D C Circuits

Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage

source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network.
Circuit: an electric circuit is an interconnection of the network element and voltage or current
source are formed by a closed path .
Node: Two or more element are connected to a point is called node. The circuit in Fig. 1 has
nodes a, b, c, and g. Generally, a point, or a node in an circuit specifies a certain voltage level
with respect to a reference point or node.

Fig.1 Simple Resistive network.

Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit containing the electric
elements. These elements could be sources, resistances, or other elements. Fig.1 shows that the
circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches containing
voltage and current sources (a-,a-, and c-g).
Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit. Fig. 1 shows three loops or closed paths
namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-cb-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed paths a-c-g-
a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.
Mesh- A mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops within it or in its
interior. Fig. 1 indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just identified are
also ‘meshes’ but other two loops (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g- a) are not.

Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is called passive
element.
Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic
devices that require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can
amplify power of a signal.
Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example:
Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.
Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral
(example: Diode, Transistor) element.

Meaning of Response: An application of input signal to the system will produce an

output signal, the behavior of output signal with time is known as the response of the
system.
Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with
voltage or current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity
property [response of α u(t) equals α times the response of u(t) , S(α u(t)) = α S(u(t)) for all α ;
and ] (ii) additive property [that is the response of system due to an input (u(t) α1 u1 (t) +α2 u2 (t)
) equals the sum of the response of input α1 u1 (t) and the response of input α2 u2 (t) , S(α1 u1 (t)
+α2 u2 (t)) = α1 S(u1 (t)) +α2 S(u2 (t)) .] When an input u1 (t) or u1 (t) is applied to a system “ S”,
the corresponding output response of the system is observed as S(u1 (t)) = y1 (t) or S(u2 (t)) = y2
(t) respectively. Fig. 2 explains the meaning of homogeneity and additive properties of a system.

Fig 2 Input output behavior of a system

Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change
with voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and
additive properties. Volt-ampere characteristics of linear and non-linear elements are shown in
Figs. 3.a - 3.b. In fact, a circuit is linear if and only if its input and output can be related by a
straight line passing through the origin as shown in fig.3.2. Otherwise, it is a nonlinear system.

Fig 3a VI characteristics of linear element Fig 3a VI characteristics of non-linear element

D C Circuit: A direct current (DC) always remains constant with time. The flow of DC
characteristics, the flow of electric charges in one particular direction. The direction of flow of
current is shown in fig below.

A DC Circuit consists of a constant voltage source and their interconnection with resistance only.
AC Circuit: If the current and volage changes with time, then the circuit interconnection is
identified as AC circuit.

𝑑𝑞
Current: Current is the rate of change of charge in a circuit. i.e. 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
Or in other words the flow of electrons constitute a current. The electrons always flows from
lower potential to higher potential. The unit of current is Amperes
Electro Motive Force (emf): EMF is force which causes current to flow in the circuit. Its
symbol is E and is measured in Volts.
Electric Potential: The electric potential always refers to a point in a charged conduction. The
Electric Potential at any poit in a charged conductor is the workdone to bring a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
Voltage: Voltage is an electromotive force or potential difference expressed in volts.. Its unit is
Volts.
Potential Energy Difference: The voltage or potential energy difference between two points in
an electric circuit is the amount of energy required to move a unit charge between the two points.
OHM’s Law:
Ohm's law state that the potential difference or voltage is applied across a resistor of a closed
circuit, to the current flowing through it is constant ,provided temperature is constant.

