Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate PDF

Abraar M.
Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate_2018
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
THE UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA
THESIS TITLE
(Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
FOR THE MASTERS OF ARTS IN ARCHITECTURE DEGREE
BY
Mohammed Abraar Iqbal
NICOSIA, CYPRUS
May 2018
Abraar M. Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate_2018
Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate
BY
Mohammed Abraar I qbal
“This paper was submitted in partial f ulf illment of the requirements f or the Master s of Arts in
Architecture at the Universit y of Ni cosia , School of Humanities, Department of
Architecture, Nicosia, Cyprus (May 2018) ”
Universit y of Nicosia
46 Makedonitissas Ave.
P.O.Box 24005
1700 Nicosia
Cyprus
Date: May 2018
2
A Thesis Project
In
MA Architecture
By
Mohammed Abraar Iqbal
“Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Masters of Arts in Architecture at the University of Nicosia”
Approved by: Date of Approval:
............................................ ..........................................
Petros Lapithis
Professor
............................................ ..........................................
Eleonore Zippelius
Assistant Professor
........................................... ...........................................
Kika Ioannou Kazamia
Associate Professor
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ADVISOR:
PROF. PETROS LAPITHIS

Acknowledgment
I would first like to thank my parents who supported me through this endeavor that I undertook. I
would also like to thank and extend my gratitude to my advisor Dr. Petros Lapithis who provided me
with invaluable support and knowledge during the entirety of the course. A special thanks to my
classmates and to the amazing Miss Samiya Shiekh who provided constant moral support to whom I
am indebted to.
SUSTAINABILITY IN HOT ARID CLIMATE
Index:…………………………………...………………………………………………………………...………
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….…..…1
1. Introduction…………………………………….………………………………………………………………………...…….……2
2. Climate…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….…………...……….3
2.1. Climatic Zones………………………….…………...……………………………………………………….……………3
2.1.1. Tropical Zone ………….. …………………………………………………………………….………………3
2.1.2. Sub-Tropical Zone …………………………………………………………………………………………...4
2.1.3. Temperate Zone ………….…………………………………………………………………….………….…5
2.1.4. Cold Zone ………….…………………………………………………………………….……………………6
2.2. Factors that determine the climatic conditions………………………………………………………………………...7
2.2.1. Latitude……………………………………………………………….……………………….…………….…7
2.2.2. Altitude…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………...7
2.2.3. Winds……………………………………………………………….……………………….…………………8
2.2.4. Distance from the Sea……………………………………………….……………………….………………8
2.2.5. Aspect……………………………………………………………….……...………………….………………8
2.3. Climatic Regions……………………………………………………………….……………………….………………...9
2.3.1. Polar……………………………………………………………….…………………………...………………9
2.3.2. Temperate……………………………………………………………….………………….…………..……10
2.3.3. Arid………………………………………………………………….………………………………………...10
2.3.4. Tropical……………………………………………………………….……………………….……………...11
2.3.5. Mediterranean ……………………………………………………………….……………………….…..…11
2.3.6. Tundra……………………………………………………………….……………………….……………….12
2.4. Arid Climate (Hot Desert Climate) ……………………………………………………………….……………………13
3. Architecture in an Arid Climate…………………………………………………………….……………………….…………..14
3.1. Shibam – Yemen…………………………....………………………………….……………………….………………16
3.2. Varzaneh – Iran……………………………………………………………….……………………….………………..21
3.2.1. Strategies Used in The Varzaneh Mosque to face Arid Climate……………….………………………25
3.2.1.1. Self-realizing design- Central courtyard……………….…………………………..………….25
3.2.1.2. Climatic Discussion on the Main Prayer Hall and the South Iwan……………….………...27
3.2.1.3. Eastern and Western Colonial Porches……………….…………………..………….………28

3.2.1.4. Ecological Use of Construction Materials……………….……………………….……………30
3.2.1.5. Incorporation of an arched roof……………….……………………….……………………….30
3.2.1.6. Use of Color for Climatic Design……………….…………………………………..….………32
4. Adaptive Architecture…………………………....………………………………….……………………..…….………………33
4.1. Cultural…………………………....………………………………….……………….………………….………………34
4.2. Societal…………………....………………………………….……………….…………………...…….………………34
4.3. Organizational…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….………………35
4.4. Communication…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………..36
5. Climate Adaptive Architecture…………………....………………………………….……………….……………….………..38
5.1. Bioclimatic Design in Vernacular Architecture…………………....………………………………….………………41
5.2 Passive Cooling…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………..42
5.3. Night Ventilation…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………44
5.4. Thermal Comfort…………………....………………………………….……………….…………………….…………46
5.5. Thermal Sensation Scale…………………....………………………………….……………….……………………..47
5.5.1. Metabolic Rate (met) …………………....………………………………….……………….……………..48
5.5.2. Clothing Insulation (clo) …………………....………………………………….……………….…………..49
5.5.3. Air Temperature…………………....………………………………….……………….……………………50
5.5.4. Radiant Temperature…………………....………………………………….……………….……………...50
5.5.5. Wind Speed…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……..51
5.5.6. Relative Humidity…………………....………………………………….……………….……………….….52
6. Vernacular Architecture in the Sultanate of Oman…………………....………………………………….…………..…….54
6.1. Introduction…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….………………….54
6.2. Vernacular Design of Residential Houses…………………....………………………………….……………….….57
6.3 Climate of Sultanate of Oman…………………....………………………………….……………….………………...59
6.4. Mahoney tables for comparison of vernacular design with contemporary design…………………....………….61
6.5 Passive Cooling Strategies Integrated in the Region…………………....…………………………………………..63
6.6. Vernacular to Contemporary Comparison…………………....………………………………….………………..…66
6.6.1. Zoning…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………67
6.6.2 Courtyard…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….………...68
6.6.3. Spatial Sizing…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……69
6.6.4. Spatial Distribution Based on Gender…………………....………………………………….……………70

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6.6.5. Proportion/Scaling of External and Internal Features…………………....……………………………...71
6.6.6. Window Construction and Allocation…………………....………………………………….……………..72
6.6.7. Doors…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….…………….73
6.6.8. Arches……………………....………………………………….……………….……………….......…….…74
6.6.9. Materials (External Walls) …………………....………………………………….……………….………..75
6.6.10. Floors…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….…………..76
6.6.11. Roof…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….…………….77
6.6.12 Finishes/Detailing…………………....………………………….……………….……………....…………78
6.6.13. Colors…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….…………..79
7. Design strategy suggestion and approach for hot and arid climate…………………....………………………..…...…80
7.1. Reduce structure heat load through appropriate structure shading…………………....…………………….……81
7.2. Use of thermal mass to reduce internal temperature…………………....…………………………………….……83
7.3. Incorporation of passive cooling strategies…………………....……………………………………………..………84
7.4. Use of solar energy based renewable systems…………………....………………………………………..………85
8. Conclusion…………………………………………….……………….………………….…………………………….......……..86
9. References…………………………………………….……………….………………….…………………………….......….….87
10. List of figures…………………………….……………….………………….…………….…………….......….……………….90
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Abstract: ………..…………………..……………………………………….…………………..…………..…
In today’s world, the dependency on energy consumption is increasing exponentially; there is

no greater threat to progress and development than the exhaustion of the energy resources that we
are extensively over dependent upon. The energy consumption culture has now become a general
norm throughout the world but is exceptionally abused in regions that experience extreme
temperatures and climatic conditions. With the drastic growth in urbanization, there is a growing need
to control, mitigate and restructure the housing and construction standards to reduce the energy
dependency. This study primarily aims to analyze the climatic conditions of hot and arid regions; the
vernacular approach towards climate adaptive architecture practiced in this type of a climate in
comparison to the current construction trends with the focus being on a specific country, namely the
Sultanate of Oman. This paper also aims to propose possible sustainable approaches that can be
conceptualized in contemporary modern day urbanization.
Keywords: Arid climate, sustainability, climate adaptive vernacular design, bio-climatic, Sultanate of Oman
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1. Introduction………..…………………..……………………………………….………………………..…
The most prominent consumers of materials and energy are building that may be constructed
for residential, commercial or infrastructural reasons. These structures tend to have a significant
impact on the environment through construction, operational or functional means. Due to the
exponential growth of widespread urbanization, there is a growing concern over the imminent
depletion of natural energy resources due to the relentless consumption by the construction industry.
There is a pressing need to encourage and develop sustainable practices in the current built
environment trend especially in regions that are considered as developing nations with a significant
economic growth. One of the most effective design approaches that spearhead the construction
sector towards sustainable development is having a climate responsive design in mind when planning
a building development (McDonough,2003) Sustainability is an approach that tends to have objective
guidelines depending on different schools of thought that enclose wide and abstract strategy
concepts. Among relevant approaches, an applicable thought is incorporating a cradle to cradle
design that will help pave an ecological path towards sustainability. While architects and designers
are subjected to conventional design norms that focus on aesthetics it is also important to
acknowledge the climatic conditions that will be exposed to the building. Understanding the climate
classification of sustainable building design can guide urbanization towards a certain climate adaptive
context along with successfully incorporating a sustainable design. Regions around the world have
been subjected to extreme climates that in turn have heavily influenced the local and traditional
architecture. This paper aims to understand the climatic classification of these extreme regions and
the influences of climate over the vernacular design.
Sustainable approach towards construction can be defined as a practice that aims to achieve
integral quality towards economic, social and environmental performance. Therefore, the balanced
use of natural energy resources and construction management of the building materials will help
reduce energy wastage, consumption and improve overall environmental quality. In order to
effectively study the design norms, one must first understand the natural climatic conditions and
influences faced in the different regions around the world.
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2. Climate ………..………….……………………………………………….………………………………...
One of the key factors that dictate the social, urban and general development of an area is its
weather pattern attributes, the average of which can be classified as the climatic conditions of the
region. While the weather might be variable throughout the globe and be subjected to change during
the different phases of the year, the geographical regions can be classified under different climatic
zones. These zones are classified based on different climatic constraints and occur as a belt that
circle around the poles. Since the climatic zone locations are hugely dependent on their distance from
the equator, they are best documented on their latitudinal angle in respect to the equator.
2.1. Climatic Zones
2.1.1. Tropical Zone (0°–23.5°)
Also called the „Equatorial region‟, the areas lying in this region receive direct sunlight, almost
at a vertical angle, during the peak hours of the day and throughout the year. Incidentally, most of the
highest recorded temperatures around the world are mainly observed in this area. The constant solar
radiation ensures that the water contained in the water bodies are evaporated quickly and hence
resulting in a higher moisture content level in the air. The constant evaporation and formation of
humidity in the air results in recurring dense cloud cover that drastically reduces the effect of direct
solar radiation on the ground temperature.
Figure 1 : Tropical zone regions around the world
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2.1.2. Sub-Tropical Zone (23.5°–40°)
During the summer months, the regions lying in this zone receive a high amount of solar
radiation as the cloud cover is relatively thin to block out the direct sunlight it receives during the peak
hours of the day. Due to the trade wind patterns that flow through this region, there is comparatively
less amount of moisture in the air that also severely increases the effect of radiation. Due to these
prevailing circumstances, most of the prominent deserts are situated in this region. During the winter
months, due to the slight rise in moisture, the radiation received in this region is drastically reduced.
Figure 2 : Sub-Tropical zone regions around the world
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2.1.3. Temperate Zone (40°–60°)
Since the direct sunlight received in this region is subjected to a smaller angle, the average
temperature in this region is much lower as compared to the tropical and sub-tropical zones. This
inclination of the region causes the length of the day and the characterizations of the seasons differ
from the other zones. The climatic conditions are relatively less extreme and the moisture content has
a nominal rate of precipitation over the year. This type of climate is quite favorable to the flora and
hence has a long vegetation period.
Figure 3 : Temperate zone regions around the world
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2.1.4. Cold Zone (60°–90°)
This region receives the least amount of heat as compared to the other climatic zones as the
sunlight hits this region in a very low angle. This also affects the length of days here as it causes the
occurrence of polar days and nights. Due to the extreme cold climatic conditions, it‟s quite hard for
normal vegetation to occur here, which is completely depended on just a few months throughout the
year.
Figure 4 : Cold zone regions around the world
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The climatic conditions of these zones do not solely depend on their latitudinal distance from the
equator.
2.2. Factors that determine the climatic conditions
2.2.1. Latitude
Since the regions lying in the equatorial belt receive the most amount of direct sunlight, the
temperature rises when approaching the equator whereas the temperature decreases the further you
move away from it. This happens due to the curvature of the earth which causes the diameter
(equator) to receive the most amount of sunlight as compared to the other areas.
Figure 5 : Latitude lines stretching over the globe
2.2.2. Altitude
The density of air drastically decreases as you move up

