Chapter 1:

Introduction to Statistics
Part II

ENGR. JOVITO P. PERMANTE

Director, Administrative & Financial Services
BatStateU JPLPC-Malvar & Lipa Campuses

1
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such as
the average score are used to summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is called a
parameter and a descriptive value for a
sample is called a statistic.

2
Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using sample
data to make general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of the whole
population, sample data provide only limited
information about the population. As a result, sample
statistics are generally imperfect representatives of
the corresponding population parameters.

3
Notation
• The individual measurements or scores obtained for a
research participant will be identified by the letter X
(or X and Y if there are multiple scores for each
individual).
• The number of scores in a data set will be identified
by N for a population or n for a sample.
• Summing a set of values is a common operation in
statistics and has its own notation. The Greek letter
sigma, Σ, will be used to stand for "the sum of." For
example, ΣX identifies the sum of the scores.

4
Order of Operations
1. All calculations within parentheses are done first.
2. Squaring or raising to other exponents is done
second.
3. Multiplying, and dividing are done third, and should
be completed in order from left to right.
4. Summation with the Σ notation is done next.
5. Any additional adding and subtracting is done last
and should be completed in order from left to right.

5
Sampling Techniques
A sample is a group in a research study on which
information is obtained. A population is a group to
which the results of the study are intended to apply. In
almost all researches, the sample is smaller than the
population, since researchers rarely have access to all
the members of the population.

One of the most important steps in the research

process is to select the sample of individuals who will
participate as a part of the study. Sampling refers to the
process of selecting these individuals.
6
Slovin’s Formula

7
Slovin’s Formula

8
One may also use the sample size calculator:

•Survey Monkey
•Raosoft Inc.

9
 Types Sampling Techniques
Random Sampling – is a process whose
members had an equal chance of being selected
from the population; it is also called probability
sampling.

1.Simple Random Sampling – is a process of

selecting n sample size in the population via
random numbers or through lottery.

10
Simple Random Sampling

Lottery Method of Sampling - The lottery method of

creating a simple random sample is exactly what it sounds
like. A researcher randomly picks numbers, with each
number corresponding to a subject or item, in order to
create the sample.

11
Simple Random Sampling

Table of random number - is a series of digits (0 to 9)

arranged randomly in rows and columns, as demonstrated in the
small sample shown below. The table usually contains 5-
digit numbers, arranged in rows and columns, for ease of
reading. Typically, a full table may extend over as many as four
or more pages.

12
13
Ex. N= 1500, n=200
Sample
130
40
16
116
etc..

14
 Types Sampling Techniques
Systematic Sampling – is a process of selecting a kth element in
the population until the desired number of subjects or respondents
is attained.

Ex. For instance we have the data shown below; say we want to
consider every 5th on the list

23 34 12 14 13 23 24 39 27 23
12 15 16 23 26 28 23 22 19 34
25 22 18 30 23 24 17 18 15 12

Therefore, the sample from every 5th from the left are
13,26,23,23,34, and 12
15
• S+kp
• S – random start
• K – N/n=200/50=4 S=1,2,3, and 4

S+4p , 1+4p; 2+4p, 3+4p, 4+4p

P = 0,1,2,3,…,49
1+4p = 1+4(0)=1
1+4p = 1+ 4(1)=5
16
 Types Sampling Techniques
Stratified Sampling – is a process of subdividing the population
into subgroups or strata and drawing members at random from
each subgroup or stratum.
Ex. Given the population of a certain university and a target
sample of 5,455, determine the sample size of each subgroup or
courses
Field of Specialization Population
Nursing 6,000
Accountancy 500
Management 2,000
Marketing 1,000
Education 2,500
Total 12,000 17
To determine the sample size in each subgroup, we will simply
multiply the sample population with respect to each subgroup
percentage in reference to the population.

Field of Population Percentage Sample Found by

specialization Size
Nursing 6,000 50.00 2728 0.50 x 5,455
Accountancy 500 4.16 227 0.0416 x 5,455
Management 2,000 16.66 909 0.1666 x 5,455
Marketing 1,000 8.33 455 0.0833 x 5,455
Education 2,500 20.33 1,136 0.2033 x 5,455
Total 12,000 100.00 5,455

18
 Types Sampling Techniques
4. Cluster Sampling – is a process of selecting clusters from a
population which is very large or widely spread out over a wide
geographical area.

Ex.
If we want to know the opinion of the residents of Manila
regarding the improvement of living in the city. We may use the
clusters sampling by subdividing the city into district then select
at random the number of district to be used as sample.