𝑉1 − 𝑉2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼
 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
=𝑅
𝐼
Where R is the constant known as resistance
𝑉
=𝑅
𝐼
𝐼∝𝑉
Current is directly proportional to the voltage applied, provided the temperature doesn’t change.
Condition for applying Ohm’s law:
1. Ohm’s law can be applied either a part of the circuit or to the entire circuit.
2. Ohm’s law can be applied both AC & DC circuit.
Limitation of Ohm’s Law:
1. It doesn’t holds good for nonmetallic conductor such as silicon carbide
2. It doesn’t holds good for nonlinear devices such as voltage regulator, zenor diodes
3. The metals which get heated up due to flow of current through them, ohm’s law is not
holds good.
Resistance: Resistance is the properties of a substances due to which it opposes the flow of
electric current through it. Its symbol is ‘R’ ,the unit is ohm (Ω)
Factors depends on Resistances:
The factors depends on resistance are
1. It depends on, directly proportional to length
2. Inversely proportional to area of cross section
3. It depends on type of materials
4. It also depends on temperature
It is mathematically expressed as
𝑙
𝑅𝛼
𝐴
𝑙
𝑅=⍴
𝐴
⍴= Specific resistance of the conductor or resistivity
Specific Resistance: Specific resistance is the resistance measured of opposite face of cube of
that material. Its unit is ohm-meter.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s laws are basic analytical tools in order to obtain the solutions of currents and
voltages for any electric circuit; whether it is supplied from a direct-current system or an
alternating current system.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of products of voltage drops plus the algebraic
sum of all the emf’s in that closed path is zero, i.e. ∑ 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 0

-V1 - V2 -V3 + V = 0
-IR1-IR2-IR3+V=0
or
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = V
The sign convention for kirchhoffs lwa is (a) the rise in potential will be taken as positive volts
and (b) fall in potentials will be taken as negative volts

Kirchoof current Law: The algebraic sum of all cuurrents meeting at apoint is zero.
Incomming current is taken as positive and out going current is taken as negative.i.e.∑ 𝐼 = 0
-I1 –I2 +I3 –I4 = 0

I1 +I2+I4 =I3
Sum of incomming current = Sum of out going current
Series Circuits :
The resistances are connected end to end, and beginning of the first resistance and the end of the
last resistance are taken as to supply terminals then the circuit is said to be resistance in series. A
series circuit is shown in the diagram.
Hence in series circuit (i) the current is the same through each resistor (ii) voltage drop across
the resistance are different

Apply KVl for the network

V = V1 +V2 +V3
By ohm’s law ,V=IR then,
IR = IR1 +IR2 +IR3
R =R1 +R2 +R3
The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance values of the
individual resistors:
Equivalent resistance of resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3
Parallel Circuits:
Starting end of all resistances are connected to one junction or node and finishing end of all the
resistances are connected to another junction and these to junction are taken as terminals for
supply, then such arrangement is called parallel connection of resistance. A parallel circuit is
shown in the diagram

Hence in parallel circuit (i) The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same. (ii) The
current in a parallel circuit breaks up
Apply KCL ,
I = I1 +I2 +I3
By ohms law I=V/R, then

𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals of the
resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total:

Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +...

Voltage Division Method: Two resistances are connected in series as shown in Fig.

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

Total resistance R =R1 +R2

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Substitute I in V1 & V2 Expression

𝑉𝑅1
𝑉1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑅2
𝑉2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Current Division Method: Two resistances are connected in parallel across a voltage sourse ‘V’
as shown in fig.
By ohms law
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 = 𝑅
1 2

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 𝑅 , similarly 𝐼2 = 𝐼 𝑅
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2

Power and Energy:

Power: Power is the rate of doing work or in other words the rate at which, the work is done in 1
second. Or It is the product of voltage and current. Unit of power is Watts

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

V2
P=
R
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅

Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work or it is the total amount of work done in an electrical
circuit in a particular time. The unit of energy is Joules.

Energy = Power X Time

𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡

𝑉2
𝐸= 𝑡
𝑅
𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
 DOMESTIC WIRING
1. Two-way control
When a single lamp is to be controlled from two different places we use two – way control.
Examples: 1. A lamp provided on stair case of an apartment building is controlled by two
switches one installed at the top floor and the other at bottom floor.
2. When a bath-room is common for two rooms, the lamp fitted in the bath-room can be
controlled by the switches installed in the two rooms. The wiring diagram for two way control of
the lamp is as shown below.:

Switching table for the two way control is as shown below:

Switch S1 Switch S2 Condition of Lamp
L1 L1 ON
L1 L2 OFF
L2 L1 OFF
L2 L2 ON

To control a lamp from two different positions it requires two, 2 way switches

Three way control: When a single lamp is to be controlled from three different places we use 2
two – way control switch and one intermediate switch. This type of wiring is used in long
corridors, Big Godown.
When a big verandah has access to many living rooms, to control a lamp in verandah from the
living rooms we can use three way control. We need two 2- way switches and one intermediate
switch to control a lamp in a verandah from three different rooms. Intermediated switch will be
placed in the middle room. The wiring diagram for two way control of the lamp is as shown
below.
Switching table for three way control of lamp is given below

Switch S1 Switch S2 Intermediate Switch Condition of Lamp

L1 L1 Straight connection ON
1-2,3-4
L1 L2 1-2,3-4 OFF
L2 L1 1-2,3-4 OFF
L2 L2 1-2,3-4 ON
L1 L1 Cross connection OFF
1-4,2-3
L1 L2 1-4,2-3 ON
L2 L1 1-4,2-3 ON
L2 L2 1-4,2-3 OFF
Earthing:
Earthing is connecting the outer frame of equipment and its other parts not carrying any current
to earth so as to attain as nearly zero potential as possible. The purpose of earthing is to ensure
that all parts of the system other than live parts (parts which are carrying currents) are maintained
at the earth potential at all times. Earthing provides safety.

NECESSITY OF EARTHING : The main aim of earthing is to maintain a zero potential or

zero voltage of all non-current carrying parts of electrical system which has the probability of
electrified by some fault.
Fundamentally, every electrical installation is required to have a good and reliable earthing
system.
Good earthing systems is important for
1. Safety of human and animal life
2. Protection of building and installation against lightning
3. Limitation of electromagnetic disturbances (EMI)
4. Correct operation of the electricity supply network and to ensure
5. Good power quality
Objectives of earthing:
1. To provide safety of operation:
When the insulation provided in the machines becomes weak, a part of the operating current gets
diverted to the surface. If a person touches such machine, the surface current finds a path through
his body to earth. If this leakage current is high, the person gets a shock. By earthing the
machine, the shock hazard is avoided as the leakage current gets an outlet to earth.
2. Earthing can save conducting material.
Earth provides the return path for the current. in case of automobiles and electronic equipment
avoiding complications in lying the return wire.
3. Earthing helps in protecting high rise building from atmospheric lightning.
A forked metal rod called lightning conductor sticking out from the top of the building and
buried deep into the ground allows the current due to lightning to pass directly to the earth,
protecting the building
Methods of Earthing:
Earthing should be done in a way so that on short circuit, the earth loop impedance is low
enough to carry 3 times the currents if fuses are used and 1.5 times the current if MCB are used.
Earthing requires a metallic plate or pipe (earth electrode)to be embedded in the earth.
Galvanized iron is used as earth electrode. Effective earthing requires the a low resistance
offered by the earth electrode along with the soil. To increase the conductivity of the soil around
the earth electrode, alternate layers of common salt and charcoal are filled.
Plate Earthing:
Figure shows the details of plate earthing. Plate earth electrodes when made of galvanized iron or
steel should not be less than 6.3 mm in thickness and of copper should not be less than 3.15 mm
in thickness. They should be of at least 60 cm x 60 cm size.
The plate should be buried such that the top edge is at a depth not less than 1.5 m from the
surface of the ground. The earth electrode is placed with its face vertical at a depth of 3-4 m in a
pit. The space around the electrode is filled with alternate layers, each of 150 mm height, of
charcoal and common salt. A G.I. pipe of 12.7 mm diameter is connected to the earth electrode.
This G.I. pipe carries the earth wire which is fixed to the earth electrode with nuts and bolts.
A G.I. pipe connects the charcoal and salt filled pit to the concrete housing in which a funnel
with wire mesh is provided. The concrete housing has a cast iron lid. About 3 to 4 buckets of
water should be poured into the funnel' every few days to improve the soil conductivity. This
becomes more essential especially during summer when the soil conductivity tends to decrease
due to decrease in the soil moisture.