in altitude. This low density of air means that air loses its
ability to hold heat and therefore high risen places have
a lower average temperature than low lying areas.
Figure 6 : Relationship of altitude with air temperature
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2.2.3. Winds
Wind patterns play a big part when it comes to the regions temperature. If the trade winds
have been blown in from the sea side or cool area, they will lower the temperature of the region they
flow through. If the winds originate from the Tropical or Sub tropical region, then they will warm the
area they flow through.
Figure 7 : Wind patterns around the world
2.2.4. Distance from the Sea
The time taken from land to cool or heat up is much lower as compared to water bodies.
Hence, areas that lie in the coastal range have a much lower temperature than the areas lying further
inland. Coastal winter and summers are much more accommodating in comparison to inland lying
areas.
2.2.5. Aspect
In the northern hemisphere, the south facing slopes receive the most amount of direct
sunlight, this works in the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere. Hence, the placement of the
area in relations to the sun orientation greatly affects the temperature and solar radiation of the place.
Due to the influence of the aforementioned factors, the climatic regions around the world can be more
specifically is divided into six types of climatic regions.
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2.3. Climatic Regions
2.3.1. Polar
These regions are extremely cold during winters and mostly dry throughout the year. The
regions enclosed include the two poles and some of the inlands lying in the northern hemisphere. The
flora and fauna found here has mostly adapted to the harsh cold climates and hence very few plant
and animals species are found here.
Figure 8 : Polar regions around the world
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2.3.2. Temperate
The temperate climate experiences cold winters but mild summers. These weather conditions
are favorable for the growth of flora and hence temperate forests boast a rich diversity of plants and
animals. The temperate regions spread over the northern parts of Asia, Europe and America.
Figure 9 : Temperate regions around the world
2.3.3. Arid
These climatic regions are notorious for their extreme dry heat all year long with moderate
winters that last only for a short time. The lack of moisture in the air tends to make the soil very
course, due to which most of the flora found here are short shrubs and dry leaf trees. Arid climates
are found mostly in desert bearing regions such as Central Asia, North Africa and inland Australia.
Figure 10 : Arid regions around the world
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2.3.4. Tropical
The tropical regions are known to be hot, humid and wet. This climate tends to receive at least
12 hours of sunlight per day, throughout the year with nominal amount of rain that make it an ideal
environment for the unhindered growth of diverse number of flora and fauna. Tropical climate can be
mostly found in the lush jungles of Africa and South American along with a few islands in the Pacific.
Figure 11 : Tropical regions around the world
2.3.5. Mediterranean
A Mediterranean climate boasts seasonal weather throughout the year. The winters are
mild while the summers are hot and dry. It includes the region enclosing the Mediterranean Sea
and some parts of South America. The seasonal weather change ensures the growth of a variety
of biological life spread throughout the region.
Figure 12 : Mediterranean regions around the world
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2.3.6. Tundra
With an extremely cold climate that spans throughout the year, the Tundra climate can we
found in high altitude regions with mountain ranges. Since the weather is dry and cold, the plant live
found here mostly consists of short grasses and shrubs. The animals are mostly migratory and move
depending on the seasonal change. This climate is found on the northern parts of North America, Asia
and on the coast of Greenland.
Figure 13 : Tundra regions around the world
Figure 14 : All the climatic regions around the world
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2.4. Arid Climate (Hot Desert Climate)
Figure 15 : Arid climate topographic
Since the topic of this research focuses on arid climate, it is only correct to further investigate
the details of that climate and the regions under its influence. According to the Köppen climate
classification, arid climate, also known as a desert climate, is a prevailing weather condition which is
preserved to sustain little or no vegetation due to extremely low levels of precipitation (Peel;
Finlayson; McMahon, 2007). Depending on its geographical location and distance to the sea, an arid
region usually experiences rainfall anywhere between 20mm to 200mm per year. Some places are
known for having a higher average precipitation but due to evapotranspiration, loose more water than
they gain.
The desert climate has two main and notable variations, hot desert climate (BWh) and the cold
desert climate (BWk). The hot desert climate experiences peak heat periods through certain periods
of the year. Most of the desert climate regions, during summer, achieve maximum temperatures that
can easily go over 40-45 degrees Celsius during the day with a minimum of around 35 at night.
Depending on their vicinity to a water body, humidity levels are much higher at night. Some of the
highest temperatures recorded have been in these regions where the recorded temperatures have
reached over 50 degrees Celsius during summertime. The average temperatures in these areas are
well above the world average since they experience minimum winter periods and prolonged summers.
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During the winter period, the night time temperatures can drop to near zero due to the extensive
radiation loss owing to the clear night skies and this weather is notable in regions of Africa and the
Middle East.
3. Architecture in an Arid Climate………..…………………….……………………………
Figure 16 : Hassan Fathy’s Gourna village
Vernacular architecture in any geographical region tends to be heavily influenced by that

area‟s climatic conditions. The earliest signs of human urban sprawl and its design can be credited to
climatic design. Settlements take into consideration various factors like sun orientation, wind direction,
functioning services and other objectives aspects. A well worked climatic design would ideally aim to
profusely reduce the energy cost of a building. Tracing back to its roots in prehistoric times, the
designers of that era (or the equivalents of designers) were more aware of their surroundings and
used their instinct to strategically establish their dwellings. Given that the motives of their design
wasn‟t to reduce dependency on alternate energy as the forces of nature were the sole sources of
energy yet the fundamentals of climatic based design still remain the same. Builders from the ancient
era considered climate as the focal point of settlement design that gradual gave shape to the cultural
attributes that we know today. No design has known to originate into perfection, the trial and error
approach, while keeping the basics in place is what helps the traditional architecture evolve to be
more proficient and aesthetically approving. Modern architecture, that is said to have evolved from
this process of evolution tends to forget that vernacular design‟s ideology that rested on core thermal
comfort using whatever resources they had in the vicinity. By making the most of the immediate
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surroundings, geographical positioning, wind directions and the use of available materials, it gives
birth to design that works in a healthy correlation with the environment that would ultimately be the
most cost effective method of design. Incorporating an effective bioclimatic design, without the use of
alternate resources would help create a thermal comfort zone unaffected (or bare minimum effect) by
the external climate. The idea of and self-controlled microclimate would be end goal of a successful
bioclimatic design as this would drastically reduce the dependency on mechanical powered cooling
and heating (Varzaneh; Amini; Bemanian, 2014).
Irrespective of their origin, there are certain design regulations that have to be followed when it
comes to construction design in an arid environment. Arid conditions mean that the area experiences
low rainfall and humidity (Which may differ in distance to the ocean) with high temperature difference
between day and night ( Hasselschwerdt; Schonnefeld; Weber; Kuttler, 2007). There is drastic
temperature difference between the summers and winters but while the winters last for a few months,
summer months last much longer throughout the year. The houses thus designed in these regions
must remain cool in the long summer months while alternatively remain comfortably cool in the winter
months. Shading the building is crucial against the intense sunlight while it is also important to store
solar energy for thermal mass through the walls and floors. The placement of windows plays an
important part heat regulation as they needs to be well shaded if placed in the eastern or western
facing side of the building. The construction of garden courtyards and interior water ponds is an
efficient way of taking advantage of the wind path to spread cool air throughout the structure.
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3.1. Shibam – Yemen
Figure 17 : The city of Shibam in Yemen
The city of Shibam in Yemen (also famously called as the Manhattan of the desert) is an
ancient fortified city that is known for its high rise mud brick building structures. Arguably the world‟s
first skyscrapers, the city dates back to the 16th century and is still inhabited by around 7000 locals.
The city‟s climate is an arid desert climate with minimum to no yearly rainfall. Classified as BWh under
the Köppen climate classification.
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Figure 18 : Average Precipitation in Shihab
Figure 19 : Average Temperature in Shihab
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Figure 20 : Climate Table Shihab
Precipitation in June is the lowest averaging at 0mm while the highest rain is received in the
month of March with an average of 17mm. With a difference of about 17 mm between the driest and
the wettest month, they temperature differs by about 9.4 °C throughout the year. With June having a
temperature average of 28°C, it is the hottest month while January, with an average temperature of
18.6°C, is the coldest month of the year.
Figure 21 : Shibham's grid settlement
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The city of Shibam is characterized by the mass of tall mud brick towers that visually
resembles a metropolitan of the past era that is strategically located between an important trade
route. The settlement has tower houses that go up to seven stories high constructed on a fortified grid
plan. Constructed hundreds of meters above the wadi bed, the settlement is constructed on a rocky
spur foundation. The city is built on an earlier settlement‟s location that partially succumbed to a flood
that happened in the 14th century. There are buildings in the settlement that still exist dating back to
the 13th century with a mosque that was constructed between the 9 th and 10th century. By the end of
the 29th century, the local merchants and traders that were returning from trade route in Asia helped
develop and fortify the settlement and expand it towards the southern bank of the wadi with a suburb
called Al-Sahil. Years taking their toll, the settlement started deteriorating due to several factors such
as the overfilling of the original sanitary systems due to the addition of inadequate and insufficient
modern drainage system. The unruly management of the local livestock also added to continuing
decay of the city.
Figure 22 : Streets of Shibam
The city of Shibam is characterized by a compact layout of adjoining tower houses that are
enclosed within an exterior wall portrays an urbanization approach that prioritizes the need for
security and protection from any external presence. Heavily influenced by the Arab traditional culture,
the walled settlement encompasses an excellent example of design functionality, constructions
techniques and the appropriate use of immediate climatic surroundings. The region around the
settlement is still in agricultural use which is an integral part of the city‟s economic revenue. The
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unique style of successive agricultural plots and the use of mud construction is an exceptional built
that can‟t be found anywhere else in that region.
Figure 23 : The city front and skyline
The clustering construction of the settlement makes the city more compact, which may have
been an strategic effort by the authorities for efficiently protecting and defending the city but the
clustered construction also helps in self-shading that give birth to a self-sustaining microclimate.
Houses were constructed with deep set windows that provide sufficient shading with the walls built of
a greater thickness than the windows. The buildings are constructed with the frontal views facing
south while the terraces are painted white
to effectively reflect the heat of the sun.
Figure 24 : Self shading in Shibham infrastructure
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3.2. Varzaneh – Iran
Varzaneh is a small desert village in the country of Iran situated about 100kms from the
closest metropolitan city, Isfahan. Situated at an altitude of about 1500 meters above the sea-level,
Varzaneh was the last remaining civilization on the Zayanderud River for the past 5000 years ago. He
Zayanderud River continues up until the Gavkhouni wetlands which reside at a distance of 30kms
from Varzaneh itself. Among the plains that lie between the wetland and Varzaneh, one can easily
see signs of the ancient civilization that used to live there confirming that the region has been
inhabited for at least 5000 years.
Figure 25 : Bird view of the city of Varzaneh
Varzaneh, like most of the country, has a dry and arid climate during most parts of the year.
Due to the low humidity, the summer heat isn‟t damp and sticky. During the winter months of January
and February, the temperature drops below zero degrees Celsius after sunset. The local climate is
considered to be a steppe climate as there is little to no rainfall throughout the year. According to the
Köppen-Geiger climate classification, the climate of Varzaneh can be classified as BSk (semi-arid
climate) with an average temperature of 13.2 degree Celsius.
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Figure 26 : Average Precipitation in Varzaneh
The lowest precipitation of almost 0mm is in August making it the driest month while with a
precipitation of about 34mm, January happens to be the wettest month of the year.
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Figure 27 : Average Temperature in Varzaneh
With a temperature average of about 25.5 degrees Celsius, July is the warmest month
throughout the year. January having the lowest average temperature of about 0.5 degree Celsius is
the coolest month of the year.
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Figure 28 : Wind catcher design and implementation in Varzaneh
The lack of humidity throughout the year and the large

