 5%
Total Audio Frequency <5% Harmonics at 0-84% 5. Maximum percentage of modulation - the greatest
Distortion modulation percentage of modulation that may be obtained by a
<7.5% Harmonics at 84- transmitter without producing in its output
85% modulation harmonics of the modulating frequency in excess of
those permitted by these regulations.
AM TRANSMITTERS 6. Modulation Depth – positive peak of the modulated
ALTERNATE MAIN TRANSMITTER – duplicate of main envelope shall be limited to a maximum of 125 %
transmitter; used in 24-hour scheduled stations to allow whereas the negative peak should be at 100%
operation and maintenance without interruption of programs 7. Percentage modulation (AM) - the ratio of half the
Considerations: difference between the maximum and minimum
1. The regular and alternate main transmitter to be co- amplitudes of the amplitude wave to the average
located in a single place amplitude expressed in percentage.
2. Both transmitters shall maintain the same parameters 8. Secondary station - a station operating on any one
especially with regards to authorized operating power, channel and is designed to render service over a
frequency stability, etc. primary service area which is limited by the subject to
such interference as may be received from a clear-
AUXILIARY TRANSMITTER – operates in case of failure of main channel station.
transmitter or during emergency 9. Spurious emission - the emission of any frequency
Considerations: outside of the assigned channel or authorized band of
1. May be installed either in the same location as the frequency and tolerances allowed by these
regular main transmitter or in another location. regulations.
2. Its operating power may be less but never greater 10. Total harmonic distortion (THD) - the effective value
than the authorized power of the regular main of the harmonic voltages present in the audio
transmitter. frequency output of the equipment under test.

There are 2 systems that transmitter use to maintain their
carrier frequency…
1. FIXED FREQUENCY SYSTEMS – transmitters commonly
use a resonant quartz crystal in a crystal oscillator to
maintain frequency
2. VARIABLE FREQUENCY SYSTEMS – an array of crystals
are used to enable the transmitter to be used on
several different frequencies. It is not fully variable,
but can be fixed into several predetermined
frequencies
i. Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO)
ii. Phase Locked Loop Frequency Synthesizer
iii. Direct Digital Synthesis
In adding modulating signals…
1. Systems operating up to 3 MHz use solid state
circuits
2. Systems operating above 3 MHz use valves
i. Plate AM Modulator – anode modulation using a
transformer; the anode sees the anode voltage as
audio voltage
ii. Screen AM Modulator – 40% more efficient
compared to PAM but consumes 25% more of the
TX’s full power (used in low power transmissions,
obsolete)
AM BROADCAST TERMINOLOGIES
TYPES OF AM STATIONS
1. CLASS A – unlimited time station, operating power
shall not be less than 10 kW or more than 50 kW
2. CLASS B – unlimited time station, minimum of 250 W
and maximum of 50 kW; if the Class B station
operates less than 250 W, RMS voltage must be equal
or greater than 141 mV/m at 1 km for the actual
power; if the station is authorized to operate in the
expanded band (1610 – 1700 kHz), the max power is
10 kW
3. CLASS C – unlimited time, operates on a local channel;
the power shall not be less than 0.25 kW or more
than 1 kW; license is required to operate within 0.1
kW
4. CLASS D – station operates either during daytime
(0.250 kW – 50 kW) or limited time; stations with
unlimited time should operate on less than 0.250 kW
and RMS antenna field less tham 141 mV/m at 1 km
of actual power
AM MODES
1. Double Sideband (DSB) – AM transmission making use
of the full AM Bandwidth
2. Single Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC) – used when it is
necessary to receive the audio in an AM receiver
while using less bandwidth than DSB. High distortion
is expected
3. Vestigial Sideband (VSB) – commonly used in analog
TV systems. It is normal AM passed through a filter to
reduce one of the sidebands
ITU TYPES OF RADIO EMISSION

CHARACTER 1 – TYPE OF MODULATION

A Amplitude Modulation, AM DSB
B Independent Sideband
C Vestigial Sideband
D Combination of AM and FM or PM, either simultaneously
or in a pre-established sequence
F Frequency Modulation, FM
G Phase Modulation, PM
H Single Sideband Full Carrier
J Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
K Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM
L Pulse Width Modulation, PWM
M Pulse Position Modulation, PPM
N Unmodulated Carrier
P Series of pulses without modulation
Q Sequence of pulses, phase or frequency modulation
within each pulse
R Single Sideband with reduced or variable level carrier
V Combination of pulse modulation methods
W Combination of any of the above
X Cases not covered by the above definitions