Pipe Earthing:
Figure shows the details of pipe earthing. The electrodes are made of metal rod or pipe having
clean surface not coated by at least 16mm in diameter and those of copper should be at least 12.5
mm in diameter. Pipe electrodes should not be smaller than 38 mm internal diameter if made of
galvanized iron or steel and 100 mm internal diameter if made of cast iron. Pipes or rods as far as
possible should be of one piece and not less than 2.5 m in length. These should be driven to a
depth of at least 2.5 m. To increase soil conductivity, artificial soil treatment is need.
The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by broken pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance of about
15 cm around the pipe.A cement concrete work is also done so that 3 to4 buckets of water can be
poured through the funnel to moist the earth. The earth wire is carried in a GI pipe of 12.7 mm
diameter at a depth of 60 cm below ground and connected to the pipe electrode using G.I. nuts
and washers.
Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
FUSE
A fuse is a small piece of conducting wire having low melting point rated for certain current are
connected in series. It is used for protection of entire wiring system. Fuse is always put in live
wire. When the current any sub-circuit exceeds the rated current, fuse melts and breaks the
circuit. This is the cheapest way of protection. For fuses of current rating up to 10 A – Lead –Tin
alloy(36:64), for higher rating, copper, zinc, lead, tin, aluminum are used. Never use a fuse of
rating higher than the circuit is meant for.
Electric shock:
Contact with a live wire gives a electric shock. Mild shocks produce nervousness. Severe shocks
may produce convulsions which may lead to unconsciousness and death. When a person came in
contact with a live wire, the current finds a path through the body to the earth. Human body can
withstand maximum of 30 mA for duration about 25 milli sec.
Current flowing through human body depends on magnitude of current, duration and frequency
of current.
If the current is high and persists for long, it adversely effect the nervous system, the heart and
respiratory system. Current in the body during shock depends on the voltage and the body
resistance.

Wet body 1 kilo Ohm

Moist body About 5 kilo Ohm
Dry body About 100 kil ohm
Causes of Electric Shock: Electric shock may be caused due to the following reasons

1. By accidentally touching faulty appliances

2. Due to lighting strikes
3. By coming into contact with a high enough voltage source, resulting in the passage of a
high value of current through the muscles or nerves.

Precautions against shock: Following are the precautions against shock:

1. Make sure that all metallic parts of the electrical equipments are effectively earthed.
2. Replace broken switches, plugs etc., immediately.
3. Use line tester to check whether a terminal is live.
4. During maintenance always switch off the supply.
5. Use rubber – sole shoes while repairing /testing electrical equipments. Or avoid direct contact
with earth by standing on a dry wooden platform.
6. Use rubber gloves while touching any terminal or while removing insulation from a live
Conductor.
7. In case of electric fire, disconnect the supply and through sand on fire.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
The properties of attraction and repletion is called magnet. The materials which are attracted by
magnet are called magnetic material. A magnet may be either natural or artificial magnet. In
electrical engineering and other fields artificial magnets are generally used.
Magnetic Field: the space around the poles of magnet is called a magnetic field and is
represented by magnetic lines of force.
Magnetic flux: The total number of lines of force in the magnetic field is called magnetic flux. It
is denoted by Φ and its unit is Weber’s.
Flux Density [B]: It is defined by magnetic flux per unit area of the surface at right angles to the
flux. It is usually designated by the capital letter B and is measured in Weber/meter2.
It is a Vector Quantity.
It Φ Wb is the total magnetic flux passing normally through an area of A m2, then
∅
𝐵 = 𝐴 = 𝑊𝑒𝑏/𝑚2
Magneto Motive Force (m.m.f.). It drives or tends to drive flux through a magnetic circuit and
corresponds to electromotive force (e.m.f.) in an electric circuit.
M.M.F. is equal to the work done in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole once through the
entire magnetic circuit. It is measured in ampere-turns.
In fact, as p.d. between any two points is measured by the work done in carrying a unit charge
from one points to another, similarly, m.m.f. between two points is measured by the work done
in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole from one point to another.
Ampere-turns (AT). It is the unit of magneto motive force (m.m.f.) and is given by the product
of number of turns of a magnetic circuit and the current in amperes in those turns.
Reluctance. It is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the creation of
magnetic flux in it. It, in fact, measures the opposition offered to the passage of magnetic flux
through a material and is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit
even in form. Its units is AT/Wb.
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = =
𝜇𝐴 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑙
In other words, the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the number of amp-turns required per
weber’s of magnetic flux in the circuit. Since 1 AT/Wb = 1/Henry, the unit of reluctance is
“reciprocal Henry.”
Permeance. It is reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or readiness with which magnetic
flux is developed. It is analogous to conductance in electric circuits. It is measured in terms of
Wb/AT or Henry. Fig. 7.3