distance from the nearest ocean causes very high temperature
fluctuations between night and day. The low precipitation means
there is a severe deficiency of green spaces (Varzaeh; Amini;
Bemanian, 2013). The city of Varzaneh is subjected to constant
dry spells, dusty typhoons and droughts. The wind patterns
flowing through the city are highly unfavorable for the building
orientations. The free flowing winds tend to bring in sand from
sand dunes that are located approximately 10kms away from
the city. These sand dunes occupy a massive area of about
17,500 hectares and can extend up to 50 kms (Varzaeh; Amini;
Bemanian, 2013). . These unconventional wind flow patterns
restrict the people to construct their houses with minimal external exposure, making the houses as
compacted as possible. Due to this construction style, the entire settlement bears a resemblance to a
fortified enclosure that is fully enclosed from all the directions as if to keep enemies from invading
from any side. The city is planned in a way that all the sidewalks are facing in the east-west direction
to protect the residents from the glare of direct sunlight. To prevent the desert‟s sand carrying wind
from penetrating the settlement, the city is constructed with high narrow walls along with installation of
shading roofs to provide shade to the passing pedestrians. Since the climate is dry and humid, there
is a drastic temperature difference between shaded and not shaded pathways that facilitate cool
breezes to pass through the city. To adequately explain the design of the traditional buildings, it would
be convenient to take a single building and analyze its case study. The building in questions here is
the Varzaneh Jame mosque.
Referring to records kept, the Varzaneh mosque was constructed over what used to be a fire
temple dating back to the Sassanid period. The mosque was reinforced and renovated during the
Timurid period (1500‟s). The mosque has been renovated and developed over the years by builders
in different periods. For example, the mosque has two Iwans (A vaulted space that opens up to a
courtyard) both having a different appearance as the North Iwan was reworked in the 17 th century by
the Safavid dynasty. The mosque‟s plan consists of two North and South facing Iwans, a prayer hall
chamber, two brick porches around the courtyard, bed chambers in the East and West and a minaret.
24
Figure 29 : Plan of Varzaneh mosque
The prayer hall, being the most important section of the mosque, contains the main dome and
a tiled mihrab that indicates the direction of Mecca. The hall joins both the bedchambers and to the
southern Iwan. The entrances to the bedchambers are enclosed with an arched brickwork roof. The
mosque contains three prayer vocations, two of which were constructed to face the direction of
Mecca. The mosque also contains a 20 meters high indicator minaret constructed near the main
entrance door, which is accessible through a spiral staircase that runs all the way from circular base
of the minaret.
3.2.1. Strategies Used in The Varzaneh Mosque to face Arid Climate
3.2.1.1. Self-realizing design- Central courtyard
The enclosed courtyard can be defined as the spatial, social and environmental center of the
mosque. The encircled area is functionally protective from dust typhoons and dust carrying winds
while maintaining the climatic conditions inside the structure. While being enclosed, it provides privacy
and safety while maintaining, in a way, its own microclimate. The two Iwans are placed on the North
and South part of the courtyard with the colonial‟s brick porches on the East and West ends of it. The
25
courtyard‟s built measurements are 11m by 11m making it a narrow enough square to control the
shaded area during the peak of the daylight but also being broad enough for solar gain in the winter
months.
Figure 30 : Central courtyard of Varzaneh mosque
A strategically built water pool in the center of the courtyard acts as thermal mass and helps
facilitate the moisture level in the air as it gets extremely dry in the arid climate. The water in the pool,
being the thermal mass, stores the solar radiation from the sunlight during the day and dissipates the
heat during the night when the temperature is much lower. A sprinkler placed on top of the water pool
regulates the heat in the courtyard through evaporative cooling during the peak summer months.
Leaving the main entrance aside, all the other entrances and openings are led to this enclosed
courtyard to help regulate the natural light and fresh air ventilation. The ventilation openings and
location are extensively influenced by the climatic design and the use of appropriate materials. Direct
sunlight and solar gain is drastically reduced to the interior space due to the placements of the
colonial porches. The courtyard, even during the hot seasons, provides a refuge of comfort where the
cool air gets trapped at night and is circulated during the day without the use of any modern
mechanical help.
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3.2.1.2. Climatic Discussion on the Main Prayer Hall and the South Iwan
Roofed with a double shelled dome, the South portion of the main prayer hall is a squared
space with 7m x 7m dimensions. The double shelled dome is placed on an octagonal base which
makes it visually look like a star. The intermediate space between the domes consists of two floors
with glaze tiled mihrab and arches that uses the climatic design in order to facilitate the cool air in this
portion. The theory behind the design was that, in order to cool the place the designers constructed a
high and unwieldy space. The dome creates an increase in height of the structure that gives more
room for the hot air to rise above the main prayer hall and exit through openings in the roof. This
incorporation of the chimney effect, where the hot air rises due to the high pressure pushing the cool
air down, provides a cool and comfortable place for the worshippers even during the summer months.
Figure 31 : Chimney effect observed in the main prayer hall
The double –shelled dome is also an efficient climatic influenced design that works as an
insulator. The dome is divided into two parts, one external and one internal. The external dome
receives direct solar gain from the sunlight but prevents passing the heat gain to the interior dome
due to the air between both the domes that acts like a thermal insulator. Since the interior dome does
not receive any direct heat gain, it therefore does not pass on the heat radiation to the interior of the
main prayer hall subsequently decreasing the interior temperature. The domes and roofs are
constructed using sun-dried bricks in the arid regions of the country as they are much more effective
in reducing solar gain than stone or any other material. The shape of the dome effectively increases
the surface area of the roof resulting in a bigger spread when considering the heat gain. The heat
27
gain average thus reduces the transfer of heat to the interior. Another benefit of the dome shape is its
ability to shade itself from the sun throughout the day while the winds cool the surface with ease
reducing the intensity of the radiation. The Southern Iwan that joins the main prayer hall to the
courtyard is strategically constructed in the epitome of the building‟s ventilation, light and heat gain
inlet. The construction thus creates a prioritized pathway that leads from an open courtyard to a semi-
open space and gradually leading to the close main prayer hall. Without any mechanical support and
using only the natural forces, the Iwan redirects the cool air that is collected in the courtyard to the
main prayer hall. The Iwan has been covered in white plaster with drastically reduces heat absorption
and reflection making the area under it very cool and thermally comfortable. The Southern Iwan‟s gate
also functions as an outlet for the warm air that rises in the main prayer hall.
3.2.1.3. Eastern and Western Colonial Porches
The colonial porch design can be signified by the concept of being in the purgatory of space
where one could be both inside and outside at the same time or neither. This is a common practice in
design of buildings in hot and arid climates as it provides a transition between spaces. Partially
outdoor spaces are an important addition to the building structure as it forms a buffer zone that
provides varying degrees of shading and access control throughout the building. The airflow around
this space plays a significant role of facilitating the ventilation and climatic control which in turn
creates a microclimate that is much required for an arid environment. During the peak summer
months when the sun is higher in the sky, the porches play a critical role of minimizing the direct
sunlight into the interior which in turn keeps the bedchambers cool regardless of the high temperature
outside.
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Figure 32 : Southern Iwan of Varzaneh Mosque
Figure 33 : Western Column Porche
The colonial‟s porches constructed in the western and eastern side are considered to be semi-
open spaces that enclose the courtyard controlling the amount of direct ventilation and light that is let
into the bedchamber. The area below the porches is ideal for people to get together to enjoy a
pleasant breeze even during summer while giving a good view into the courtyard and the exterior
area.
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3.2.1.4. Ecological Use of Construction Materials
The planning, design and construction of the building heavily relies on the different aspects of
solar gain and sun direction. Hence, the materials used in the construction of the building should
ideally help organize and control the effects of the sun. Besides the aspect of thermal comfort, the
materials used in an interior space also reflect the perception felt by the occupants. The design to
make the building more responsive to the climate lies heavily in the materials used for the
construction. It is common practice to use sun-dried bricks as it is the most efficient material when it
comes to resisting direct solar gain as compared to stone. Another benefit of using bricks is that it‟s
readily available in that region which makes it practical and economical to use in construction. Sun
dried bricks have been in use for over 5000 years and hence the quality of the material and its
practicality have evolved and improved over the years. Brick has a high thermal capacity and
therefore performs better than other materials in a dry arid climate. There are a few drawbacks in
using this material as it isn‟t very effective when it comes to facing rain and moisture in comparison to
wood and stone. As mitigation, the designers decided to cover to bottom portion of the wall with stone
while the rest was constructed using dry brick. The brick exterior takes an extensively longer time to
absorb the direct heat and radiate a small portion to the interior of the building. The direct solar gain
absorbed by the brick is retained in the wall for about 8 hours and by the time it radiates the heat from
the walls to the interior, the sun would set effectively decreasing the temperature outside. This
strategy quite efficiently manages to facilitate the hot temperatures during the day and main the
required warmth during the cool night hours. The walls of the mosque are made extremely thick so as
to prevent the air inside to be affected by the temperature outside, even during the peak winter
months.
3.2.1.5. Incorporation of an arched roof
While the incorporation of an arched roof instead of a flat roof may give an impression of the
region‟s immediate culture, it also very effectively articulates the design advantage it has it terms of
climatic control. The microclimate established in the building heavily depends on the incorporation of
climatic defense design used in the roof. Aspects of services like ventilation, natural light and solar
gain together construct the required thermal comfort one hopes to achieve in an arid environment. In
regions like these, with a hot arid climate, flat roof tends to receive huge amounts of direct solar gain
as the entire surface is directly exposed to the sun throughout the day. A doomed or arched roof
30
tends to shade itself from the direct rays exposing only a small portion to the sun that changes
through the movement of the sun. An arched roof tends to not receive the entire intensity of the sun
as compared to a flat roof and for a much shorter time period too. Since the intensity of solar gain is
much lower, the rise of the interior air temperature tends to be slower and does not peak drastically
due to the lack of constant solar gain. Apart from the solar gain, arched roof receive a nominal
amount of cool breeze from the flowing winds, irrespective of the wind direction, that keeps the roof
cool even during a hot summer day. The heat radiated by an arched roof is thus much lower than a
flat roof which eventually results in lower interior temperatures due to weakened solar radiation.
Figure 34 : Domed and Arched Roof of the Mosque
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3.2.1.6. Use of Color for Climatic Design
The color used in the interior of the mosque plays a big part in maintaining the thermal comfort
in the interior space. Since the majority of the construction was made using bricks, the most dominant
color in the mosque is brick colored yet a huge portion of the building has been plastered using white
plaster that drastically helps reduce the interior temperature. While the white reflects off the heat with
minimal absorption, it also helps in spreading natural light as the white reflects the light waves to other
surface areas increasing the intensity of natural lighting. All the sections of the building that are in
pass ways connecting to the other sections of the mosque have been covered using this white
plaster.
Figure 35 : Interior of Varzaneh mosque
32
4. Adaptive Architecture……………………………...………………………………………………...…
Figure 36 : Solar powered village in Egypt built by Karmbuild
The term „adaptive architecture‟ isn‟t a subjective realization as any architectural design can
be considered as manually adaptive through planning, design or materials. Since our concern is not
with the overall context of „adaptive‟ but rather specifically with buildings that are designed to be
adaptive to their surroundings. The adaptive feature may or may not be automated depending on the
technology involved. It can transpire over different levels that would cover a variety of approaches
specifying the labeled approaches as flexible, interactive, smart and cooperative and so forth
(Schnädelbach, 2010). Ideally, adaptive architecture is to be independent of any particular concerns
and the present commutative approach towards design subconsciously highlights the adaptive nature
of the design through data taken about the environment and relative attributes. However, it is
important to analyze and categorize the chief motivators that help direct the adaptive tenure of a
building.
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4.1. Cultural
Cultural adaptation is an ever evolving design approach that can be observed over the history.
Multipurpose halls, theaters and enclosed public spaces are known to incorporate adaptive strategies
combined with the newest technology available in order to maximize artistic and practical parameters.
Apart from the regional influences, the experimentation of materials and their relation with space for a
particular scientific parameter. As an example, the SPECS (Synthetic Perspective Emotive and
Cognitive Systems group) at UPF (Pompeu Fabra University) in Barcelona created inhabitable yet
experimental space which as distinctly designed in order to permit researchers to understand how
human minds work. The conceptual design can take any shape to fulfill the pre-determined needs that
can be experimental, practical or just situational.
Figure 37 : The Club Regent Casino and Event Center in Las Vegas (USA) that is designed to adapt to the functional
need and situation of the occupants
4.2. Societal
Socially adaptive design can be heavily credited to the objective motive of people desiring a
particular lifestyle. Working in conjunction with cultural design, an example is of Japanese vernacular
architecture that reacts to spatial restriction by constructing adaptive interior spaces. Originating from
aspects of nomadic lifestyle where the buildings were designed to be portable and reconfigurable in
accordance to the regional and climatic needs. In the present world, one of the chief driven motives
34
for social adaptation is for the sustainable wellbeing of the environment. At present, numerous
building projects have instilled design strategies that aim to reduce the carbon emissions that procure
due to constructions or operational services. When considering ulterior motives, architectural trend is
an unspoken motivator of social adaptive change. Architectural firms incorporate fashionable and
technological trends in their design portfolios that are eventually implemented in a real world scenario.
Since these trends rapidly evolve with technological and research advancements, these design
approaches are responsive to efficiency based tendencies and overall proficiency.
Figure 38 : Process of interior space expansion by 'hisashi' in a Japanese