CHJARACTER 2 – TYPE OF MODULATING SIGNAL

0 No modulating signal
1 One channel containing digital information without the
use of modulating sub-carriers (excludes time division
multiplexing)
2 One channel containing digital information with the use
of a modulating subcarrier (excludes time division
multiplexing)
3 One channel containing analog information
7 More than one channel containing digital information
8 More than one channel containing analog information
9 Combination of digital and analog channels
x Cases not covered above

CHARACTER 3 – TYPE OF INFORMATION

A Telegraphy for aural reception (Morse Code)
B Telegraphy for automatic reception (machine needed)
C Facsimile
D Data transmission, telemetry or command
E Telephony (voice or music intended for human listening
including sound broadcasting)
F Video – television
W Any combination of the above
x None of the above
FM BROADCASTING FM90 105.9
FM94 106.7
Parameters Philippine Standards FM98 107.5
Frequency Band 88-108 MHz
Number of Channels 25 FM BASEBAND SIGNAL
BW per Channel 200 kHz
Permitted BW 240 kHz (monophone)
Channel Spacing 800 kHz
Center Frequency Stability ± 2 kHz
Baseband Frequency 50-15000 Hz
Type of Modulation FM
Type of Emission F3E
Guardband 25 kHz above USB and below
LSB To provide compatibility with monophonic receivers, the stereo
Antenna Polarization Horizontal multiplex system transmits both right and left channels at their
Type of Receiver Superheterodyne normal audio frequencies from 50 Hz to 15 kHz. This is called
Intermediate Frequency 10.7 MHz the L+R signal.
Frequency Deviation ± 75 kHz (for 100% mod)
Pre-Emphasis 75μs time constant The system also transmits an L-R signal which is a DSB-SC signal.
Pilot Subcarrier 19 kHz It is difficult to demodulate without a synchronizing signal
(carrier), thus a pilot carrier is transmitted at 19kHz, exactly
FM STATION CLASSIFICATION half of the 38 kHz subcarrier
Station Requirements
Class A  Authorized transmitter power – max 25 kW Once the stereo multiplexed FM signal is received and
demodulated, its spectrum again appears just as shown in the
 Effective Radiated Power(ERP) – max 125 kW
figure, and a monophonic receiver utilizes only the L+R signal.
 Antenna height – max 2000 ft above terrain
Therefore, it produces both audio channels, but without the
 Only allowed in Metro Manila and Metro Cebu
stereo separation.
Class B  Authorized transmitter power – max 10 kW,
min 1 kW A stereophonic receiver uses special demultiplexing circuits to
 Effective Radiated Power(ERP) – max 30 kW obtain separate left and right audio channels to create audio
 Antenna height – max 500 ft above terrain depth to the listener.
Class C  Effective Radiated Power(ERP) – max 1 kW
 Noncommercial, community stations only RDS (RADIO DATA SYSTEM) – information added to the FM
Class D  Authorized transmitter power – max 10 W baseband signal which is accessible to specialized receivers
 Educational stations a. Static RDS – fixed information about the FM radio
station (station ID, station carrier frequency, station call
FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS sign, program genre; i.e. pop, jazz, rock)
Channel No. Freq. (MHz) b. Dynamic RDS – changing information about current
FM2 88.3 events and updates (news headlines, time, weather
reports)
FM6 89.1
FM10 89.9 SCA (SUBSIDIARY COMMUNICATIONS AUTHORIZATION) –
FM14 90.7 authorized private broadcast using the FM baseband signal of a
FM18 91.5 commercial/professional FM broadcast station (storecasting,
FM22 92.3 subscription broadcasts, relaying telemetry signals from station
FM26 93.1 to remote transmitter site)
FM30 93.9
FM34 94.7
RADIO FREQUENCY PROTECTION RATIO (dB) – minimum
FM38 95.5
physical separation between stations and protection of stations
FM42 96.3 from interference
FM46 97.1
FM50 97.9 Frequency Monophonic Stereophonic
FM54 98.7 Spacing (Steady and (Steady and
FM58 99.5 (kHz) Tropospheric Tropospheric
Interference, dB) Interference, dB)
FM62 100.3
0 36 28 45 37
FM66 101.1
200 6 6 7 7
FM70 101.9 400 -12 -20 -20 -20
FM74 102.7
FM78 103.5 *Intermediate frequency amplifiers of most FM broadcast
FM82 104.3 receivers operate on 10.7 MHz. Because of this, having two
FM86 105.1
stations in the same area with frequencies 10.6 or 10.8 MHz
removed from that of the other should be avoided
*FM Broadcast stations with frequency separation of less than
800 kHz are not allowed to operate within the same city or
nearby cities
employed, the term “effective radiated power” is applied
separately to the horizontal and vertical components of
radiation.
FIELD INTENSITY – the electric field intensity in the horizontal
direction