Reluctivity. It is specific reluctance and corresponds to resistivity which is ‘specific resistance’.

Laws of Magnetic Force:
First Law: It states that like poles are repel each other and unlike poles are attract each other.
Second Law: The force between two magnetic poles placed in a medium is
(i) directly proportional to their pole strengths
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and
(iii) inversely proportional to the absolute permeability of the surrounding medium.
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝛼
𝑑2
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑑2
Where K= constant
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑑 2
Permeability: The phenomena of magnetism and electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain
property of the medium called its permeability.
Every medium is supposed to possess two permeability’s :
(i) absolute permeability (μ0) and (ii) relative permeability (μ0

(i) Absolute Permeability(μ0): the measure of degree to which the lines of force of
magnetic field can penetrate the medium is called absolute permeability of medium. It
is denoted by μ0 and its value is 4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑤𝑒𝑏/𝑚2
(ii) Relative permeability(μr): It is defined as the ratio of force between two magnetic
ploes placed at certain distance in air to the force between them in placed in some
distance in medium.
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜇𝑟 =
𝐹𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

Relative Permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of the flux density produced in
that material to the flux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetizing force.
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑚
𝜇𝑟 = =
𝐵𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐵0

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law. It states: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is
always induced in it. Or Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that
conductor.
Second Law. It states : The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages.
Explanation. Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of Φ
Weber’s to the final value of Φ2 Weber’s in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by flux-
linkages mean the product of number of turns and the flux linked with the coil, we have initial
flux linkage =NΦ1, and final flux linkage = NΦ2
𝑁𝜑2 − 𝑁𝜑1 𝜑2 − 𝜑1
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = =𝑁
𝑡 𝑡
Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get
𝑑(𝑁𝜑) 𝑑𝜑
𝑒= =𝑁 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact that the
induced e.m.f. sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the
𝑑𝜑
very cause producing it 𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
Direction of induced e.m.f. and currents:
There exists a definite relation between the direction of the induced current, the direction of
the flux and the direction of motion of the conductor. The direction of the induced current may
be found easily by applying either Fleming’s Right-hand Rule or Flat-hand rule or Lenz’s Law.
Fleming’s rule

Flemings Right Hand Rule: Hold out your right hand with forefinger, Middle finger and
thumb at right angles to one another. Fore finger points the direction of magnetic flux and the
thumb pointing in the direction of the motion of the conductor. Then middle finger represents the
direction of the induced e.m.f.
Ex: DC Generator

Force on a Current-carrying Conductor Lying in a Magnetic Field

It is found that whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, it experiences
a force which acts in a direction perpendicular both to the direction of the current and the field.
In Fig. is shown a conductor lying at right angles to the uniform horizontal field of flux density B
Wb/m2 produced by two solenoids A and B. If l is the length of the conductor lying within this
field and I ampere the current carried by it, then the magnitude of the force experienced by it is
F=Bil Newton
The direction of this force may be easily found by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule :Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at
right angles to one another. If the forefinger represents the direction of themagnetic flux and the
middle finger points the direction of current, then thumb gives the direction of the motion. It is
illustrated in Fig.

Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced current may also be found by this law which was formulated by
Lenz* in 1835. This law states, in effect, that electromagnetically induced current always flows
in such direction that the action of the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause
which produces it.