structure. The sequences show how the interior space was expanded while
the structure of the principal hall remained in its original condition.
4.3. Organizational
Adaptive building design that takes a versatile

approach aims to appropriately change to the constantly
altering occupational circumstances. The space, being the
medium of use, needs to cater to the functional changes of the
organization. This may be responsive to the minute daily
changes or even a maintaining mundane evolvement for a long
term goal. An adaptable approach of these sorts would also
cause a direct or an indirect implication on its surrounding
environment. The „Pompidou Centre’ can be taken into thought
when considering the implementation of versatility in partitions
characterized solely on their purpose (Perez, 2010). The
service and utility framework enclosed the structure itself
displaying all the service systems as means to not only identify their functions but also implemented
to provide maximum interior space without compromise. Apart from strategies that aim to adapt to use
functionality, the strategies also need to adjust to the natural environment. A self-concentrated
approach would be for the building to adapt to feasible construction and deconstruction making it
mobile and unattached to the surroundings. Buildings designed for climatic adaptation, being a higher
concern of this research paper, need to cope, mitigate and minimize the impact they have on its
environmental surroundings. With the constant threat of climate change, organizations tend to adapt
to the subtle yet prominent climatic changes with ecofriendly strategies in operations and
35
infrastructure. For economic benefit or for the betterment of our environment, corporations have been
known to implement electronic building management systems that assist in operating building for
efficiently. Started off as an economical beneficial trend in the early 1970s, it has evolved to be
motivated by the drive sustainably run an ecofriendly operation. Modern work spaces frequently
integrate sustainable strategies into their functioning frameworks. Organizational adaptation is an
effective way to optimize the flow management of an association that is influenced by the daily
varying instances and operations. Standards are set in order to inculcate strategies to face
emergency situations or to generally prevent them.
Figure 39 : The Pompidou Centre designed by Renzo Piano that expresses itself as a radical concept organisational
adaptiveness with its utility and service exposured facade design
4.4. Communication
With the exponential growth of technological advancements come drastic improvements in

social communication mediums. As the world is tending to social interactions over constantly adapting
digital media platforms, the adaptive nature can be applied to the physical social mediums as well.
Corporate organizations ideally require a space that is in contrast to general seclusion focuses on
increasing social integration. Usually this is achieved though planned and structure layouts that
determine the functionality of a space, and therefore with it, the functionality of the individuals
occupying that space. In a physical space, adaptive communication can influence that personality,
36
aesthetic behavior and interior spacing since this would directly stimulus the interactions of individuals
in that space. As an example, consider the seating arrangements that are constructed in a stadium
and its difference to the seating at an auditorium as either of them cater to an audience but the
functionality of the building alters the communication between the attraction and the recipient.
Communication adaption can be instilled in a digital form as well where organizations install
conferencing and communication technologies to keep the different divisions connected virtually
minimizing the need for physical movement. Apart from the communication needs of the organization
from within the structure, some corporations, in the shape of a communicative façade, showcase their
feature with a pictorial image on their exterior front. The Allianz Arena in Munich is example of having
a communicative front as the stadium‟s façade is designed to change color which the management
uses to showcase the colors of the teams playing in the stadium. Klein Dytham‟s concept, the iFly
Virgin Wonder wall takes this approach one step further where pedestrians can interact and engage
with the façade through their smart phones and answer questions posted on the digital surface of the
wall.
Figure 40 : The Allianz Arena in Munich with its communicative facade displaying the country's national flag colors
37
5. Climate Adaptive Architecture………………...………………………………………….…………
Figure 41 : The Al-Bahr Towers in Abu Dhabi

(UAE) includes the incorporation of the traditional
Arab latticework 'Mashrabiya' into the building
facade as a shading device that functionally
responds to the moving exposure of the sun as a
climatic responsive feature
A climatically adaptive design can

be defined as an intelligent design
approach in which variations of composed
strategies are incorporated into an
architectural construct to achieve optimal
thermal comfort with marginal expenditure
of energy (Etzion; Pearlmutter; Erell; Meir,
1997). Over the years, in the field of
architecture, it has been clearly observed
that the architectural design has evolved
around its ability to adapt and work in
conjunction with the surrounding climate.
The climatic response of design cannot
take the back seat but in fact needs to be
the spearheading thought of initiation.
While a present day architect is expected to trail the effective norms or design, it is noteworthy to
assess the concepts of design that have been used over the past. Building design has noticeably
evolved around climatically adaptable constructs over the centuries where importance was given to
establish a settlement that works in conjunction with the regions climate. Despite the technological
improvements, the basics of design remains true to its roots where the buildings are expected to be a
lasting installment and be prone to the physical and Meta physical changes that are expected to act
on it over the years. Architecture is said to be conceptually depended on its social, technological,
cultural and economic surrounding yet it just as much depends on its climatic and environmental
influences too. In order to discover Architecture that is flexible and resilient, it is best to observe
38
architecture that has been accommodating with the permanent and prevailing weather conditions
through generations of adapting and change. Strategies employed by vernacular designs that have
evolved over years to modulate the climate of that region can be studied, tinkered and employed in a
present day scenario that experiences similar climatic conditions. Even thou climate cannot be the
primary influence of the any architectural design, in places where the climatic conditions are
considered to be severe, the role of climate during design can be acknowledged to be of primary
concern (Marra). In order to understand, study and effectively characterize the framework strategies
involved in climate adaptive architecture, especially in an arid environment, it is important to tabulate
the general approaches that are considered for effectively adapting to the climate in question.
The concept of climatic adaptive architecture can be observed in many projects around the world,
notably portrayed in the design of the Eso Hotel Cerro Paranal in Chile. Constructed in the Atacama
Desert, the Eco hotel was designed under the influence of extreme climatic considerations of the arid
environment. The hotel is by no means a tourist location as the weather conditions here are quite
extreme. The annual precipitation is less than a centimeter with minimal humidity of about 5%-10%.
The structure is constructed at a very high altitude and hence receives high amount of radiation
throughout the year. The wind patterns are extremely harsh too as there are strong winds that blow
from the Andes mountain range directed towards the Pacific Ocean with average wind speeds that
can reach up to 40km/hr. The temperature ranges vary depending on the season as they can go as
low as -10 degree Celsius in the winter nights and up to 25 degree Celsius during the summer days.
With frequent earthquake tremors that have been recorded to hit up to 8.5 magnitudes on the Richter
scale, this location is by no means a composed climatic location.
39
Figure 42 : The Eso Hotel constructed in Chile that is designed for the particularly harsh climatic environment of that
region
Due to the extreme climatic conditions, the construction had to carry out adequately and
calculatedly. Concrete was chosen as the primary construction material as materials like steel and
brick wouldn‟t be economically feasible or practical. The supporting walls and floors aren‟t plastered
and left exposed. The traces of steel used in the interior and in the facades are coated with ferrous
oxide including the concrete to match the aesthetics with the desert conditions in the surroundings.
The red ferrous oxide has a distinctive red dye color that gives the steel an impression of raw metal.
The use of concrete helps regulate the temperature difference from the interior and the exterior so as
to keep a thermal comfortable temperature in the interior throughout the day.
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5.1. Bioclimatic Design in Vernacular Architecture
Vernacular architecture in dry climatic regions incorporates the traditional technologies to work
in accordance to the local climate in order to give the occupants optimal thermal comfort. Since there
has been an exponential growth in technological advancements, it is not surprising that most of the
known vernacular techniques for passive cooling have been rendered obsolete due to functioning
inefficiency, cultural changes, financial constraints or ecological circumstances (Eltrapolsi, 2014).
Unfortunately, during the development of infrastructure, the vernacular architecture is paid very little
heed in order to help develop the current construction trends. However, the passive cooling systems
in question here can be perfected through diligent design where the focus would be to study and
understand the fundamental principles of those vernacular architectural strategies and successfully
incorporating those to improve the current trends. There have been recent studies in order to learn
and quantify the efficiency of vernacular techniques in practicality (Foruzanmehr; Nicol, 2008). Both
qualitative and quantitative studies were carried out to evaluate the performance of vernacular
techniques in the practical environment under extreme dry-hot climatic conditions of the Sultanate of
Oman through on field measurements which concluded on cultural and climatic efficiency of the
regions vernacular architecture being a highly appropriate solution for creating optimal thermal
comfort (Mahdjoubi; Cullen; Taylor;Nikolopoulou, 2009). The vernacular strategies were successful in
creating a comfortable
environment while utilizing
minimal energy due to its sole
dependence on only renewable
sources of energy.
Figure 43 : The Lariha house in Yazd

(Iran) is an example of bioclimatic
centered design used in vernacular
architecture. The house is a single
storied construction that was
completed in the 18th century and
shows concise incorporation of
climate adaptive design
41
The studies carried out also highlighted the fact that the traditional strategies were intensively
effective in reducing energy consumption and the harmful carbon emissions. Conceptual prototypes
built using these traditional approaches were constructed using materials with high thermal mass and
window openings that were unglazed and limited. These features of the prototype make them
inefficient in the present day scenario as compared to the current trends. It was therefore concluded
that the concepts would restrict the ability of the structure to instill strategies that would help in solar
gains during the winter months and night purging during the summer months. The constructive
strategies implemented against the environmental restrictions weren‟t as effective in terms of
functionality but the concepts had a good thermal performance when placed in a high altitude and
mountainous region as compared to low lying lands and humid coastal regions. Therefore, the
advantages acquired from the quantitative approaches would be more practical to incorporate in order
to make the existing solutions more efficient and operative.
5.2 Passive Cooling
The most appropriate way to cool a space without any mechanical support is through the
technique of passive ventilation. This is notably done by incorporating strategies for suitable window
placement to enforce effective cross ventilation or night time ventilation to cool down the thermal
mass. In the book, „Passive Cooling for Buildings‟ (Santamouris; Asimakopoulos, 1996) the authors
have highlighted the three essential approach segments that are to be focused on for the successful
passive cooling of a structure. First is to minimize the heat gain of the building through incorporation
of strategies that would create a comfortable micro climate in the vicinity. This could be thought the
means of installing water pools, plants for shading, façade envelopes and insulation to increase the
thermal resistance. The second approach involves using phase changing materials for construction
that would enhance the thermal storage capacity of the building and help mitigate the heat gains. And
the last approach is the incorporate natural ventilation strategies that would assist in minimizing
internal temperature and decrease the heat gain load in the interior space of the building.
Overall, the natural ventilation during summer uses fresh air to maintain or cool the
temperature while in winter the ventilation maintains the temperature and keeps out excessive
moisture. So it is safe to say that the thermal character and attributes of a building relies heavily on
the natural ventilation efficiency of that space. While curiously, the difference in thermal levels among
the various parts of the building helps regulate the airflow through the structure. Ventilation at night,
42
also known as „night purge‟, can greatly influence in minimizing the heat gain while dramatically
increasing the thermal comfort during the hot summer months. Night ventilation is particularly efficient
in creating a comfortable microclimate and maintaining a level of thermal comfort for the occupants of
the building.
Figure 44 : Floor plan of Lariha house showing incorporation of strategies such as Wind catchers and Centered courtyard
with water pools as elements of passive cooling techniques
Figure 45 : Cross ventilation strategies to induce passive cooling
43
Figure 46 : (Left) Appropriate implementation of cross ventilation design. (Right) Inappropriate implementation of cross
ventilation design given rise to mixing of stale air
5.3. Night Ventilation
Ventilation of fresh air at night, also called nocturnal ventilation, is an effective and low energy
consuming strategy that helps minimize the heat gain of the building and improve the thermal comfort
of the occupants. The concept of night ventilation relies on the simple principle of circulating cool
moving air through the building at night which in turn helps reduce the interior temperature and cool
the thermal mass of the building. The effectiveness of this strategy depends mainly on the relative
variance between the temperature in the exterior and interior of the building. Incidentally, this
technique is apt when used in a building constructed with materials with a high thermal mass based in
a dry-hot climate. During the day, the thermal mass of the building absorbs the solar radiation and
heat which gets stored in the structure due to the mass‟s absorbing properties. During night, when the
temperatures outside have dropped drastically in comparison to the day temperatures, the exterior air,
much lower in temperature now, is circulated through the building. The cooling at night, depending on
the thermal capacity of the construction materials, could be used to counterbalance the heat gains the
building may be subjected to the very next day. Nocturnal ventilation‟s attributes and its efficiency
depend on numerous factors such as the wind flow, functionality of the building and the thermal mass
state of the structure. The psychological adaptation of the strategy is an important aspect for the
successful operation of the technique as it depends on the functional behavior of the occupants. The
occupant‟s functional behavior that would influence night ventilation includes actions like keeping the
doors or windows closed and for how long depending on the level of thermal comfort reached (Allard;
Santamouris, 1998). Since free flowing air motion needs adequate pressure to drive it through the
building efficiently, it can be induced through the pressure differences that arise from the variation of
44
the interior and exterior temperatures. There are four different ways by the means of which a building
can successfully use night ventilation to help discard the heat gain it acquired throughout the day
(Kolokotroni; Aronis, 1999). The first way depends on wind flow dependent cross ventilation or stack
effect strategies that can be incorporated at night in order to decrease the interior temperature.
Another way to reduce the internal temperature is thought cooling the thermal components of the
building using the cooler night air. The structure‟s slab temperature can act as a heat sink during the
day if they were cooled through nocturnal ventilation the previous night. And lastly, appropriate
selection and installation of insulation can help create a time period delay between the heat transfers
from the external temperature to the internal temperature. However, in regions that experience a hot-
dry climate throughout most parts of the year, the night cooling strategy is aimed to cool down the
building structure due to possible high
thermal heat gain during the day. The
constant flushing of heat at night through
natural ventilation creates a cycle that
allows the mass release of heat gain which
in turn lets the mass to absorb next day‟s
heat. This can observed in vernacular
adapted strategies observed in hot dry
climate architecture. Decisively, in an arid
climate, the strategies employed to reduce
the building‟s internal temperature can
effectively contribute to the thermal comfort
of the building‟s occupants.
Figure 47 : Visual interpretation of night/nocturnal