*A commercial broadcast entity may establish only one primary FREE SPACE FIELD INTENSITY – the field intensity that would
FM radio station within the geographical boundary of any exist at a point, in the absence of waves reflected from the
province. earth or other reflecting objects

SERVICE AREA – the service resulting from an assigned effective

DEFINITION OF TERMS radiated power and HAAT

FM BROADCAST BAND – the portion of the radio frequency

spectrum from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.

FM BROADCAST CHANNEL – a band of frequencies 200 kHz

wide and is designated by its center frequency. Channels for
FM broadcast stations begin at 88.1 MHz and continue in
successive steps of 200 kHz to and including 107.9 MHz

FM BROADCAST STATION – a station employing frequency

modulation in the FM broadcast band and intended to be
received by the general public

FREQUENCY MODULATION – a system of modulation where

the instantaneous frequency varies in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, and the
instantaneous radio frequency is independent of the frequency
of the modulating signal.

CENTER FREQUENCY - the carrier frequency allocated by the

authority
FREQUENCY SWING – the instantaneous departure of the
frequency of the emitted wave from the center frequency
resulting from modulation
ANTENNA HEIGHT ABOVE AVERAGE TERRAIN – the height of
the radiation center of the antenna above the terrain 3 – 16 km
from the antenna (Generally, a different antenna height will be
determined for each radial direction from the antenna, the
average of these various heights is considered as the HAAT)
Where circular or elliptical polarization is employed, the HAAT
shall be based upon the height of the radiation center of the
antenna which transmits the horizontal components of the
radiation
ANTENNA FIELD GAIN – the ratio of the effective free space
field intensity produced at 1.6 km in the horizontal plane
expressed in mV/m for 1 kW antenna input power, to 137.6
mV/m
ANTENNA POWER GAIN – the square of the ratio of the RMS
free space field strength produced at 1.6 km in the horizontal
plane, in mV/m for 1 kW antenna power, to 137.6 mV/m
expressed in dB (If specified for a particular direction, antenna
power gain is based on the field strength in that direction only)
RADIO FREQUENCY PROTECTION RATIO – the value of the
“radio frequency wanted “ to “interfering signal” that enables,
under specified conditions, the radio frequency to be obtained
at the output of the receiver.
PERCENTAGE MODULATION – the ratio of the actual frequency
swing to the frequency swing defined as 100 percent
modulation, expressed in percentage. In FM, a frequency swing
of ±75 kHz is defined as 100% modulation
FM STEREOPHONIC BROADCAST – the transmission of a
stereophonic program by a single FM broadcast station utilizing
the main channel and a stereophonic sub-channel
MULTIPLEXING – implies that two or more independent
sources of information are combined for carriage over a single
medium, namely, the RF carrier, and then are separated at the
receiving end.
In stereophonic broadcasting, program information consisting
of left and right audio signals are multiplexed onto an FM
carrier for transmission to receivers which subsequently
recover the original audio signals
CHANNEL - a transmission path. In the TSOR, it is used as
transmission channels, main channel, stereophonic subchannel
and left and right audio signals

EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER – the product of the transmitter COMPOSITE BASEBAND SIGNAL – a signal which is the sum of
power ) transmitter output power less transmission line loss) all signals which frequency-modulates the main carrier
multiplied by (a) the antenna power gain or (b) the antenna
field gain squared. Where circular or elliptical polarization is
FM BASEBAND – the frequency band from 0 Hz to a specified
upper frequency which contains the composite baseband
channel
MAIN CHANNEL – the band of frequencies from 50 or less Hz to
15000 Hz on the FM baseband signals which contains the main
channel signal
MAIN CHANNEL SIGNAL – a specified combination of the
monophonic or left and right audio signals which frequency-
modulates the main carrier
STEREOPHONIC SOUND – the audio information carried by
different channels arrange to allow the listener a sense of
spatial distribution of sound sources. Stereophonic sound
includes, but not limited to: biphonic (two channel)m triphonic,
quadrophonic services…
STEREOPHONIC SOUND SUBCARRIER – a subcarrier within the
FM broadcast baseband used for transmitting signals for
stereophonic sound reception of the main broadcast program
service
STEREOPHONIC SOUND SUBCHANNEL – the band of
frequencies from 23 kHz – 99 kHz containing sound subcarriers
and their associated sidebands
SUBCHANNEL – a transmission path specified by a subchannel
signal occupying a specific band of frequencies
SUBCHANNEL SIGNAL – subcarriers and associated sidebands
which frequency modulate the main carrier. It is synonymous
with “subcarrier”
PILOT SUBCARRIER – a pilot subcarrier serving as a control
signal for use in the reception of FM stereophonic broadcast
LEFT (OR RIGHT) SIGNAL – the electrical output of a
microphone or a combination of microphones placed so as to
convey the intensity, time, and location of sounds originating
predominantly in the listener’s left (or right) from the center of
the performing area
LEFT (OR RIGHT) STEREOPHONIC CHANNEL – the left (or right)
signal as electrically reproduced in the reception of an FM
stereophonic broadcast
STEREOPHONIC SEPARATION – the ratio of the electrical signal
caused in the right (or left) stereophonic channel, to the
electrical signal caused in the left (or right) stereophonic
channel, by the transmission of only a right (or left) signal
FREQUENCY DEVIATION – the peak difference between the
instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave and the
carrier frequency
INJECTION RATIO – the ratio of the frequency swing of the FM
carrier by a subchannel signal to the frequency swing defined as
100 percent modulation, expressed in percentage. The total
injection of more than one subchannel signal is the arithmetic
sum of each subchannel.
CROSSTALK – An undesirable signal occurring in one channel
caused by an electrical signal in another channel
LINEAR CROSSTALK – a form of crosstalk in which the
undesired signal(s) is created by phase or gain inequalities in
another channel or channels. Such crosstalk may be due to
causes external to the stereophonic generator; consequently it
is sometimes referred to as “system crosstalk”
NONLINEAR CROSSTALK – a form of crosstalk in which the
undesired signal(s) is created by harmonic distortion or
intermodulation of electrical signal(s) in another channel or
channels. Such crosstalk may be due to distribution withim the
stereophonic generator or FM transmitter; consequently it is
sometimes referred to as “transmitter crosstalk”
INDEX OF COOPERATION – as applied to the facsimile
broadcasting, it is the product of the number of lines per inch,
the available length in inches, and the reciprocal of the line-use
ratio (ex. 105x8.2x8/7 = 984)
AVAILABLE LINE – the portion of the total length of scanning
line that can be used specifically for picture signals
RECTILINEAR SCANNING – the process of scanning an area in a
predetermined sequence of narrow straight parallel strips
OPTICAL DENSITY – the logarithm (log10) of the ratio of
incident to transmitted or reflected light
EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD – the period between 12MN – 5AM.
This period may be used for experimental purposes in testing
and maintaining apparatus by the licensee of any FM broadcast
station on its assigned frequency and not in excess of its
authorized power, provided no interference is caused to other
stations maintaining a regular operating schedule within such
period
OPERATING POWER – the product of plate voltage (Ep) and the
plate current (Ip) of the last radio stage and efficiency factor, F,
expressed as:
Operating Power = Ep x Ip x F
This is the indirect method of determining the operating power
of each FM station for the purpose of specifying the operating
power range of FM transmitters. The factor F shall be
established by the transmitter manufacturer for each type of
transmitter and shall be specified in the instruction book(s)
supplied to each customer with each transmitter
LAST RADIO STAGE – the oscillator or radio-frequency power
amplifier stage which supplies power to the antenna
QUALIFIED TECHNICIAN – a person who is a holder of any class
of Radio Telephone Operator’s License or its equivalent