Induced e.m.f.
Induced e.m.f. can be either (i) dynamically induced or (ii) statically induced.
In the first case, usually the field is stationary and conductors cut across it (as in D C
Generators). But in the second case, usually the conductors or the coil remains stationary and
flux linked with it is changed by simply increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux
(as in transformers).
Dynamically Induced emf: If the magnetic field is stationary, conductor is rotation in a
magnetic field, then the induced emf in the coil is called Dynamically Induced emf Explanation:
Fig (a) showsa conductor A is shown in cross-section, lying m2 within a uniform magnetic field
of flux density B Wb/m2. The arrow attached to A shows its direction of motion. Consider the
conditions shown in Fig. a
(a) when A cuts across at right angles to the flux. Suppose ‘l’ is its length lying within the field
and let it move a distance dx in time dt. Then area swept by it is = ldx. Hence, flux cut = l.dx B
webers.
Change in flux = Bldx weber
Time taken = dt second
Hence, according to Faraday’s Laws the e.m.f. induced in it (known as dynamically
𝑑𝑥
induced e.m.f.) is rate of change of flux linkages = 𝐵𝑙 𝑑𝑡
e= Blv volt
 𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡 If the conductor A moves at an angle ɵwith the
direction of flux [Fig. (b)] then the induced e.m.f.is
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
It should be noted that generators work on the production of dynamically induced e.m.f. in the
conductors housed in a revolving armature lying within a strong magnetic field.).

Fig
2. Statically Induced emf: if the conductor is stationary, but magnetic field is rotation or
varying ,then the induced emf in the coil is called statically induced emf.
Ex: Transformer
It can be further sub-divided into (a) mutually induced e.m.f. and (b) self-induced e.m.f.
(a) Self-induced e.m.f.: This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux
linked with it. If current through the coil Fig. is changed, then the flux linked with its own turns
will also change, which will produce in it what is called self-induced e.m.f.
dφ1
Self induced emf = N1
dt

(b) Mutually Induced emf:

Consider two coils A and B lying close to each other Fig.(a). Coil A is joined to a battery, a
switch and a variable resistance R whereas coil B is connected to a sensitive voltmeter V. When
current through A is established by closing the switch, its magnetic field is set up which partly
links with the coil B. As current through A is changed, the flux linked with B is also changed.
Hence, mutually induced e.m.f. is produced in B whose
magnitude is given by Faraday’s Laws and direction by Lenz’s Law .
𝑑𝜑12
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
If, now, battery is connected to B and the voltmeter across A Fig. (b), then the situation is
reversed and now a change of current in B will produce mutually-induced e.m.f. in A. It is
obvious that in the examples considered above, there is no movement of any conductor, the flux
variations being brought about by variations in current strength only. Such an e.m.f. induced in
one coil by the influence of the other coil is called (statically but) mutually induced e.m.f.
 𝑑𝜑21
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡

Fig (a)

Fig(b)
Self-inductance[L]:
It is the property by virtue of which an emf is induced in it when an alternation current passes through it.
or It is a property by virtue of which it always oppose any change in value of current flowing through it.
or
It is also defined as the number of Weber’s/amperes in the coil.

𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜑𝑁
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝐿) =
𝐼
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝜑𝑁
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥(𝜑) = =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙⁄
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴

𝑁𝐼𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥(𝜑) =
𝑙

𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝐿) =
𝑙

Mutual Inductance [M]: Two coils which are placed closed to each other are said to be
mutually coupled, the co efficient of mutual inductance between two coils as defined as Weber’s
turn in one coil due to 1 ampere current through other coil.
or
Mutual inductance may be defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an e.m.f. in a
nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
It can also be defined in three ways as given below :
(i) First Method for M
Let there be two magnetically-coupled coils having N1 and N2 turns respectively (Fig.a ).
Coefficient of mutual inductance between the two coils is defined as the weber-turns in one
coil due to one ampere current in the other.