ventilation
45
5.4. Thermal Comfort
According to the American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE), thermal comfort can be defined as “the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation”. Based on that definition, we can
credit thermal comfort as an essential ingredient for the development and preservation of human
health which is an amalgam of physical, mental and social safety. Another definition of thermal
comfort coined by Gut and Ackerknecht describes it as “the situation in which the least amount of
extra effort is needed to uphold the occupant‟s body‟s thermal balance” (Gut; Ackerknecht, 1993).
However, the issue of thermal comfort in hot dry climate region becomes less relevant in terms of
natural cooling systems as most building designs incorporate automated air cooling and air
conditioning systems with minimal adaptations made to the building framework design to counter this
issue. Especially in the Middle East, it is common preference to employ mechanical air cooling
strategies with bare minimum importance given to passive cooling strategies. This mechanical
adaptive approach could easily be enhanced and improved with appropriate incorporation of passive
strategies, especially the ones involving night time passive cooling. Such an optimum design model
would be beneficial for economic feasibility, personal thermal comfort and climatic adaptation as
occupants would experience a natural ventilated space.
Figure 48 : Psychometric chart

for hot-arid climate
(Muscat,Oman) showing
comfort zone for the region
46
Adaptive thermal comfort would therefore be a plausible construct based on the fact that exterior
temperatures directly influence the interior temperatures and the occupants can adapt to the different
temperatures throughout the different periods of the year. Adaptive thermal comfort is also described
as a “function of the opportunities for change as well as the realistic temperatures attained” (Nicol;
Humphreys, 2002). Hence, the concept of thermal comfort is only applicable in a scenario where the
occupants have full control over the spaces and regulate the thermal attributes through manually
operating the ventilation openings without support from the mechanical ventilation or cooling
demonstrating a dynamic relationship between the occupants and their surrounding environment.
5.5. Thermal Sensation Scale
The thermal comfort of people is subjective to the climatic environment they reside in. The
concept of thermal comfort may also fluctuate in accordance to the variation in the weather patterns.
When the temperature falls, people demand a warmer environment, whereas when the temperature
rises, people require a cooler living condition. Due to the subjective thermal sensation distribution
among different people, the thermal comfort construct is calculated by human energy balance models
defined by constant state conditions (Becker; Potchter; Yaakov). In these models, the human thermal
regulation system is exposed to common climatic conditions for a prolong period of time. In
accordance to the study, the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration Air Conditioning
Engineers) adopted the thermal comfort and sensation scale in order to classify human thermal
sensation appropriately and it as follows:
+3 (Hot)
+2 (Warm)
+1 (Slightly warm)
0 (Neutral)
-1 (Slightly cool)
-2 (Cool)
-3 (Cold)
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Furthermore, there are six main factors that influence the thermal comfort and are listed as follows:
Figure 49 : Factors affecting thermal comfort in humans
5.5.1. Metabolic Rate (met)
In context of an organism, it
is defined as the rate of
transformation of chemical energy
into mechanical work and heat
through the means of metabolic
activities. It is usually calculated
and expressed in relation of unit
area of the organism entire surface
area. Mathematically, the metabolic
rate is expressed in met units.
Figure 50 : MET chart for general activities
48
5.5.2. Clothing Insulation (clo)
The clothing on the occupants heavily influence the thermal balance and the overall heat loss
and therefore the volume of thermal insulation equipped by an individual has a prominent impact on
the overall thermal comfort of a space. Normally, the insulating attribute of a garment directly depends
on its thickness and depending on the textile used to make the garment; the relative humidity and the
wind speed, the insulating ability of the garment can fluctuate.
Figure 51 : Clo values for general clothing
49
5.5.3. Air Temperature
In context to a specific location and time, the air temperature is the average temperature of
the air in the occupant‟s vicinity. The ASHRAE 55 standard describes it as the air temperature
average that takes into account the ankle, waist and head level which may vary for occupants who
are seated or standing. The temporal average is taken on 3 minute interval bases that contain at least
eighteen spaced points at any given time. Air temperature is expressed using a dry-bulb thermometer
and hence is also called as dry-bulb temperature.
Figure 52 : Graphical representation of air temperature in relation to air flow velocity
5.5.4. Radiant Temperature
Based on the material‟s attribute to absorb or emit thermal heat, the radiant temperature is
expressed as the volume of radiant heat that is transferred from a material‟s surface. Also known as
the „emissivity‟ of an object or material, the mean radiant temperature relies on the air temperature as
well as the emissivity of surrounding object surfaces. Another factor that influences the radiant
temperature is the „view factor‟ that can be described as the volumes of surface that is seen by the
object in question. In reference to an occupant, the mean radiant temperature that is felt by an
50
individual in a closed space with incoming solar gain varies based on how much of the individual‟s
body surface is directly in contact with the sun rays.
Figure 53 : Graphical representation of air temperature with the surrounding surface temperatures
5.5.5. Wind Speed
In context of HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning system), the wind or air speed is
labeled as the rate of air movement velocity at a specific point without any consideration to the
direction of the air flow. The ASHRAE Standard 55 defines wind speed as the mean velocity of air to
which the occupant‟s body is exposed to at a specific time and place. While the linear average is the
very same as the current air temperature, the spatial temperature average depends on the hypothesis
that the body is exposed to a constant and uniform air velocity that has been set to a thermo
physiological model. Evidently, some of the spaces in context here might contain non uniform air
velocities with considerable surface heat loss that cannot come into the same framework as
uniformity. Due to this inconsistency, when designing a space, a designer is expected to take a
proper average into consideration of the air speeds in question in order to achieve a higher efficiency
of thermal comfort of the occupants.
51
Figure 54 : Graphical representation of wind speed in relation to air

temperature
5.5.6. Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of a space can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water vapor in
the air to the volume of water vapor that the air is constrained to hold at that specific pressure and
temperature (Hashiguchi; Tochihara, 2008). Occupants are able to easily differentiate the temperature
difference or at least approximate it through the stimuli on the skin but the same can‟t be said for
relative humidity as it is detected indirectly. As a response to high humidity, the human body tends to
sweat as a mitigate strategy to cool down the body and this heat loss technic utilized by the body
relies on evaporation from the surface of the skin. When the relative humidity is quite high, it means
that the amount of water vapor that air in that space can hold is at maximum capacity and therefore
the rate of evaporation is reduced which in turn means the rate of heat loss has decreased too. While
high relative humidity is uncomfortable, so is having low humidity in very dry climatic environments
due to its ill effects on a body‟s mucous membrane. For optimal comfort indoors, the commended
humidity level should be in the range of 30% - 60% considering the building is well ventilated and air
conditioned (Balaras; Dascalaki; Gaglia, 2007). In a recent study, the effects of high air speed with
low relative humidity were studied on people just after they had taken a bath (Hashiguchi; Tochihara,
2008). It was found that due to the low relative humidity, the participants suffered thermal discomfort
through the sensations of itchiness and skin dryness and therefore it was concluded that the relative
humidity levels should be higher in the washrooms as compared to the rest of the building.
52
Figure 55 : Graphical representation of relative humidity in relation to thermal comfort
The above mentioned and categorized factors must be taken in consideration when designing for
optimal thermal comfort. In another instances, it is conventional to account for the subjective
responses of the occupants thought the means of a prepared questionnaire survey as a data
collection method to find out the occupant‟s perception of thermal comfort in the building. By exploring
the occupant‟s likings we can understand the requirements and highlight the problems that could
occur through practical use.
53
6. Vernacular Architecture in the Sultanate of Oman ……………………..…………...……
Figure 56 : The Muttrah fort in Muscat (Oman). An example of fortified vernacular architecture in the country
6.1. Introduction
As a research directive for this paper, one of the main focus is to establish an understanding
with the vernacular architecture of a hot and arid climatic country, is this case the Sultanate of Oman,
as it is in the researcher‟s scope of interest. As it is true with other similar scenarios, the vernacular
architecture of the Sultanate of Oman is influenced and works in conjunction with the sociocultural
guidelines as well as the requirement for comfortable living in a hot and arid climatic region (Majid;
Shuichi; Takagi, 2012). Through vernacular architecture, a concept of designed has been expressed
that claims influence from its environmental surroundings, technological advancements and social
constructs it was built around (Gabreil, 2006). Hassan Fathy, an architect has commented on the
relationship that ties vernacular architecture with the climate and socio-culture by presenting a broad
definition that states that vernacular architecture is the profound results of accumulative expertise
though an extend period of generations (El-Shorbagy, 2010). Furthermore, Fathy expressed that the
advancement of vernacular architecture has been conjoined with the region‟s local construction
54
materials, climatic conditions and socio economic culture. These statements stand ground for the
proposition that vernacular architecture is an amalgam of both, the socio-culture and the climatic
attributes of the region and has evolved in accordance to the needs of the society. In Oman, the
influence of vernacular architecture can clearly be seen even in the current era of construction while
the vernacular buildings themselves can still be found around the country still in use or abandoned.
The vernacular settlements contain various structure typologies in accordance to the environment,
typography and material availability. The building requirements are based on the region and can vary
between forts, palaces, mosques, castles and residential houses. These buildings were constructed
influenced from culture but constrained due to the climate, location, material availability and political
factor. The influences mentioned above are more prominent in residential buildings in comparison to
the religious, social or government buildings. The commercial buildings have a widespread and
conventional design whereas the residential buildings are distinctive depending on the variant region.
Figure 57 : Northern region of the Sultanate of Oman
55
Figure 58 : Coastal region of the Sultanate of Oman
Figure 59 : Interior region of the Sultanate of Oman
56
Figure 60 : Southern region of the Sultanate of Oman
6.2. Vernacular Design of Residential Houses
The geographical grid of the country is mainly divided into four main regional topographies,
the coastal, desert, mountainous and the tropical/monsoon areas in the southern part of the country.
Due to the diversity in the geographical terrain, these regions also have variations of microclimates
and socio-cultural influences. As a consideration, the coastal vernacular buildings that are mostly
occupied by fishermen and crop farmers are designed to face the hot-humid climate of that region.
They have incorporated strategies that mitigate the weather conditions and high humidity faced in the
area. The building layouts are constructed and oriented to enhance the evaporative cooling strategy.
The residential houses are constructed with a flat roofed platform where temporary summer shading
is constructed as a light weight installation, locally called the „Khaymah‟.
57
The residential settlements seen in