19
 Types Sampling Techniques
5. Multi-Stage Sampling – divides large populations
into stages to make the sampling process more practical.
A combination of stratified sampling or 
cluster sampling and simple random sampling is usually
used.

20
Multi-Stage Sampling
Let’s say you wanted to find out which subjects U.S.
school children preferred. A population list — a list of
all U.S. schoolchildren– would be near-impossible to
come by, so you cannot take a sample of the population.
Instead, you divide the population into states and take a
simple random sample of states. For the next stage, you
might take a simple random sample of schools from
within those states. Finally you could perform simple
random sampling on the students within the schools to
get your sample.
21
 Types Sampling Techniques
Non-random sampling – is a sampling procedure where
samples selected in a deliberate manner with little or no
attention to randomization; it is also called non-probability
sampling.

1.Convenience Sampling
2.Purposive Sampling
3.Quota Sampling
4.Snowball sampling

22
Non-Random Sampling
Convenience Sampling – is a process of selecting a
group of individuals who (conveniently) are available
for study.
Ex.
A researcher may only include close friend and
clients to be included in the sample population.

23
Non-Random Sampling
Purposive Sampling – is a process of selecting based
from judgment to select a sample which the researcher
believed, based on prior information, will provide the
data they need. It is also called judgment sampling.
Ex.
A human resource director interviews the
qualified applicants in a supervisory position.(Note:
Qualified applicants are selected by the HR Director
which is based from his own judgment).

24
Non-Random Sampling
Quota Sampling – is applied when an investigator
survey collects information from an assigned number, or
quota of individuals from one of several sample units
fulfilling certain prescribed criteria or belonging to one
stratum.
Ex.
When the respondents composed of men age over
30 or 20 people who have bought cellular phones in the
last week. It is in the interviewer’s discretion which men
or cellular phone buyers they select.
25
Non-Random Sampling
Snowball Sampling – is a technique in which one or
more members of a population are located and used to
lead the researchers to other members of the population.
Ex.
Imagine attempting to obtain the frame that
includes all homeless people in Metro Manila. To obtain
a sample of homeless individuals, for example, the
researcher will interview individuals on the street or at
homeless shelter.

26
Methods of Collecting Data
Direct or Interview Method – It is a face-to-face
encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee.
The interview may vary according to the preference of
either or both parties. However, this method is time-
consuming, expensive, and has limited field coverage.

Indirect Method or Questionnaire Method – Unlike,

direct method, this method utilized questionnaires to
obtain information. It can be done by mail or hand-
carried to the intended respondents.
27
Methods of Collecting Data
Registration Method – This method of gathering
information is governed by laws.
Ex. Birth certificate, death certificate, and license, etc.

Observation Method – This method is used to data that

are pertaining to behaviors of an individual or a group of
individuals at the time of occurrence of a given situation
are based obtained by observation. One limitation of this
method is observation is made only at the time or
occurrence of the appropriate events.
28
Methods of Collecting Data
Experiment Method – is used to determine the cause
and effect relationship of certain phenomena under
controlled conditions. This method is usually employed
by scientific researchers.

29
 Chapter 2;
Frequency Distribution
and Graphs

30
Methods of Presenting the Data
Textual Method – this method presents the collected
data in a narrative and paragraphs forms.
Tabular Method – This method presents the collected
data in a table which are orderly arranged in rows and
columns for easier and more comprehensive comparison
of figures.
Graphical Method – This method presents the collected
data in visual or pictorial form to get a clear view of data
(e.g. histogram, pie chart, pareto chart, pictograph, etc.)

31
Definition of Terms
Raw Data – is the data collected in original form.
Range – is the difference of the highest value and the
lowest value in a distribution.
Frequency Distribution – is the organization of data
in a tabular form, using mutually exclusive classes
showing the number of observations in each.
Class Limits (Apparent Limits) – is the highest and
lowest values describing a class.

32
Definition of Terms
Class Boundaries (Real Limits) – is the upper and
lower values of a class for group frequency distribution
whose values has additional decimal place more than
the class limits and end with the digit 5.
Interval (width) – is the distance between the class
lower boundary and the class upper boundary and is
denoted by the symbol i.
Frequency (f) – is the number of values in a specific
class of a frequency distribution.

33
Definition of Terms
Relative Frequency (rf) – is the value obtained when the
frequencies in each class of the frequency distribution is
divided by the total number of values.
Percentage – is obtained by multiplying the relative
frequency by 100%.
Cumulative Frequency (cf) – is the sum of the frequencies
accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in a
frequency distribution.
Midpoint – is the point halfway between the class limits of
each class and is representative of the data within that class.

34
35