Let a current I1 ampere when flowing in the first coil produce a flux Φ1 webers in it. It is
supposed that whole of this flux links with the turns of the second coil*. Then, flux-linkages
i.e.,webers-turns in the second coil for unit current in the first coil are N2 Φ1/I1. Hence, by
definition
𝑁2 𝜑1
𝑀=
𝐼1
If weber-turns in second coil due to one ampere current in the first coil i.e. N2 Φ1/I1 = 1 then, as
seen from above, M = 1H.
Hence, two coils are said to have a mutual inductance of 1 Henry is one ampere current
when flowing in one coil produces flux-linkages of one Wb-turn in the other.
𝑁2 𝜑12
As per the definition of mutual inductance 𝑀 =
𝐼1
Since Φ12=Φ11
𝑁2 𝜑11
𝑀= (1)
𝐼1
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁1 𝐼1
𝜑11 = =𝑙 (2)
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑆) ⁄𝜇 𝜇 𝐴
0 𝑟
Substitute (2) in (1)
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑅 𝐴
𝑀=
𝑙
𝑑𝜑12
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑀𝐼1
= 𝑁2 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑁2
𝑑𝐼1
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Co-efficient of coupling[K]:It is the ratio of mutual flux to the total flux.
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜑12 𝜑21
𝐾= = 𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜑11 𝜑22
As the coupling coefficient ‘K’ is
i.e. K12=K21=K
Φ12 = KΦ11 =KΦ1
Φ21 = K Φ22 = KΦ2
Mutual inductance of two coils 𝑀2 = 𝑀12 𝑀21
𝑑𝜑12 𝜑21
𝑀2 = 𝑁1 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐾𝜑1 𝑑𝐾𝜑2
𝑀2 = 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝜑1 𝑑𝜑2
𝑀2 = 𝐾 2 𝑁1 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑀2 = 𝐾 2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑀
𝐾=
√𝐿1 𝐿2
Energy Stored in Inductance:
Consider a coil of self inductance ‘L’ Henry, when the current in the coil is increased from zero
to infinite value of ‘I’ amperes then self induced emf is produced in coil due to increase in
current. This induced emf opposes the increase of current and energy will be required to
overcome this opposition.
Let any instant current flowing through the coil be ‘I’ amperes, it produces flux Φ Weber’s, then
the induced emf in the coil.
𝑑𝜑
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼
𝑒=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Energy supplied to the coil in short time ‘dt’second
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Integrating on both side in the above equation
𝐼
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0
1
𝑤 = 𝐿 𝐼 2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2
 I. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

The CFL was initially designed to replace the incandescent lamp in terms of its compactness as
well as energy efficiency. The basic construction of a CFL consists of a tube which is
curved/spiraled to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and compact electronic ballast in the
base of the lamp.
Working Principle

A CFL uses vacuum pipe which is principle wise same to the strip lamps (commonly known as
Tube light). Tube has two electrodes on both ends which is treated with Barium. Cathode is
having a temperature of about 900º C and generates a beam of electrons which is further
accelerated by potential difference between electrodes.

These accelerated electrons strike Mercury and Argon atoms which in turn results in the rise of
low temperature plasma. This process initiates the radiation of Mercury in Ultra violet form.
Tube’s inside face contains ‘Luminophore’ whose function is to convert Ultra violet light into
visible light.

This tube is fed with AC power supply which facilitates the changing functionality of Anode and
Cathode. The CFL also consists of a switched mode converter. It functions on a very high
frequency and acts as a replacement of ballast (choke) and starter assembly.
Circuit Explanation of CFL

The CFL PCB is quite compact and fits in the holder base. Though being compact, it efficiently
performs the requirements as a choke.

Key components of PCB of CFL

The PCB of a CFL contains the following key components:

1. Bridge rectifier made up of diode 1N-4007

2. Suppressor for suppressing interference
3. Filter capacitor
4. Fuse point
5. Supply point

II. LED Bulb

An LED lamp works on the principle of solid-state lighting technology. Basically, instead of
emitting light from a vacuum (as in an incandescent bulb) or a gas (as in a CFL), an LED lamp
emits light from a semiconductor material. A semiconductor is made of P layer and an N Layer.
The P- layer has holes and the N- layer has free electrons. When an electric charge strikes the
semiconductor, it activates the flow of electrons from the negative to the positive layer. Those
excited electrons emit light as they flow into the positively charged holes.