the desert region are designed to counter
the hot and arid conditions by having a
congested house plan with tiny openings
on the house façade. The buildings
constructed here are all made of mud since
it‟s the most conventional and easily
available material in this region.
Figure 61 : Traditional Coastal House Built from Mudbrick (Barka,Oman)
In the interior, the climatic conditions can be extremely dry and arid and to combat these
conditions, the buildings are constructed using mud bricks as it is quite effective in reducing the solar
gain that would otherwise be absorbed by the structure. The buildings are installed with tiny window
openings on the exterior façade with walls that can be as thick as 300 to 450mm. The local
inhabitants are mostly farmers, carpenters and handicraft sculptures who live in simple mud bricked
houses that can go up to three stories high.
The smaller houses have a pitched roof made
from palm trees while the larger mud houses
have flat roof that are constructed using palm
tree trunks as support beams. The
construction on the mountainous regions
differ in construction style and material as all
the buildings here are constructed using
stones as they are found in abundance in the
mountains.
Figure 62 : Mud brick Houses Constructed in the interior Desert Region
58
Figure 63 : Stone Build Housing Settlement

(Jabal Al-Akthar, Oman)
Unlike the building built in the

coastal side, the buildings here do not
have separate winter and summer
sections but in fact take in to
consideration the hot summers and
cold winters as a designing factor. In
the southern part of the country, where
the weather conditions can deter
towards being tropical, the vernacular
houses are constructed with stone and then covered with layers of plaster made from limestone. The
building terraces are covered with branches from coconut palm trees while the interior ceiling
framework is constructed using coconut trunks.
Figure 64 : Traditional Housing in the Southern

Region (Dhofar,Oman)
The buildings are always

oriented to effectively divert the sea
breeze winds through the structure by
the means of small perforated window
openings that also help reduce direct
solar gain. The local occupants here
are mostly merchants, farmers and
fishermen.
6.3 Climate of Sultanate of Oman
With an overall climatic attribute of hot and arid the climate of Oman can be segmented into
three different types of climatic zones, the coastal, desert interior and the southern tropical zone.
Coastal being the most populous can be hot humid, the desert region has a dry climate and the
southern region has a tropical monsoon climate. The country itself is located at longitude 51-57E and
latitude 17-26N. The interior desert areas experience long hot summer months with an extremely
59
short winter. With its extensively dry climate, the interior area tends to have a temperature that
reaches higher in summer and much lower in winter in comparison to the humid coastal area. The
winter months begin around November and extent up until March, the area receives temperatures as
low as 10 degree Celsius. The summer months extend through the rest of the year with a definite and
notable absence of spring and fall months. In the summer, the temperature can soar upwards of 50
degree Celsius during the peak months of June and July. The precipitation volume is considerably low
in the country and only tends to increase during the winter months due to the drop in air pressure.
One of the most populated cities in the interior region is the city of Nizwa, with occupancy of
approximately 12,000 people. The following tabular presentation shows the average precipitation and
temperature throughout the year for the city of Nizwa.
Figure 65 : Average Annual Temperature Data
Since the most predominant climate in the country is the hot dry and the hot maritime climate,
the most experienced seasons by the region‟s occupants are the hot summer months and the
comparatively cooler yet short winter months. In order to attain any degree of thermal comfort in these
climatic conditions, the practical motive is to achieve lower interior temperatures and reduce the heat
gain on the thermal mass of the buildings which would in turn make the extreme solar radiation
containable. Installing appropriate shading and instilling a microclimate in the building is an effective
strategy to counter the summer heat gain. The coastal zone experiences a similar climate except with
a much higher percentage of humidity which gives more relevance to strategies involving appropriate
wind flow and ventilation to optimal thermal comfort. Besides the predominant desert climate, the
country experiences humid coastal climate as well as a tropical monsoon region. The capital city of
Muscat experiences the prior mentioned climate and the southern city of Salalah experiences the later
60
type of tropical climate. Following is the tabular details of the annual average weather in both these
cities.
Figure 66 : Annual Weather Data for Muscat and Salalah (Oman Ministry of National Economy)
In hot dry climatic regions, Mahoney tables help take into consideration the intensity and the
duration of the inflicting climatic conditions. In this climate, it is objectively easier to conclude with
comprehensive performance specification but in the case of an adequate passive design it is difficult
to express the conclusion when mechanical heating or cooling does not influence the microclimate.
Mahoney tables are designed to resolve the conflicting requirements by weighting down the relevant
information. The tables aim to categorize with near precision the daytime and nighttime thermal gain
in terms of the conventional centigrade temperature scale.The table is named after the architect Carl
Mahoney who inducted them into practice alongside the architect John Martin Evans (Heerwagen,
2004).
6.4. Mahoney tables for comparison of vernacular design with contemporary design
The Mahoney tables take in readily available climatic data as an input and through predefined
calculations express the required design guidelines in the shape of a convenient spreadsheet unlike a
comprehensive analysis or a detailed thermal description. The table construction requires six
definitive outlined data for an appropriate design output. They are named as follows:
1. Air Temperature: The mean, maximum and minimum temperatures of each month of the year
are required for the data.
61
2. Wind speed, Precipitation and Humidity: The average, maximum and minimum figures for
each month of the year are required as the data where the humidity conditions of each month
are classified in the humidity group.
3. Thermal Comfort and Climate Comparison: The preferred maximum and minimum
temperatures are entered as data and compared to the air temperature values to calculate the
heat or cold stress.
4. Indicators: These are indictors for the arid and humid conditions through characterizing the
humidity and aridity for each month.
5. Schematic Design Recommendations: The data collected is listed and an accumulation of
schematic design recommendations is planned for mention.
6. Design Development Recommendation: Using the accumulated data again to mention
/recommendation for design developments.
By taking assistance through constructive Mahoney table for the cities of Muscat and Salalah,
the contrasting climatic design necessities can be observed that show the requirements for the two
different locations (Taylor; Nikolopoulou; Mahdjoubi; Cullen, 2009).
Figure 67: Extract of Design Recommendation Specifications for Muscat and Salalah Generated Using Mahoney Table
62
For Muscat, dense design with building settlements constructed enclosing courtyards is
recognized as a recommended urban layout while for the climate of Salalah the recommended design
layout is to construct buildings in a broadly spaced urban layout in order to let the cool breeze
penetrate through the structures. The requirement for broadly spaced urban layout arises from the
need of air ventilation to combat the humid conditions experienced in Salalah during the summer
months. In a general overview, the diverse climatic conditions of the country raise a requirement for a
larger pool of climatic design strategies that would reflect the local attributes.
6.5. Passive Cooling Strategies Integrated in the Region
Through the above mentioned use of Mahoney tables we have come to identify the passive
cooling strategies that are required distinctively for both the cities Muscat and Salalah;
 The spatial layout of the building settlements that would help drive the wind current ventilation
to directly cool the space or indirectly through the means of evaporative cooling. Reducing the
heat gain of the building thermal masses and decreasing the overall ambient temperature.
 Incorporating a compact and closed up urban design that would help reduce the rate of direct
solar gain through the means of self-shading between the buildings and the attached streets.
Both the above mentioned strategies have factual examples incorporated into the vernacular built
design landscape of Oman. In regions with high average temperature and comparatively low humidity,
the buildings have been constructed as a group of courtyard enclosed central courtyard as an efficient
response to the climatic attributes to that region. The central courtyard‟s functionality contributes to it
being a water reservoir that stores water which is then used for evaporative cooling while the exterior
portion of the courtyard creates an ambient and solitary microclimate for itself and all the interior
spaces it is contact with. Architect Baruch Givoni, in his book „Climate Considerations in Building and
Urban Design‟ mentions about the attributes of an efficient microclimate in an internal courtyard being
heavily reliant on the design specifics and management, the courtyards constructed in traditional
Salalah houses can be considered as a witness to the effectiveness to an internal courtyards cooling
ability (Givoni, 2008). A survey carried out by the Oman National Census concluded that the villa
styled houses were the most sorted after residential buildings among the locals. Government
introduced restrictions regarding buildings regulations and plot ownership constrict urban planning to
further develop and conspire efficient configurations.
63
Along the coastal line of Oman, traditional wind towers have been constructed in settlements that
were used to catch and utilize the cool morning winds directed from the sea. The traditional wind
towers were constructed to project above the building‟s terrace in order to effectively catch the free
flowing, dust free and cooler wind which would then be channeled through the tower and into interior
to spread through all the rooms in the building below (Oliver, 2007). The cooling effect of the
channeled wind is enhanced using water filled pots with porous exterior that augment the coolness of
the wind through the means of evaporative cooling and thus dramatically reducing the temperature of
the interior space that receives the incoming channeled wind. The installation of these porous water
filled pots has been further used by hanging them around the window openings in order to cool the
incoming air. Studies have expressed the limitations and constrictions from the use of traditionally
designed wind towers which include the lack of dust and critter filtering that would let unwanted dirt
and bugs into the building (Bahdori, 1994). With the steady advancements in the field of passive
cooling, there have been combined strategies of natural ventilation that incorporates direct
evaporative cooling. In a practical construct, there have been instances of projects in Arizona that
make use of downdraft wind towers that are equipped with wet cellulose pads that cool the redirected
wind to the interior (Kamal, 2016). Manually cooling of the building‟s envelope is also a common
practice where the local inhabitants of mountainous regions are known to hose the pathways, floors
and facades in order to facilitate the cooling of the thermal mass. The installation of a water fountain
courtyard in the epicenter of the buildings works in conjunction with the evaporative cooling strategies.
The surrounding environment is used is used as a shading strategy while the traditional design also
incorporates the installation of vegetative shading. The vernacular passive cooling strategies in the
hot arid climate involve a combination of approaches such as compact urban development layout,
installation of central courtyards in buildings, and techniques that facilitate the wind flow movement in
order to cool the interior using the redirected wind. Direct solar gain is a continuous concern in this
region and the terrace of the buildings is the portion that receives the most amount of direct solar
radiation throughout the day. The concept of a dome shaped roof is the most conventional roof in this
climate as it is the most exposed portion of the building to direct solar again and to the clear sky at
night, the dome shape is highly practical and efficient in redistributing the direct solar radiation over a
larger surface area as in comparison to the flat roof. The dome shape is a conventional approach to
effectively reduce the direct solar gain during the day and optimal thermal mass cooling at night
(Konya, 1980). The peculiar curved or arched shape of the roof has an added benefit that makes it
efficient for enhancing the contingent cooling potential of the free flowing winds as the wind path
64
increases over an arched surface increasing the air‟s cooling factors and efficiently reducing the
thermal temperature of the roof (El-Shorbagy, 2010). In order to reduce direct conductive heat flow in
to the thermal mass of the building and to mitigate the range of the internal temperatures, the
incorporation of materials that possess a combined effort of both, having a high thermal resistance
and having a high heat capacity, is beneficial in an hot and dry desert climate (Givoni, 2008).
Vernacular architecture in hot and dry regions more often than enough incorporates the use of stone
and clay in their construction. Clay and stone tend to have a comparatively high heat capacity as
compared to other conventional materials and therefore used for the construction of the characteristic
styles of terraces and notable exterior walls with high thickness (Konya, 1980). The principles of
passive cooling strategies that are used in the vernacular design architecture aim to require low
energy consumption with nil to minimal structure maintenance. Despite the incorporation of
conventional designs, the inclusion of vernacular design and its principles are non-prevailing in the
common practice of modern building design in the Sultanate of Oman. The dependence on
mechanical and automated air cooling is predominant in the country‟s functional culture whereas the
incorporation of a passive design for cooling and heating needs a much more comprehensive
approach that would range not only in practicality but also planned in the construction, design and
detailing of the building. It is then, very crucial for the enforcement of design regulations and requisite
construction approaches for the effective integration of passive cooling techniques as the
conventional way of construction in Oman.
Figure 68 : Traditional Design of a Wind Tower
65
6.6. Vernacular to Contemporary Comparison
Figure 69 : Example of a contemporary villa in Muscat, Oman
As discussed in the chapters above, the understanding that vernacular architecture has been
influenced and evolved from its surrounding environmental, climatic and socio-cultural stimulus,
studies have been done that justify the claims and concluded with design factors to back up those
claims. The design considerations chosen to express the comparison between vernacular and
contemporary architecture are, spatial arrangement, external attributes, material qualities and the
finishes with the building detailing (Majid; Shuichi; Takagi, 2012); . These design considerations were
selected in credit to their prevailing presence in common practice of contemporary architecture in the
country. The comprehensive discussion and comparison will also include a common contemporary
building design that will help evaluate the compatibility of current building design to the counterpart
vernacular architectural design. The study carried out showcases extracts taken from design
considerations and information collected from site visits to traditional and contemporary designs seen
in buildings in cities of Nizwa, Izki, Al-Hamra,Manah and Adam, all situated in the governance of the
Sultanate of Oman.
66
6.6.1. Zoning
Contemporary Design Vernacular Design Observation
Ground Floor Ground Floor Not Compatible.

Majlis (Semi-Public) Majlis (Public) In vernacular design, the
Living Room ( Semi-Public) Storage (Private) ground floor was
Kitchen (Semi-Private) Bathroom (Private) predominantly used as a
Dining Room (Public) utilities, good storage and
First Floor service floor with an
First Floor Majlis (Semi-Private) additional space for the
Family Room (Semi- Living Room (Semi-Private) male occupants to gather
Private) Kitchen (Semi-Private) for business or leisure
Bedrooms (Private) Dining Room (Semi- purposes. The residential
Private) houses have bathrooms in
Bedrooms (Private) the ground floor
constructed with an access
well included. However, in
contemporary design, the
ground floor is considered
as a utility, service and well
as a living space. In
situations where the
vernacular building is
constructed with a single
floor, the spatial
arraignment has designated
zones from public gathering
and a separate space for
the family gathering. The
public and private space is
separated by a courtyard
with the public space being
near the main entrance and
the private space assigned
at the back of the building.
In the case of contemporary
buildings, the private and
public living space is
separated by a semi-public
living space called the
majlis while the rest of the
house is assigned with
semi-private living spaces.
67
6.6.2 Courtyard
There is a noticeable lack In order to effectively Not compatible.

of an enclosed courtyard segregate the different Due to influence from
space in modern designed spatial zones in the house, current trends and
buildings where the houses vernacular design advancements, the
are constructed in a incorporates a central contemporary designed
compact style with a courtyard that helps houses are not equipped or
particular importance given separate the public majlis structured for the occupants
to private space over public area from the private and to enjoy an intermediate
spacing. The lack of a semi-private family outdoor space. The
courtyard also means that designated spaces. It is not ventilation relies heavily on
there is an absence of an uncommon to see automated air conditioning
intermediate space that installation of courtyards in and technological facilities.
connects the interior to the the upper floors as well that
exterior space that might be act as an intermediate
used for a public gathering exterior space for the
and a definite inability to private bedrooms. The
incorporate an efficient incorporation of courtyards
natural ventilation and is a critical approach as it
passive cooling strategy. functionally helps facilitate
the natural ventilation while
providing natural lighting to
the interior of the living
space. The installation of
the courtyard helps create a
microclimate that provides
optimal thermal comfort to
the occupants.
68
6.6.3. Spatial Sizing
Modern designed There is a noticeable Not compatible.

residential buildings are influence on the design The special design in modern
sculpted to cater to the from appropriate spatial buildings is highly subjective to
requirements and needs of needs with a lack of the requirements of the
the proprietors and clients. excessive spacing given to occupants, who in turn are
The buildings are furniture and utilities. The influenced by social of
constructed in order to rooms are constructed to technological wants. The houses
accommodate the be compact, adjusted and are mostly specified to the
occupant‟s belongings and small. Based on containing furniture and the
furniture. Such an approach proportional height allocated space gives priority to
was found to have wastage requirements, the buildings materialistic movement over the
in terms of spacing and have evolved over a period occupants living requirements.
areas throughout the with influences that have
structure in the shape of evolved along with the
unnecessary corridor space design over the same
and inappropriate window period.
installation.
69
6.6.4. Spatial Distribution Based on Gender
The present day design of Quite like the present day It is compatible.
buildings is structured in a approach, the vernacular The segregation and spatial
way that makes the designed houses allocation between the
gathering area, the Majlis, incorporated a segregated occupant‟s genders is still
accessible from an entrance from the male practiced today as it is seen
entrance close to the main occupants which is close to as a cultural or religious
entrance of the house. The the main entrance. The influence that has
male occupants are women occupants have established itself as a
segregated from the rest of designated private or semi- traditional norm.
the household that private spatial areas placed
connects to the private and usually in the living area of
semi-private spaces. the first or second floors.
70
6.6.5. Proportion/Scaling of External and Internal Features
Since the present day The buildings are designed Not Compatible.
design is primarily based on as a combined cluster and Since the construction of
the requirements and are conformed to having contemporary houses
needs of the occupants, the not more than two to three depends entirely on the plot
buildings constructed are floors. The built grouping of allocation by the
usually isolated plot of the houses appears to link Government, they cannot
lands allocated by the them together as they are rely on having a vernacular
Government. Due to designed for occupants influenced approach of
predetermined Government who tend to be from the cluster living and the social
issued design constrictions, same family tree. The knit conditions. The isolated
the houses end up with compact construction buildings are subjected to
similar design attributes to provides self-shading and environmental influences
maintain uniformity. The combined thermal massing from all the directions as
internal features such as has the ability to contain there is nil to minimal self-
staircase, parapet and cool air at night that shading strategies involved.
window design remain minimizes the internal The facades of the building
conformed to the common temperature and helps are constantly exposed to
design while the external maintain the thermal direct sunlight unless
design and the façade comfort. The ventilation shaded by the adjacent
might be open to personal strategy involves the buildings and
detailing and choices. installation of multiple but infrastructures.
small openings that are in
scale to the room‟s spatial
plan. The external wall and
façade are subjected to
personal opinionated
design with minimal
decorative features, which
are mainly restricted to the
doors and window panels.
71
6.6.6. Window Construction and Allocation
Residential buildings and In vernacular buildings, it is Not compatible.

villas have standardized noticed that the The window placement
window opening sizes. The construction of the window follows the confined norms
South facing windows tend openings has been that despite of direct heat
to have minimal shading confined to be positioned at gain need to be equipped
strategies and receive a level higher than the ground with glazing techniques to
large portion of direct solar floor which make them ideal reduce the solar radiation
radiation throughout the for allowing natural lighting penetrating the interiors.
day. The external detailing and ventilation. The The need for privacy of
predominantly includes the elevated construction of the occupants isn‟t an
construction of numerous windows increase privacy important aspect unless
windows openings that are for the occupants with specified and the only
responsible for unrequired window attached shutters windows placed at a higher
heat penetration. The that redirect the incoming elevation are the toilet
installation of reflective wind for differential use windows which are usually
glass windows or using during day or night. equipped with an exhaust
multiple layered high u- attachment. The heat gain
value baring glass does experienced by the interiors
very little to mitigate the is usually amended through
direct heat penetration the incorporations of
experienced by the interior internal strategies.
of the building. The heat
gain during summer is
relegated using air
conditioning which ironically
tends to increase the
temperature of the external
microclimate due to the air
conditioning generators
placed outside the
residential space.
72
6.6.7. Doors
The prime functionality of The vernacular designed It is compatible.

the doors installed in the doors are usually decorated The installation of doors in
building are for access to with traditional decorations a building is an obvious
the buildings, privacy, and constructed using requirement that cannot be
security of the occupants heavy hardwood with a compromised.
and to mitigate the air comparatively large
conditioning load thickness. The doors
management. functionality includes
providing security while
acting as an access pass
between spatial areas.
73
6.6.8. Arches
The installation of arches in The use of arches and Not compatible.

present day residential archways in vernacular
The use of archways in
buildings is a very notable design can be observed at
contemporary design is
attribute that is a prevailing spaces that connect the
mainly for aesthetics and
feature and a norm in most internal space to the
very rarely incorporated as
of the contemporary external and at access
a structural element.
designs. Arches are also openings in the building.
incorporated in the interior Archways can also be seen
of the building as an as structural elements in
attachment to doorways vernacular design
and passageway thought especially around
the building complex. courtyards and staircases.
74
6.6.9. Materials (External Walls)
Modern houses are The walls constructed in Not compatible.

constructed using hollowed most vernacular designed Since the construction norm
out concrete blocks that get use mud bricks or stones for present day design
plastered and painted on with an average thickness involves the use of
both the sides. The wall of anywhere between reinforced concrete for
thickness averages to 300mm to 500mm. The columns and beams, the
230mm including the walls double up as storage constructed walls do not
plastering. The walls act as cabinets and the thickness possess the thickness to
a thermal mass that radiate of the wall helps to prevent carry the thermal load as in
heat to the interior during heat penetration into the comparison to vernacular
the day and only let out interior space. During design. The walls do not act
during night time winter, the walls acts as as thermal mass due to the
ventilation. thermal mass that radiate low thermal capacity and
the trapped heat in them to the furniture in the interior
the interiors at night. need to act as thermal
mass to mitigate the
possible overheating
experienced indoors.
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6.6.10. Floors
The floors are constructed The flooring in the ground Not Compatible.
using concrete slabs that floor is left bare to be used The prevailing
may have finishes installed as natural finishes using the advancements in
with tiles, wood, marble or a earth while the upper levels construction technology
bare concrete floor may have floors make is more feasible to
depending on the constructed using palm have concrete slab flooring
occupant‟s needs. trunks, date palm fronds as it is a more economically
and then covered with mud viable and practically
as finishing. feasible option.
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6.6.11. Roof
Conventional roofing The construction design of It is compatible.

incorporates similar slab the roof is almost identical As the most predominant
installation and construction to the design approached use of the terrace is for a
as the flooring. The roof for the upper floors of the gathering purpose, its use
slab also tends to hide the building. The only becomes purely for social
utilities and services used difference being the lack of reasons unless used for
in the buildings such as plastering as the top floor services and utility storage.
electrical, water and maybe plastered with lime
telecommunication wirings. while the terrace area left
The terrace area is ideally bare. The rare or
constructed to be flat in occasional use of the roof
order to permit further for meeting, and that too
extension to the building or confined to appropriate
to further integrate the weather conditions is the
building for a gathering reason why the terrace is in
area that maybe shaded for use quite infrequently.
recreational purposes.
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6.6.12. Finishes/Detailing
It is a common practice to Installation of parapet Not compatible.

install a meter high parapet design can be noticed in The incorporation of
during construction design vernacular design too and crenellations in modern
that aims to provide privacy dependent of the design is seen only as an
to the occupants from the functionality of the building. aesthetic attachment rather
street outside. The most Important structures such than any practical
common design seen in as government buildings, functionality. The
contemporary houses castles and local forts are crenellations are seen as a
design is parapets with known to have parapets cultural influence as earlier
crenellations that have incorporated with in time they were used for
personalized design in crenellations that could the fortification of castles
order to accompany the have been used for and buildings but currently
overall façade design of the defensive purposes add only aesthetic value to
residential building. The depending on the political the structure and maybe
incorporation of crenellation needs of that region. The only considered as a
is seen more of a cultural parapets tend to be decorative element to the
and aesthetic installation approximately at a meter building‟s façade.
than as a practical purpose. height in order to provide
privacy to the occupants of
the building.
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6.6.13. Colors
The local ministry of Constricted by the limited Not compatible.