To the main supply, an AC capacitor is connected in a line with the mains supply.
Then, a resistor of 390 kΩ is connected in parallel with this capacitor. This is to discharge the
capacitor in the absence of supply. One more resistor of 10Ω is connected between the mains
supply and the rectifier which can be called fuse here. To make the incoming AC voltage as DC,
we use the Full-wave Bridge rectifier. Its capability is 1.5A for current.
Now, bridge rectifier output is filtered using a capacitor (C filter) of 4.7μF.F.
Zener diode is used for regulating the output of the full-wave bridge rectifier. Keeping in mind
the current that goes to Zener, we have connected a resistor of 22 KΩ in series. The value of the
Zener voltage is 4.7 volts. The Zener output is filtered with a capacitor of 47 μF.F, and finally
given to the LED (load).
Important advantages of LED bulb are
 They are designed to operate for an average of 35,000 hours and sometimes up to
100,000 hours. You can expect your bulbs to last you up to 15 years with normal usage
– six to eight hours a day.
 LEDs are our most energy-efficient way of lighting – they have an 80-90% efficiency,
which means 80-90% of their energy is turned into light rather than heat.
 LEDs don’t contain any toxic compounds or elements like mercury. They are also 100%
recyclable; using LED lights will help you to reduce your carbon footprint by a third.
The fact that they last for such a long time – on average 35 times more than a halogen –
means that they also save on material and production costs.
 This, and the fact they produce very little infra-red light, makes LEDs perfect for use in
storage facilities and cupboards as they won’t degrade stored materials by either UV or
heat. Museums are using them more and more to illuminate displays without damaging
the artefacts.

III. Induction Bulb

The induction lamp is a promising technology which features good efficiency and long life.
The induction lamp was conceived early on by Nobel laureate J.J Thomson It finds potential
applications in lighting due the advantages like Longer life: no electrodes, electrodes fail in
normal fluorescent lamps shortening life, the tungsten thins and brakes, Energy efficient,
often 80+ lumens per watt, No flickering and Dimmable 30 -100%.

Induction Lamps create light by using an electromagnetic field to excite mercury particles
mixed in an inert gas like argon or krypton. The mercury creates a UV light and a phosphor
on the inside of the bulb or tube filters the energy into visible light. This is a type of
fluorescent light. Unlike a standard fluorescent light this does not use electrodes in the tube.

The lamp has three parts: frequency generator (ballast), discharge tube and electromagnet
(eg. inductor, energy coupling coils or energizing coils).

 First the ballast creates high frequency current (between 2.51-3 MHz or 250 kHz for
closed ferrite toroid(external lamps)).
 The current is sent through the electromagnet and an electric field is produced. The
number of turns (times the wire is wrapped around the iron core) is determined by how
each product is designed (so it is not consistent among different lamps).
 Energy is transferred from the magnet to the mercury in the tube in the same way that a
transformer works
 The mercury vapor emits UV light which strikes the phosphor and makes light. GE
Genura and Philips QL lamps have a conductive coating to contain electromagnetic
interference.
As described above, the tube has no electrodes or external connections. This eliminates
the most troublesome part of any discharge lamp. The high frequency induction coils
transfer energy from the outside of the tube to the mostly inert gas inside, creating a
discharge that vaporizes some of the mercury held in the amalgam.

Once the arc is 'struck', intense ultraviolet (UV) light is created by the mercury arc, and
this excites the phosphors on the inside of the tube. In this respect, operation is the same
as a traditional fluorescent tube. The lack of electrodes ensures the very long life of the
tube.
By direct comparison, the single most important limitation of LEDs is their operating
temperature. The light emitting junction should remain below 85°C, although there are
some that have been optimized for higher temperatures. This limitation does not apply to
induction lighting systems, so large heat sinks are not needed. This is another advantage
of Induction lamp because the heat sink needs to be physically large (and expensive) to
maintain a sensible junction temperature.