housing has enlisted availability of vibrant colors, The use of color in the
regulations that constrict the vernacular designed current times is not instilled
the use of color to a set of buildings are painted using in the same fashion as it
certain approved shades. colors that blend with the was in vernacular
Most of the modern natural environment. Since architecture. Credited to the
buildings that are seen the culture is heavily availability of a larger range
around the country use influenced from Islamic of colors but restricted by
shades of white, beige and values, the interior of most the local laws, the freedom
light brown as opposed to a residential houses are to decide variation of colors
few exceptions that could painted with verses from for the building façade is
be Government structures the holy Quran, Arabic confined. The interior walls
or residential buildings poetry or significant dates however may be fitted with
whose owners have been and number that might be gypsum made decorative
granted special permission relevant to the occupants. designs and elements in
by the Government. The The designs are often accordance to the
use of earth tone maintains accompanied with Middle occupant‟s requirements.
uniformity in the city‟s Eastern inspired
landscape while restricting geometrical patterns.
the use of vibrant colors
which hinder the freedom of
artistic and personal
expression through the use
of colors.
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From the comprehensive study of the design factors, the socio-cultural and environmental
influences can clearly be seen and identified in the design of vernacular architecture that have been
carried over to the present day construction design. Some of the vernacular design factors are heavily
reliant on the availability of materials and climatic needs of the region. The analysis carried out shows
the common ground and the differences between modern day designs as compared to the vernacular
design of the region without being biased towards the efficiency of the designs. However, the climatic
influences force the design to alter itself to act in accordance to its environment, availability of
resources and the technological advancements incorporated in the design itself. In the current era,
the occupants rely strongly on air conditioning for thermal comfort due to the technological benefits
but as in turn caused the depletion of effective passive cooling strategies that were earlier
incorporated in traditional design due to necessity.
7. Design strategy suggestion and approach for hot and arid climate……………..…..
When dealing with building design and construction in a hot and arid climate, the toughest
factor that has a major influence in the architectural form is the region‟s climate along with the
functionality of the building and finally, the materials that are used for the construction (Chatterjee,
2007). Designing in a hot and arid climate would require a comprehensive understanding of the
determinants that permit the successful completion of the project. Development of a construction is
dependable on the building‟s climatic adaptively and functional versatility towards sustaining energy
efficient strategies. Due to the unfortunate norm in contemporary architecture of placing aesthetics in
front of thermal comfort and sustainable principles, the end result of many projects are enclosed,
natural light and ventilation deprived, energy consuming blocks or structures that cast a shadow over
benefits of sustainable development. While the incorporation of such an approach is being practiced
in temperate and tropical climatic regions, it seems evident that these practices are highly relevant in
hot and arid climates as it takes a considerable amount of energy to maintain an appropriate
microclimate and achieve sufficient thermal comfort for occupants regardless of the functionality of the
building. While it may make sense to keep the climatic influences in mind while designing in a hot and
arid climate, it would be ignorant to assume the climatic influences without given relevance to the non-
climatic factors such as social, political and economic factors that play an important role in the
development of the design. The approach finally aims to direct the design development that takes into
consideration the client‟s functional and aesthetics requirements while at the same time taking into
account the climatic and environmental necessities. For better comprehension of the directional
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approach, a design matrix was consolidated that aims to organize the requirements for design
development in a hot and arid climate.
Figure 70 : Design matrix for a hot and arid climate
7.1. Reduce structure heat load through appropriate structure shading
With the high necessity to reduce heat load on a building, an efficient and conventional way to
reduce direct heat gain is thought appropriate shading strategies. A suitable and practical example of
efficient shading in a hot climate is the Pearl Academy of Fashion designed by the architectural firm
Morphogenesis in Jaipur (India) that incorporates a double skin façade in order to protect the interior
of the building from the extreme exterior temperatures using a traditional technique called the „Jaali‟
that replicate perforations in the façade skin. The double façade functions as a thermal barrier
81
between the building and the external environment and was designed based on the sun orientation to
the facing facades. The outer layer of the façade is constructed at a distance of 1.2 meters from the
structure and reduces the direct heat gain though the means of fenestrations.
Figure 71 : The double layer facade of the Pearl Academy of Fashion in

Jaipur (India)
Figure 72 : Incorporation of the 'Jaali' facade in the Pearl Academy of Fashion that helps reduce heat gain
82
7.2. Use of thermal mass to reduce internal temperature
Since energy consumption in a building is directly related to the use of automated heating or
cooling, an efficient way to reduce dependency on energy consumption would be the incorporation of
effective thermal mass that would help insulate the building from extreme external temperatures.
Figure 73 : (Left) Lack of appropriate thermal mass insulation (Right) with appropriate thermal mass insulation
An example of efficient thermal mass use in a project would be „The Great wall‟ in Australia
designed by the architect Luigi Rosseli that uses rammed earth as a façade from 12 semi-buried
houses. The façade is 450mm in thickness and composed of sandy clay soil that is rich in iron, gravel
and pebbles with water from a local well used as a bonding element.
83
Figure 74 : The Great Wall

constructed in Australia as
an example of earth being
used as thermal mass
The entire
structure is
constructed at the
epicenter of a deep
sand hill and includes
residential houses
along with a chapel
and a conference
room. In order to
protect the interiors from the prevailing sand storms in that area, they have been fitted with glazed
sliding doors.
7.3. Incorporation of passive cooling strategies
Figure 75 : Wind catchers

in the city of Yazd, Iran
The use of
wind catchers in hot
and arid regions is
the functionality
equivalent of air
conditioners without
the expenditure of
any nonrenewable
energy. Constructed
with the prevailing
wind orientation in
mind, wind catcher
design can also incorporate a water storage facility at the base of the tower which is used in the
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evaporative cooling strategy to cool the warm winds that flow during the hot months. Wind catchers
can also be designed to function in the opposite way where due to the Bernoulli‟s principle the hot air
is drawn upwards from the interior and pushed outside. Constructing wind catcher away from wind
direction can also help reduce the amount of dust and pollutants that tend to enter the interior space.
Figure 76 : A simple wind catcher design that uses underground

water (Qanat) for passive cooling
The use of wind catchers has been quite

versatile in some parts of the world, namely Iran, where
they are used as refrigeration devices with attached
water reservoirs. The wind catchers help keep the
water cold in the storage even during the peak of the
hot summer months. The use of wind catchers can be
observed in other parts of the world too as the western
architecture has adopted it as a passive cooling
strategy as a successful way to reduce energy
consumption.
7.4. Use of solar energy based renewable systems
One of the most conventional and renowned approach towards energy consumption reduction
and sustainable living is the use of solar energy harnessing strategies. The use of solar panels is a
growing trend among
Figure 77 : An off grid solar system for a residential house
developing nations that uses an
off grid energy supply system
that can use, store and even
supply back to the energy grid.
The efficiency of this approach
has seen exponential growth
over the past few decades and
its incorporation is a growing
trend for residential and
commercial spaces. The main
85
drawback observed for this approach is the initial installation and operation costs that are only
growing lower due to the increasing efficiency advancements in solar panel technology.
8. Conclusion………………………………………………………………..…………………………………...
The architectural approach seen in hot and arid countries has been observed to be shifting
from a climatic influenced design to a more energy consuming one. The vernacular building design
around these regions was heavily reliant on climate adaptive approaches but due to the extensive
dependency on energy due to economic or social factors, sustainable design is not in common
practice in these regions. The focus of this study was concentrated on the hot and arid climatic region
with a more comprehensive look at the Middle Eastern region. It is no secret that the Middle East is
known for its accumulation of wealth due to oil processing and export and this financial growth has
possibly resulted in the region‟s dependency on a luxurious lifestyle.
Through this study, one can easily see the differences between vernacular architecture than is
completely based on its surrounding climate and the present day construction that only tends to have
cultural and social influences.
The exponential growth of urbanization has forced the authorities to enforce legislations that
would incorporate sustainable strategies and practices. Construction management tends to include
minimizing the projects impacts on its environment while also keeping the building‟s life cycle as a
serious concern. Green codes have been in development and newly implemented practices which
throw light on the possible change to come in construction and design. Sometimes viewed as a
marketing tool, sustainable design is being pushed by local and international consultants over the
past few years but its implication is yet to be seen as the western world of architecture is evidently
years ahead of Middle Eastern construction. In light of corporations, sustainable development is seen
as a venue for corporate social responsibility and includes programs that incorporate sustainability for
the betterment of community and the environment. Finally, the hindrances faced by the region that
include lack of materials, infrastructure and awareness, can all be tackled with education that focuses
the environmental issues and challenges that are being endured or to be faced in the immediate
future.
86
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92
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Abraar M.

Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate_2018

THE UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA

(Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate)

THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

FOR THE MASTERS OF ARTS IN ARCHITECTURE DEGREE

Mohammed Abraar Iqbal

Sustainability in Hot Arid Climate

Mohammed Abraar I qbal

Date: May 2018

Mohammed Abraar Iqbal

Approved by: Date of Approval:

PROF. PETROS LAPITHIS

SUSTAINABILITY IN HOT ARID CLIMATE

2.1. Climatic Zones………………………….…………...……………………………………………………….……………3

2.1.1. Tropical Zone ………….. …………………………………………………………………….………………3

2.1.2. Sub-Tropical Zone …………………………………………………………………………………………...4

2.1.3. Temperate Zone ………….…………………………………………………………………….………….…5

2.1.4. Cold Zone ………….…………………………………………………………………….……………………6

2.2. Factors that determine the climatic conditions………………………………………………………………………...7

2.2.4. Distance from the Sea……………………………………………….……………………….………………8

2.3. Climatic Regions……………………………………………………………….……………………….………………...9

2.3.5. Mediterranean ……………………………………………………………….……………………….…..…11

2.4. Arid Climate (Hot Desert Climate) ……………………………………………………………….……………………13

3. Architecture in an Arid Climate…………………………………………………………….……………………….…………..14

3.1. Shibam – Yemen…………………………....………………………………….……………………….………………16

3.2. Varzaneh – Iran……………………………………………………………….……………………….………………..21

3.2.1. Strategies Used in The Varzaneh Mosque to face Arid Climate……………….………………………25

3.2.1.1. Self-realizing design- Central courtyard……………….…………………………..………….25

3.2.1.3. Eastern and Western Colonial Porches……………….…………………..………….………28

3.2.1.4. Ecological Use of Construction Materials……………….……………………….……………30

3.2.1.5. Incorporation of an arched roof……………….……………………….……………………….30

3.2.1.6. Use of Color for Climatic Design……………….…………………………………..….………32

5. Climate Adaptive Architecture…………………....………………………………….……………….……………….………..38

5.1. Bioclimatic Design in Vernacular Architecture…………………....………………………………….………………41

5.2 Passive Cooling…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………..42

5.3. Night Ventilation…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……………44

5.4. Thermal Comfort…………………....………………………………….……………….…………………….…………46

5.5. Thermal Sensation Scale…………………....………………………………….……………….……………………..47

5.5.1. Metabolic Rate (met) …………………....………………………………….……………….……………..48

5.5.2. Clothing Insulation (clo) …………………....………………………………….……………….…………..49

5.5.3. Air Temperature…………………....………………………………….……………….……………………50

5.5.4. Radiant Temperature…………………....………………………………….……………….……………...50

5.5.5. Wind Speed…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……..51

5.5.6. Relative Humidity…………………....………………………………….……………….……………….….52

6. Vernacular Architecture in the Sultanate of Oman…………………....………………………………….…………..…….54

6.2. Vernacular Design of Residential Houses…………………....………………………………….……………….….57

6.3 Climate of Sultanate of Oman…………………....………………………………….……………….………………...59

6.5 Passive Cooling Strategies Integrated in the Region…………………....…………………………………………..63

6.6. Vernacular to Contemporary Comparison…………………....………………………………….………………..…66

6.6.3. Spatial Sizing…………………....………………………………….……………….………………….……69

6.6.4. Spatial Distribution Based on Gender…………………....………………………………….……………70

6.6.5. Proportion/Scaling of External and Internal Features…………………....……………………………...71

6.6.6. Window Construction and Allocation…………………....………………………………….……………..72

6.6.9. Materials (External Walls) …………………....………………………………….……………….………..75

7.1. Reduce structure heat load through appropriate structure shading…………………....…………………….……81

7.2. Use of thermal mass to reduce internal temperature…………………....…………………………………….……83

7.3. Incorporation of passive cooling strategies…………………....……………………………………………..………84

7.4. Use of solar energy based renewable systems…………………....………………………………………..………85

10. List of figures…………………………….……………….………………….…………….…………….......….……………….90

In today’s world, the dependency on energy consumption is increasing exponentially; there is

2.1. Climatic Zones